318:; only the giant panda shows a demographic growth from an extremely small population. The researchers suggest that the widespread use of images of these animals has given the public the impression that the animals are abundant, obscuring their high risk of imminent extinction. They note that this remains true despite the intense focus of conservation efforts on these particular species. A major challenge for the utilization of several flagship species in non-Western contexts is that they may come into conflict with local communities, thereby jeopardizing well-intended conservation actions. This has been termed 'flagship mutiny', and is exemplified by the Asian elephant in countries where there is human-elephant conflict.
130:
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to grips with language to improve the public's knowledge of conservation. Several definitions have been advanced for the flagship species concept and for some time there has been confusion even in the academic literature. Most of the latest definitions focus on the strategic, socio-economic, and marketing character of the concept. Some definitions are:
88:
105:
of representation. In its popular usage, flagships are viewed as ambassadors or icons for a conservation project or movement. The geographer Maan Barua noted that metaphors influence what people understand and how they act; that mammals are disproportionately chosen; and that biologists need to come
74:
Utilizing a flagship species has limitations. It can skew management and conservation priorities, which may conflict. Stakeholders may be negatively affected if the flagship species is lost. The use of a flagship may have limited effect, and the approach may not protect the species from extinction:
326:
Conservation flagships can be used at broader levels, for example as ecosystems like coral reefs, rainforests or protected areas like the
Serengeti or Yellowstone. Some recent initiatives have developed flagships based on the conservation value of particular areas or species. Examples of these are
313:
Leaving aside the impact on other species, charisma does not seem to protect even charismatic species against extinction. All ten of the most charismatic groups of animal identified in a 2018 study, namely tiger, lion, elephant, giraffe, leopard, panda, cheetah, polar bear, wolf, and gorilla, are
125:
The flagship species concept appears to have become popular around the mid 1980s within the debate on how to prioritise species for conservation. The first widely available references to use the flagship concept applied it to both neotropical primates and
African elephants and rhinos, in the
196:). However, because flagship species are selected according to the audience they are hoping to influence, these species can also belong to traditionally uncharismatic groups if the cultural and social content is right. Less charismatic but locally significant species include the use of the
335:. More recently, work in microbiology has started to use flagship species in a distinct way. This work relates to the biogeography of micro-organisms and uses particular species because "eyecatching "flagships" with conspicuous size and/or morphology are the best distribution indicators".
272:
promotion, community-based conservation, and promotion of funded research. This is illustrated by the differences in recommendations made for flagship species selection targeting different target audiences such as local communities and tourists.
126:
mammal-centric approach that still dominates how the concept is used. The use of flagship species has been dominated by large bodied animals, especially mammals, although members of other taxonomic groups have occasionally been used.
223:: it used to control the populations of large herbivores, protecting ecosystems across the entire landscape. However, the lion's ability to serve as a keystone species is decreasing as its population and range decline. The
1434:
nov gen., nov spec. (Rigidotrichidae nov fam.), a new "flagship" ciliate from the Niger floodplain breaks the flexibility-dogma in the classification of stichotrichine spirotrichs (Ciliophora, Spirotrichea)".
1578:
1655:
929:"How Two Kinds of Regulation Brought Back the Manatee | The massive marine mammal's numbers have increased by 400 percent in the past quarter-century—and it's not the only such success story"
40:
is a species chosen to raise support for biodiversity conservation in a given place or social context. Definitions have varied, but they have tended to focus on the strategic goals and the
1540:
1849:
1622:
110:"a species used as the focus of a broader conservation marketing campaign based on its possession of one or more traits that appeal to the target audience"
661:
Barua, Maan; Tamuly, Jatin; Ahmed, Riyaz Akhtar (2010-03-24). "Mutiny or Clear
Sailing? Examining the Role of the Asian Elephant as a Flagship Species".
1403:
Foissner, Wilhelm (April 2005). "Two new "flagship" ciliates (Protozoa, Ciliophora) from
Venezuela: Sleighophrys pustulata and Luporinophrys micelae".
1709:
1957:
1952:
113:"species that have the ability to capture the imagination of the public and induce people to support conservation action and/or to donate funds"
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of a conservation effort. The species need to be popular, to work as symbols or icons, and to stimulate people to provide money or support.
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They can skew the management and conservation priorities in their favour, to the detriment of more threatened but less charismatic species.
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2404:
1097:
Hale, Sarah L.; Koprowski, John L. (February 2018). "Ecosystem-level effects of keystone species reintroduction: a literature review".
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1166:
VerĂssimo, Diogo; MacMillan, Douglas C.; Smith, Robert J. (2011-04-01). "Marketing diversity: a response to Joseph and colleagues".
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They may have limited impact on the behaviour of donors, if the donors cannot dedicate much time to processing the campaign message.
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496:
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Frazier, J. 2005. Marine turtles: the role of flagship species in interactions between people and the Sea MAST, 3(2) and 4(1),5–38
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1702:
778:
620:
1270:
Simberloff, Daniel (1998). "Flagships, umbrellas, and keystones: Is single-species management passé in the landscape era?".
