Phoenicia - Knowledge

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harsh and biased, reflecting the social stratification of society. The murder of a commoner was treated as less severe than that of a nobleman, and the upper classes had the most rights; the wealthy often escaped punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any class could represent themselves in court and had more rights than women and children, while slaves had no rights. Men could often deflect punishment to their wives, children, or slaves, even having them serve their sentence in their place. Lawyers eventually emerged as a profession for those who could not plead their case.

11900: 11766: 10925: 10858: 10727: 10110: 9712: 2553: 1870: 1576:—were of a "Phoenician signature" and present amongst the male populations of coastal Lebanon as well as the wider Levant (the "Phoenician Periphery"), followed by other areas of historic Phoenician settlement, spanning Cyprus through to Morocco. This deliberate sequential sampling was an attempt to develop a methodology to link the documented historical expansion of a population with a particular geographic genetic pattern or patterns. The researchers suggested that the proposed genetic signature stemmed from "a common source of related lineages rooted in 2394: 2120:. From the late tenth century BC, the Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the Mediterranean, with Tyre founding colonies in Cyprus, Sardinia, Iberia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, and North Africa. Later colonies were established beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, particularly on the Atlantic coast of Iberia. The Phoenicians may have explored the Canary Islands and the British Isles. Phoenician settlement was primarily concentrated in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, northwest Africa, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia. 1693: 2288: 1754: 8059: 844:, and Phoenicians undoubtedly achieved their own cultural identities, and yet ethnically they were all Canaanites", "the same people who settled in farming villages in the region in the 8th millennium BC". Brian R. Doak states that scholars use "Phoenicians" as a short-hand for "Canaanites living in a set of cities along the northern Levantine coast who shared a language and material culture in the Iron I–II period and who also developed an organized system of colonies in the western Mediterranean world". 2655: 76: 2803:

Phoenicians were predominantly seafaring people, it is speculated that many of their rituals were performed at sea or aboard ships. However, the specific nature of these practices is unknown. On land they were renowned temple builders, perhaps inspiring elements of the architecture of the First Temple, the Temple of Solomon. 'The plan of the building, the chisel-dressed masonry, and the various decorative motifs are all clearly of Phoenician inspiration, as we now know.'

2217: 13425: 13459: 1494:(157–63 BC), the Phoenician cities were mainly self-governed. Many of them were fought for or over by the warring factions of the Seleucid royal family. Some Phoenician regions were under Jewish influence, after the Jews revolted and succeeded in defeating the Seleucids in 164 BC. A significant portion of the Phoenician diaspora in North Africa thus converted to Judaism in the late millennium BC. The Seleucid Kingdom was seized by 1997: 13442: 1111:(887–856 BC), Tyre expanded its territory as far north as Beirut and into part of Cyprus; this unusual act of aggression was the closest the Phoenicians ever came to forming a unitary territorial state. Once his realm reached its largest territorial extent, Ithobaal declared himself "King of the Sidonians", a title that would be used by his successors and mentioned in both Greek and Jewish accounts. 1253:. He rose to power in 858 BC and began a series of campaigns against neighboring states. The Phoenician city-states fell under his rule, forced to pay heavy tribute in money, goods, and natural resources. Initially, they were not annexed outright—they remained in a state of vassalage, subordinate to the Assyrians but allowed a certain degree of freedom. This changed in 744 BC with the ascension of 2129: 2208:

social customs, and a monarchical political system centered around city-states. However, by the early Iron Age (roughly 1300 BC), they had emerged as distinct people. Their culture, economy, and daily life were heavily centered on commerce and maritime trade. Their propensity for seafaring brought them into contact with many other civilizations.

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foreign trade, which required good relations and a certain degree of mutual trust. They also lacked the territory and agricultural base to support a population large enough to raise an army of conquest. Instead, each city had an army commander in charge of a defensive garrison. However, the specifics of the role, or city defense, are unknown.

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the settlement of a Macedonian or Greek urban elite, and the alteration of native place names to Greek. However, there was no organized Hellenization in Phoenicia, and with one or two minor exceptions, all Phoenician city-states retained their native names, while Greek settlement and administration appear to have been very limited.