231:. It chooses between these when selecting a priority species to represent the conservation threats facing a certain region.
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2439:
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116:"popular, charismatic species that serve as symbols and rallying points to stimulate conservation awareness and action"
603:
Mittermeier, Russell A. (1986). "Primate
Conservation Priorities in the Neotropical Region". In Benirschke, K. (ed.).
2823:
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1829:
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Flagship species can represent an environmental feature (e.g. a species or ecosystem), cause (e.g. climate change or
140:
Flagship species projects have sometimes been successful in saving the species and its habitat, as with the
American
1141:"Global Species Programe: how WWF classifies species | Know your flagship, keystone, priority and indicator species"
2419:
1945:
1695:
3284:
993:"Wildlife Photos on Social Media: A Quantitative Content Analysis of Conservation Organisations' Instagram Images"
51:
Species selected since the idea was developed in 1980s include widely recognised and charismatic species like the
3566:
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2858:
2494:
2286:
2225:
1779:
711:"Defining Flagship Uses is Critical for Flagship Selection: A Critique of the IUCN Climate Change Flagship Fleet"
398:
Barua, Maan (2011). "Mobilizing metaphors: the popular use of keystone, flagship and umbrella species concepts".
1305:
VerĂssimo, Diogo; Campbell, Hamish A.; Tollington, Simon; MacMillan, Douglas C.; Smith, Robert J. (2018-01-25).
378:
Elephant includes
African savannah, African forest, and Asian species; giraffe has been split into four species.
3951:
3824:
2203:
1885:
1769:
1729:
1579:"Stakeholder Perceptions of Potential Flagship Species for the Sacred Groves of the North Western Ghats, India"
268:
by the audience they try to target, and the goals of the project, such as conservation awareness, fundraising,
303:
The disappearance of the flagship can have negative impacts on the attitudes of the conservation stakeholders.
4122:
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1935:
1915:
71:, the former of which is locally significant to Northern America, have suited a cultural and social context.
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249:), organization (e.g. NGO or government department) or geographic region (e.g. state or protected area).
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1967:
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all of the top ten charismatic groups of animal, including tigers, lions, elephants and giraffes, are
4032:
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2399:
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2334:
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808:
642:
521:
Walpole, Matthew J.; Leader-Williams, Nigel (2002). "Tourism and
Flagship Species in Conservation".
4022:
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2002:
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1977:
1900:
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2311:
2296:
2150:
1809:
1496:
1366:"Flagships, umbrellas, and keystones: Is single-species management passé in the landscape era?"
227:
uses flagship species as one of its species classification categories, along with keystone and
875:
Guiney, Margaret; Oberhauser, Karen (2009-02-01). "Insects as flagship conservation species".
457:
3916:
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3724:
3709:
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2195:
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2012:
2007:
1972:
1890:
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1764:
354:
1212:
Courchamp, F.; Jaric, I.; Albert, C.; Meinard, Y.; Ripple, W. J.; Chapron, G. (April 2018).
309:
Most conservation practices for flagship species tend to be costly and difficult to maintain
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2017:
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1804:
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1718:
1634:
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1555:
1511:
1478:
Conservation by proxy: indicator, umbrella, keystone, flagship, and other surrogate species
1318:
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91:
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33:
8:
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2259:
2181:
2103:
1824:
1814:
1784:
1660:
predation of marine turtles: conflict between flagship species in
Tortuguero, Costa Rica"
1144:
932:
246:
224:
205:
173:
1749:
1638:
1597:
1559:
1515:
1322:
1283:
1179:
1110:
991:
Shaw, Meghan N.; Borrie, William T.; McLeod, Emily M.; Miller, Kelly K. (January 2022).
960:"Identifying appropriate flagship species: the importance of culture and local contexts"
902:
845:
825:
VerĂssimo, D.; Fraser, I.; Groombridge, J.; Bristol, R.; MacMillan, D. C. (2009-07-03).
726:
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1213:
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1027:
992:
857:
796:
743:
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686:
630:
538:
423:
1541:"Identifying Cinderella species: uncovering mammals with conservation flagship appeal"
1381:
1291:
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3226:
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2057:
1940:
1613:
1568:
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1452:
1385:
1346:
1247:
1187:
1032:
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853:
784:
774:
748:
709:
Barua, Maan; Root-Bernstein, Meredith; Ladle, Richard J.; Jepson, Paul (2011-01-04).
690:
616:
561:
477:
349:
265:
228:
1531:
1195:
1126:
861:
542:
427:
252:
Flagship species can be selected according to many different methodologies, such as
4127:
3946:
3809:
3801:
3719:
3601:
3586:
3522:
3419:
3409:
3404:
3369:
3201:
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3012:
2813:
2755:
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2627:
2235:
1754:
1674:
1642:
1601:
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1519:
1444:
1412:
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1336:
1326:
1287:
1237:
1227:
1183:
1114:
1022:
1004:
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608:
530:
472:
415:
359:
344:
286:
253:
212:
197:
181:
68:
52:
589:
Mittermeier, R. 1988. Primate diversity and the tropical forest. Pages 145-154 in
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3941:
3911:
3906:
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3829:
3814:
3694:
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3424:
3330:
3221:
3131:
3073:
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2583:
1962:
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1605:
1331:
1232:
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612:
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3886:
3839:
3769:
3764:
3659:
3526:
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3176:
2979:
2944:
2883:
2760:
2715:
2607:
1992:
1448:
1416:
189:
60:
41:
1679:
1523:
976:
959:
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682:
534:
419:
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3063:
3037:
2994:
2984:
2939:
2906:
2798:
2632:
2587:
2489:
2479:
2252:
2143:
2131:
2126:
1621:
VerĂssimo, D.; Barua, M.; Jepson, P.; MacMillan, D. C.; Smith, R. J. (2012).
1389:
1307:"Why do people donate to conservation? Insights from a 'real world' campaign"
1076:"The African lion: what faster decline of apex predator means for ecosystems"
1018:
888:
238:
220:
788:
4072:
4057:
3714:
3684:
3629:
3512:
3477:
3354:
2853:
2166:
1456:
1350:
1251:
1218:
1036:
752:
590:
216:
157:
156:
Chosen flagship species are often charismatic, well-known species: see the
56:
1687:
281:
3364:
2911:
2873:
2848:
2838:
2803:
2750:
2730:
165:
1009:
456:
Verissimo, Diogo; MacMillan, Douglas C.; Smith, Robert J. (2010-11-29).
4077:
3654:
3619:
3259:
3211:
3156:
3126:
3032:
2949:
2893:
2770:
2720:
1497:"Selection criteria for flagship species by conservation organizations"
315:
269:
141:
133:
76:
1118:
3982:
3936:
3664:
3108:
3078:
2878:
2833:
2808:
2745:
2735:
2710:
2702:
2647:
2578:
2306:
2138:
827:"Birds as tourism flagship species: a case study of tropical islands"
769:
Leader-Williams, N.; Dublin, H. T. (2000). Entwistle, Abigail (ed.).
607:. Proceedings in Life Sciences. Springer New York. pp. 221–240.
458:"Toward a systematic approach for identifying conservation flagships"
45:
21:
1577:
Takahashi, Y.; VerĂssimo, D.; MacMillan, D. C.; Godbole, A. (2012).
1304:
4037:
3966:
3497:
3325:
3004:
2916:
2863:
2818:
2062:
1789:
1539:
Smith, R. J.; VerĂssimo, D.; Isaac, N. J. B.; Jones, K. E. (2012).
1473:
497:"What are "charismatic species" for conservation biologists ?"
201:
102:
95:
1623:"Selecting marine invertebrate flagship species: Widening the net"
4027:
3834:
3704:
3699:
3326:
3274:
2934:
2579:
1495:
Home, R.; Keller, C.; Nagel, P.; Bauer, N.; Hunziker, M. (2009).
824:
145:
1654:
VerĂssimo, D.; Jones, D. A.; Chaverri, R.; Meyer, S. R. (2012).
768:
2047:
593:, editor. Biodiversity. National Academy Press. Washington, DC.
495:
Ducarme, Frédéric; Luque, Gloria M.; Courchamp, Franck (2012).
708:
87:
25:
1214:"The paradoxical extinction of the most charismatic animals"
1211:
1165:
820:
818:
455:
94:
as flagship species for a conservation organization in
28:
as flagship species for a campaign in Tamil Nadu, India
1429:
990:
520:
903:"Bald Eagles | Life History and Conservation Success"
494:
451:
449:
447:
445:
443:
441:
439:
437:
1372:. Conservation Biology and Biodiversity Strategies.
957:
815:
953:
951:
949:
300:
The management of different flagships can conflict.
764:
762:
434:
293:The use of flagship species has some limitations:
1090:
4114:
1958:Other effective area-based conservation measures
1207:
1205:
946:
874:
660:
1953:Integrated Conservation and Development Project
905:. US Fish & Wildlife Service. 20 April 2015
759:
958:Bowen-Jones, Evan; Entwistle, Abigail (2002).
773:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 53–81.
704:
702:
700:
656:
654:
652:
555:
3311:
2564:
1703:
1423:
1396:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1202:
1096:
490:
488:
391:
136:as flagship for forests in the United States
1717:
771:Charismatic megafauna as 'flagship species'
697:
649:
602:
3532:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
3318:
3304:
2571:
2557:
1710:
1696:
1363:
1269:
1258:
1051:"Save the Crabs – Then Eat 'Em | The NSMC"
485:
241:as flagship for a protected area in Poland
1678:
1567:
1340:
1330:
1241:
1231:
1026:
1008:
975:
742:
476:
3430:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
3069:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
1402:
285:5000 Tanzanian shillings bank note with
280:
233:
128:
86:
20:
3462:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
923:
4115:
3270:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
289:as flagship for the country's wildlife
44:nature of the concept, to support the
3299:
2552:
1691:
397:
3285:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
3735:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
1078:. The Conversation. 26 October 2015
151:
101:The term flagship is linked to the
13:
3488:Ecological effects of biodiversity
1466:
1430:Foissner, W.; Stoeck, T. (2006). "
14:
4144:
2824:Generalist and specialist species
1830:Conservation biology of parasites
1364:Simberloff, Daniel (1998-03-01).
3547:Occupancy–abundance relationship
2533:
2532:
1946:Tropical rainforest conservation
1850:Vulnerability and susceptibility
1569:10.1111/j.1755-263x.2012.00229.x
1480:. Washington, DC: Island Press.
1437:European Journal of Protistology
1405:European Journal of Protistology
1188:10.1111/j.1755-263x.2011.00175.x
854:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00282.x
478:10.1111/j.1755-263x.2010.00151.x
3567:Relative abundance distribution
3280:Plant defense against herbivory
3147:Competitive exclusion principle
2859:Mesopredator release hypothesis
2495:NatureServe conservation status
1780:Conservation-induced extinction
1357:
1298:
1159:
1133:
1068:
1043:
984:
917:
895:
868:
372:
16:Concept in conservation biology
3152:Consumer–resource interactions
1886:Conservation management system
1770:Conservation-dependent species
1730:Index of conservation articles
596:
583:
574:
560:. Cambridge University Press.
558:Global Biodiversity Assessment
549:
514:
321:
276:
82:
1:
3998:Biological data visualization
3825:Environmental niche modelling
3552:Population viability analysis
2112:Assisted natural regeneration
1916:Ecoregion conservation status
1382:10.1016/S0006-3207(97)00081-5
1292:10.1016/s0006-3207(97)00081-5
877:Terrestrial Arthropod Reviews
523:Biodiversity and Conservation
400:Biodiversity and Conservation
385:
3483:Density-dependent inhibition
2500:Special Area of Conservation
2038:Landscape-scale conservation
2033:High conservation value area
1911:Community-based conservation
1647:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.007
1606:10.1080/10871209.2012.675622
1586:Human Dimensions of Wildlife
1332:10.1371/journal.pone.0191888
1233:10.1371/journal.pbio.2003997
663:Human Dimensions of Wildlife
613:10.1007/978-1-4612-4918-4_16
329:Zoological Society of London
327:the EDGE project run by the
7:
3952:Liebig's law of the minimum
3787:Resource selection function
2678:Metabolic theory of ecology
2518:List of conservation issues
1926:Evidence-based conservation
1820:Mutualisms and conservation
338:
63:. Some species such as the
10:
4149:
3852:Niche apportionment models
3572:Relative species abundance
2776:Primary nutritional groups
2673:List of feeding behaviours
1968:Roadless area conservation
1760:Compassionate conservation
1620:
1504:Environmental Conservation
1449:10.1016/j.ejop.2006.07.003
1417:10.1016/j.ejop.2004.10.002
501:BioSciences Master Reviews
333:Conservation International
211:Some flagship species are
120:
4101:
4033:Ecosystem based fisheries
3975:
3875:
3800:
3673:
3645:Interspecific competition
3610:
3537:Minimum viable population
3470:
3395:Maximum sustainable yield
3380:Intraspecific competition
3375:Effective population size
3338:
3255:Anti-predator adaptations
3240:
3119:
3046:
3003:
2925:
2892:
2789:
2766:Photosynthetic efficiency
2701:
2595:
2513:
2467:
2322:
2159:
2102:
2071:
1991:
1858:
1738:
1725:
1680:10.1017/s0030605311001487
1524:10.1017/s0376892909990051
977:10.1017/S0030605302000261
735:10.1007/s13280-010-0116-2
683:10.1080/10871200903536176
420:10.1007/s10531-011-0035-y
208:as a flagship in the US.
4023:Ecological stoichiometry
3988:Alternative stable state
2355:Central African Republic
2003:Conservation designation
1921:Environmental protection
1906:Conspicuous conservation
1896:Conservation photography
1871:Conservation development
1866:Conservation agriculture
889:10.1163/187498308x414733
365:
331:and the Hotspots run by
3867:Ontogenetic niche shift
3730:Ideal free distribution
3640:Ecological facilitation
3390:Malthusian growth model
3360:Consumer-resource model
3217:Paradox of the plankton
3182:Energy systems language
2902:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
2869:Optimal foraging theory
2844:Heterotrophic nutrition
2094:Human–wildlife conflict
1978:Site-based conservation
1901:Conservation psychology
1719:Conservation of species
1627:Biological Conservation
1370:Biological Conservation
1272:Biological Conservation
556:Heywood, V. H. (1995).
535:10.1023/a:1014864708777
264:, depending on what is
258:environmental economics
4013:Ecological forecasting
3957:Marginal value theorem
3755:Landscape epidemiology
3690:Cross-boundary subsidy
3625:Biological interaction
2975:Microbial intelligence
2663:Green world hypothesis
2151:Species reintroduction
1810:Latent extinction risk
290:
242:
178:Leontopithecus rosalia
170:Ailuropoda melanoleuca
137:
98:
29:
4018:Ecological humanities
3917:Ecological energetics
3862:Niche differentiation
3725:Habitat fragmentation
3493:Ecological extinction
3440:Small population size
3192:Feed conversion ratio
3172:Ecological succession
3104:San Francisco Estuary
3018:Ecological efficiency
2960:Microbial cooperation
2523:List of organisations
2177:Hawaiian honeycreeper
2117:Ecosystem restoration
2089:Habitat fragmentation
2084:Fortress conservation
2043:Marine protected area
2013:Conservation easement
2008:Conservation district
1973:Roadside conservation
1891:Conservation movement
1835:Species translocation
1775:Conservation genetics
1765:Conservation behavior
355:Charismatic megafauna
284:
237:
132:
90:
24:
4123:Conservation biology
4043:Evolutionary ecology
4008:Ecological footprint
4003:Ecological economics
3927:Ecological threshold
3922:Ecological indicator
3792:Source–sink dynamics
3745:Land change modeling
3740:Insular biogeography
3592:Species distribution
3331:Modelling ecosystems
2990:Microbial metabolism
2829:Intraguild predation
2618:Biogeochemical cycle
2584:Modelling ecosystems
2485:Planetary boundaries
2475:Conservation officer
2079:Conservation refugee
2028:Habitat conservation
2018:Conservation reserve
1983:Wetland conservation
1881:Conservation grazing
1876:Conservation finance
1840:Conservation welfare
1805:In-situ conservation
1800:Extinction threshold
1795:Ex-situ conservation
1548:Conservation Letters
1168:Conservation Letters
465:Conservation Letters
262:conservation biology
206:Chesapeake blue crab
92:Zanzibar red colobus
65:Chesapeake blue crab
34:conservation biology
4093:Theoretical ecology
4068:Natural environment
3932:Ecosystem diversity
3902:Ecological collapse
3892:Bateman's principle
3847:Limiting similarity
3760:Landscape limnology
3582:Species homogeneity
3420:Population modeling
3415:Population dynamics
3232:Trophic state index
1825:Nature conservation
1815:Marine conservation
1785:Conservation status
1639:2012BCons.145....4V
1598:2012HDW....17..257T
1560:2012ConL....5..205S
1516:2009EnvCo..36..139H
1432:Rigidothrix goiseri
1323:2018PLoSO..1391888V
1284:1998BCons..83..247S
1180:2011ConL....4..326V
1111:2018ResEc..26..439H
1099:Restoration Ecology
1010:10.3390/ani12141787
933:Scientific American
846:2009AnCon..12..549V
834:Animal Conservation
727:2011Ambio..40..431B
675:2010HDW....15..145B
412:2011BiCon..20.1427B
247:ocean acidification
174:Golden lion tamarin
4133:Animals and humans
4104:Outline of ecology
4053:Industrial ecology
4048:Functional ecology
3912:Ecological deficit
3857:Niche construction
3820:Ecosystem engineer
3597:Species–area curve
3518:Introduced species
3333:: Other components
3265:Deimatic behaviour
3167:Ecological network
3099:North Pacific Gyre
3084:hydrothermal vents
3023:Ecological pyramid
2970:Microbial food web
2781:Primary production
2726:Foundation species
2122:Island restoration
2053:Open space reserve
1845:Threatened species
291:
243:
138:
99:
30:
4110:
4109:
3993:Balance of nature
3750:Landscape ecology
3635:Community ecology
3577:Species diversity
3513:Indicator species
3508:Gradient analysis
3385:Logistic function
3293:
3292:
3250:Animal coloration
3227:Trophic mutualism
2965:Microbial ecology
2756:Photoheterotrophs
2741:Myco-heterotrophy
2653:Ecosystem ecology
2638:Carrying capacity
2603:Abiotic component
2546:
2545:
2505:Soil conservation
2058:Wildlife corridor
1941:Forest protection
1936:Forest management
1119:10.1111/rec.12684
927:(22 April 2016).
780:978-0-521-77536-6
622:978-1-4612-9360-6
350:Indicator species
229:indicator species
200:as a flagship in
4140:
3810:Ecological niche
3782:selection theory
3602:Umbrella species
3587:Species richness
3523:Invasive species
3503:Flagship species
3410:Population cycle
3405:Overexploitation
3370:Ecological yield
3320:
3313:
3306:
3297:
3296:
3202:Mesotrophic soil
3142:Climax community
3074:Marine food webs
3013:Biomagnification
2814:Chemoorganotroph
2668:Keystone species
2628:Biotic component
2573:
2566:
2559:
2550:
2549:
2536:
2535:
2420:Papua New Guinea
2312:Cryopreservation
2277:Gray nurse shark
1931:Flagship species
1755:Captive breeding
1712:
1705:
1698:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1682:
1664:
1650:
1617:
1583:
1573:
1571:
1545:
1535:
1501:
1491:
1461:
1460:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1344:
1334:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1267:
1256:
1255:
1245:
1235:
1209:
1200:
1199:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1030:
1012:
988:
982:
981:
979:
955:
944:
943:
941:
939:
925:Carroll, Sean B.
921:
915:
914:
912:
910:
899:
893:
892:
872:
866:
865:
831:
822:
813:
812:
806:
802:
800:
792:
766:
757:
756:
746:
706:
695:
694:
658:
647:
646:
640:
636:
634:
626:
600:
594:
587:
581:
578:
572:
571:
553:
547:
546:
518:
512:
511:
509:
507:
492:
483:
482:
480:
462:
453:
432:
431:
406:(7): 1427–1440.
395:
379:
376:
360:Umbrella species
345:Keystone species
287:Black rhinoceros
254:social marketing
213:keystone species
198:Pemba flying fox
182:African elephant
152:Choosing species
69:Pemba flying fox
53:black rhinoceros
38:flagship species
4148:
4147:
4143:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4138:
4137:
4113:
4112:
4111:
4106:
4097:
4083:Systems ecology
3971:
3942:Extinction debt
3907:Ecological debt
3897:Bioluminescence
3878:
3871:
3840:marine habitats
3815:Ecological trap
3796:
3676:
3669:
3612:
3606:
3562:Rapoport's rule
3557:Priority effect
3498:Endemic species
3466:
3425:Population size
3341:
3334:
3324:
3294:
3289:
3242:
3236:
3222:Trophic cascade
3132:Bioaccumulation
3115:
3042:
2999:
2921:
2888:
2785:
2697:
2658:Ecosystem model
2591:
2577:
2547:
2542:
2509:
2463:
2318:
2236:Indian elephant
2155:
2098:
2067:
2063:30 by 30 target
1994:
1987:
1963:Riparian buffer
1854:
1741:
1734:
1721:
1716:
1662:
1653:
1581:
1576:
1543:
1538:
1499:
1494:
1488:
1472:
1469:
1467:Further reading
1464:
1428:
1424:
1401:
1397:
1362:
1358:
1317:(1): e0191888.
1303:
1299:
1268:
1259:
1226:(4): e2003997.
1210:
1203:
1164:
1160:
1150:
1148:
1139:
1138:
1134:
1095:
1091:
1081:
1079:
1074:
1073:
1069:
1059:
1057:
1055:www.thensmc.com
1049:
1048:
1044:
989:
985:
956:
947:
937:
935:
922:
918:
908:
906:
901:
900:
896:
873:
869:
829:
823:
816:
804:
803:
794:
793:
781:
767:
760:
707:
698:
659:
650:
638:
637:
628:
627:
623:
601:
597:
588:
584:
579:
575:
568:
554:
550:
519:
515:
505:
503:
493:
486:
460:
454:
435:
396:
392:
388:
383:
382:
377:
373:
368:
341:
324:
279:
194:Elephas maximus
162:Panthera tigris
154:
123:
85:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4146:
4136:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4108:
4107:
4102:
4099:
4098:
4096:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4063:Microecosystem
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3979:
3977:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3969:
3964:
3962:Thorson's rule
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3887:Assembly rules
3883:
3881:
3873:
3872:
3870:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3843:
3842:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3806:
3804:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3772:
3770:Patch dynamics
3767:
3765:Metapopulation
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3681:
3679:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3667:
3662:
3660:Storage effect
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3616:
3614:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3542:Neutral theory
3539:
3534:
3529:
3527:Native species
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3474:
3472:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3464:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3452:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3400:Overpopulation
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3346:
3344:
3336:
3335:
3323:
3322:
3315:
3308:
3300:
3291:
3290:
3288:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3246:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3207:Nutrient cycle
3204:
3199:
3197:Feeding frenzy
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3177:Energy quality
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3137:Cascade effect
3134:
3129:
3123:
3121:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3043:
3041:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3009:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2980:Microbial loop
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2945:Lithoautotroph
2942:
2937:
2931:
2929:
2927:Microorganisms
2923:
2922:
2920:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2898:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2887:
2886:
2884:Prey switching
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2795:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2761:Photosynthesis
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2716:Chemosynthesis
2713:
2707:
2705:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2608:Abiotic stress
2605:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2592:
2576:
2575:
2568:
2561:
2553:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2540:
2530:
2528:List of people
2525:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2471:
2469:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2440:United Kingdom
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2287:Painted turtle
2284:
2279:
2274:
2264:
2263:
2262:
2257:
2256:
2255:
2245:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2228:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2211:
2206:
2204:American bison
2198:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2189:
2179:
2169:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2147:
2146:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2108:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
1999:
1997:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1949:
1948:
1943:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1746:
1744:
1736:
1735:
1733:
1732:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1715:
1714:
1707:
1700:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1673:(3): 340–347.
1651:
1618:
1592:(4): 257–269.
1574:
1554:(3): 205–212.
1536:
1510:(2): 139–148.
1492:
1486:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1462:
1443:(4): 249–267.
1422:
1395:
1376:(3): 247–257.
1356:
1297:
1278:(3): 247–257.
1257:
1201:
1174:(4): 326–327.
1158:
1132:
1105:(3): 439–445.
1089:
1067:
1042:
983:
970:(2): 189–195.
945:
916:
894:
883:(2): 111–123.
867:
840:(6): 549–558.
814:
779:
758:
721:(4): 431–435.
696:
669:(2): 145–160.
648:
621:
595:
582:
573:
567:978-0521564816
566:
548:
529:(3): 543–547.
513:
484:
433:
389:
387:
384:
381:
380:
370:
369:
367:
364:
363:
362:
357:
352:
347:
340:
337:
323:
320:
311:
310:
307:
304:
301:
298:
278:
275:
190:Asian elephant
153:
150:
122:
119:
118:
117:
114:
111:
84:
81:
61:Asian elephant
42:socio-economic
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4145:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4120:
4118:
4105:
4100:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4088:Urban ecology
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3974:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3947:Kleiber's law
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3880:
3874:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3841:
3838:
3837:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3803:
3799:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3720:Foster's rule
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3678:
3672:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3609:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3469:
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3460:
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3423:
3421:
3418:
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3406:
3403:
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3383:
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3276:
3273:
3271:
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3251:
3248:
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3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
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3193:
3190:
3188:
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3183:
3180:
3178:
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3153:
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3143:
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3124:
3122:
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3105:
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3100:
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3095:
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3080:
3077:
3076:
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3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3049:
3045:
3039:
3038:Trophic level
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3006:
3002:
2996:
2995:Phage ecology
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2985:Microbial mat
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
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2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2940:Bacteriophage
2938:
2936:
2933:
2932:
2930:
2928:
2924:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2907:Decomposition
2905:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2891:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
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2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2854:Mesopredators
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2799:Apex predator
2797:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
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2752:
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2633:Biotic stress
2631:
2629:
2626:
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2606:
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2516:
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2512:
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2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2490:IUCN Red List
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2480:De-extinction
2478:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2452:United States
2450:
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2140:
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2132:afforestation
2130:
2129:
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2127:Reforestation
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2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
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2006:
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2001:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1990:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1942:
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1937:
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1932:
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1658:Panthera onca
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1411:(2): 99–117.
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390:
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371:
361:
358:
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353:
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343:
342:
336:
334:
330:
319:
317:
308:
305:
302:
299:
296:
295:
294:
288:
283:
274:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
250:
248:
240:
239:Eurasian lynx
236:
232:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
209:
207:
204:, and of the
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
186:Loxodonta sp.
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
149:
147:
143:
135:
131:
127:
115:
112:
109:
108:
107:
104:
97:
93:
89:
80:
78:
72:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
49:
47:
43:
39:
35:
27:
23:
19:
4073:Regime shift
4058:Macroecology
3779:
3775:
3715:Edge effects
3685:Biogeography
3630:Commensalism
3502:
3478:Biodiversity
3355:Allee effect
3094:kelp forests
3047:Example webs
2912:Detritivores
2751:Organotrophs
2731:Kinetotrophs
2683:Productivity
2253:Bengal Tiger
2209:Arabian oryx
2200:Land mammal
2187:Golden eagle
2023:Gap analysis
1930:
1750:Biodiversity
1740:Conservation
1670:
1666:
1657:
1630:
1626:
1589:
1585:
1551:
1547:
1507:
1503:
1477:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1425:
1408:
1404:
1398:
1373:
1369:
1359:
1314:
1310:
1300:
1275:
1271:
1223:
1219:PLOS Biology
1217:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1149:. Retrieved
1135:
1102:
1098:
1092:
1080:. Retrieved
1070:
1058:. Retrieved
1054:
1045:
1003:(14): 1787.
1000:
996:
986:
967:
963:
936:. Retrieved
919:
907:. Retrieved
897:
880:
876:
870:
837:
833:
770:
718:
714:
666:
662:
604:
598:
591:E. O. Wilson
585:
576:
557:
551:
526:
522:
516:
504:. Retrieved
500:
468:
464:
403:
399:
393:
374:
325:
312:
292:
251:
244:
221:top predator
217:African lion
210:
193:
185:
177:
169:
161:
158:Bengal tiger
155:
139:
124:
100:
73:
57:Bengal tiger
50:
37:
31:
18:
3710:Disturbance
3613:interaction
3435:Recruitment
3365:Depensation
3157:Copiotrophs
3028:Energy flow
2950:Lithotrophy
2894:Decomposers
2874:Planktivore
2849:Insectivore
2839:Heterotroph
2804:Bacterivore
2771:Phototrophs
2721:Chemotrophs
2693:Restoration
2643:Competition
2425:South Sudan
2410:New Zealand
2104:Restoration
805:|work=
639:|work=
506:19 December
322:Other types
277:Limitations
215:, like the
166:giant panda
83:Definitions
4117:Categories
4078:Sexecology
3655:Parasitism
3620:Antibiosis
3455:Resistance
3450:Resilience
3340:Population
3260:Camouflage
3212:Oligotroph
3127:Ascendency
3089:intertidal
3079:cold seeps
3033:Food chain
2834:Herbivores
2809:Carnivores
2736:Mixotrophs
2711:Autotrophs
2590:components
2360:Costa Rica
2323:By country
2243:Slow loris
2219:Polar bear
2072:Key issues
1859:Approaches
471:(1): 1–8.
386:References
316:endangered
314:currently
270:ecotourism
142:bald eagle
134:Bald eagle
77:endangered
59:, and the
3983:Allometry
3937:Emergence
3665:Symbiosis
3650:Mutualism
3445:Stability
3350:Abundance
3162:Dominance
3120:Processes
3109:tide pool
3005:Food webs
2879:Predation
2864:Omnivores
2791:Consumers
2746:Mycotroph
2703:Producers
2648:Ecosystem
2613:Behaviour
2400:Mauritius
2380:Indonesia
2365:Hong Kong
2335:Australia
2307:Seed bank
2297:Sea otter
2167:Arthropod
2139:Rewilding
1993:Protected
1614:145665593
1474:Caro, Tim
1390:0006-3207
1019:2076-2615
807:ignored (
797:cite book
691:143021377
641:ignored (
631:cite book
46:marketing
4038:Endolith
3967:Xerosere
3879:networks
3695:Ecocline
3241:Defense,
2917:Detritus
2819:Foraging
2688:Resource
2538:Category
2445:Scotland
2415:Pakistan
2395:Malaysia
2231:Elephant
2160:By taxon
1790:Endemism
1656:"Jaguar
1633:(1): 4.
1532:85971920
1476:(2010).
1457:17113471
1351:29370291
1311:PLOS ONE
1252:29649205
1196:83879042
1151:18 April
1127:53686934
1082:18 April
1060:10 April
1037:35883335
862:53403873
789:42682803
753:21809786
605:Primates
543:41927369
428:11030284
339:See also
202:Tanzania
144:and the
103:metaphor
96:Zanzibar
67:and the
4128:Species
4028:Ecopath
3835:Habitat
3705:Ecotype
3700:Ecotone
3677:ecology
3675:Spatial
3611:Species
3471:Species
3342:ecology
3327:Ecology
3275:Mimicry
3243:counter
3187:f-ratio
2935:Archaea
2623:Biomass
2596:General
2588:Trophic
2580:Ecology
2468:Related
2457:forests
2405:Namibia
2385:Ireland
2370:Iceland
2282:Manatee
2272:Dolphin
2226:Cheetah
1742:biology
1635:Bibcode
1594:Bibcode
1556:Bibcode
1512:Bibcode
1342:5785011
1319:Bibcode
1280:Bibcode
1243:5896884
1176:Bibcode
1107:Bibcode
1028:9311588
997:Animals
938:15 June
909:15 June
842:Bibcode
744:3357738
723:Bibcode
671:Bibcode
408:Bibcode
180:), the
172:), the
164:), the
146:manatee
121:History
3059:Rivers
2955:Marine
2435:Uganda
2430:Sweden
2350:Canada
2345:Brazil
2340:Belize
2330:Angola
2303:Plant
2292:Salmon
2267:Marine
2182:Raptor
2144:marine
2048:Marxan
1612:
1530:
1484:
1455:
1388:
1349:
1339:
1250:
1240:
1194:
1147:. 2017
1125:
1035:
1025:
1017:
860:
787:
777:
751:
741:
689:
619:
564:
541:
426:
266:valued
260:, and
188:) and
55:, the
3976:Other
3877:Other
3830:Guild
3802:Niche
3054:Lakes
2390:Italy
2375:India
2248:Tiger
2196:Fungi
1995:areas
1663:(PDF)
1610:S2CID
1582:(PDF)
1544:(PDF)
1528:S2CID
1500:(PDF)
1192:S2CID
1123:S2CID
858:S2CID
830:(PDF)
715:Ambio
687:S2CID
539:S2CID
461:(PDF)
424:S2CID
366:Notes
26:Tiger
3064:Soil
2260:Wolf
2214:Bear
2172:Bird
1667:Oryx
1482:ISBN
1453:PMID
1386:ISSN
1347:PMID
1248:PMID
1153:2018
1084:2018
1062:2018
1033:PMID
1015:ISSN
964:Oryx
940:2018
911:2018
809:help
785:OCLC
775:ISBN
749:PMID
643:help
617:ISBN
562:ISBN
508:2013
219:, a
36:, a
1675:doi
1643:doi
1631:145
1602:doi
1564:doi
1520:doi
1445:doi
1413:doi
1378:doi
1337:PMC
1327:doi
1288:doi
1238:PMC
1228:doi
1184:doi
1145:WWF
1115:doi
1023:PMC
1005:doi
972:doi
885:doi
850:doi
739:PMC
731:doi
679:doi
609:doi
531:doi
473:doi
416:doi
256:,
225:WWF
32:In
4119::
3525:/
3329::
2586::
2582::
1671:46
1669:.
1665:.
1641:.
1629:.
1625:.
1608:.
1600:.
1590:17
1588:.
1584:.
1562:.
1550:.
1546:.
1526:.
1518:.
1508:36
1506:.
1502:.
1451:.
1441:42
1439:.
1409:41
1407:.
1384:.
1374:83
1368:.
1345:.
1335:.
1325:.
1315:13
1313:.
1309:.
1286:.
1276:83
1274:.
1260:^
1246:.
1236:.
1224:16
1222:.
1216:.
1204:^
1190:.
1182:.
1170:.
1143:.
1121:.
1113:.
1103:26
1101:.
1053:.
1031:.
1021:.
1013:.
1001:12
999:.
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