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Carthage and some nearby settlements in the western Mediterranean would grow larger. A major motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who began expanding across the Mediterranean during the same period. Though largely peaceful rivals, their respective settlements in Crete and Sicily did clash intermittently.

825:, most of what is known about their origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. The scholarly consensus is that the Phoenicians' period of greatest prominence was 1200 BC to the end of the Persian period (332 BC). 2528: 2713:

23:10 and 17:17. Later scholarship differs. William Dever writes that it is out of "prejudices, ancient and modern", that the "myth of "cult prostitution"" arose. He comments that "other texts in addition to II Kings 23:10 unhesitatingly describe child sacrifice among the Israelites", and points to I

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To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. Phoenician city states generally lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand their territory overseas. Few colonies had more than 1,000 inhabitants; only

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Phoenician art was largely centered on ornamental objects, particularly jewelry, pottery, glassware, and reliefs. Large sculptures were rare; figurines were more common. Phoenician goods have been found from Spain and Morocco to Russia and Iraq; much of what is known about Phoenician art is based on

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After the King and council, the two most important political positions in virtually every Phoenician city-state were governor and commander of the army. Details regarding the duties of these offices are sparse. However, it is known that the governor was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing

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Since very little of the Phoenicians' writings have survived, much of what is known about their culture and society comes from accounts by contemporary civilizations or inferences from archaeological discoveries. The Phoenicians had much in common with other Canaanites, including language, religion,

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in several civilizations, most notably among the Romans. Assyrian tribute records from the Phoenicians include "garments of brightly colored stuff" that most likely included Tyrian purple. While the designs, ornamentation, and embroidery used in Phoenician textiles were well-regarded, the techniques

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The Late Iron Age saw the height of Phoenician shipping, mercantile, and cultural activity, particularly between 750 and 650 BC. The Phoenician influence was visible in the "orientalization" of Greek cultural and artistic conventions. Among their most popular goods were fine textiles, typically dyed

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Although they rarely had political power, women took part in community affairs, including in the popular assemblies that emerged in some city-states. At least one woman, Unmiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the fifth century BC. The two most famous Phoenician women are political figures:

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As in neighboring societies at the time, penalties for crimes were often severe, usually reflecting the principle of reciprocity; for example, the killing of a slave would be punished by having the offender's slave killed. Imprisonment was rare, with fines, exile, punishment, and execution the main

2067:, a type of container used for both dry and liquid goods, was an ancient Phoenician invention that became a standardized measurement of volume for close to two thousand years. The remnants of self-cleaning artificial harbors have been discovered in Sidon, Tyre, Atlit, and Acre. The first example of 2336:

As with most aspects of Phoenician civilization, there are few records of their military or approach to warfare. Compared to most of their neighbors, the Phoenicians generally had little interest in conquest and were relatively peaceful. The wealth and prosperity of all their city-states rested on

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The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges that resolved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi-codified body of laws and traditions. Laws were implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the ruler and certain designated officials. Like other Levantine societies, laws were

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escaped from Rome by boarding a Carthaginian ship that was delivering goods to Tyre. The adaptation to Macedonian rule was probably aided by the Phoenicians' historical ties with the Greeks, with whom they shared some mythological stories and figures; the two peoples were even sometimes considered

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policy, whereby Hellenic culture, religion, and sometimes language were spread or imposed across conquered peoples. However, Hellenisation was not enforced most of the time and was just a language of administration until his death. This was typically implemented through the founding of new cities,

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The Phoenician area was later divided into four vassal kingdoms—Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos—which were allowed considerable autonomy. Unlike in other empire areas, there is no record of Persian administrators governing the Phoenician city-states. Local Phoenician kings were allowed to remain in

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severely weakened or destroyed most civilizations in the region, including the Egyptians and Hittites. The Phoenicians appear to have weathered the crisis relatively well, emerging as a distinct and organized civilization in 1230 BC. The period is sometimes described as a "Phoenician renaissance".

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The Phoenicians made votive offerings to their gods, namely in the form of figurines and pottery vessels. Hundreds of figurines and fragments have been recovered from the Mediterranean, often spanning centuries between them, suggesting they were cast into the sea to ensure safe travels. Since the

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The Phoenicians were early pioneers in mass production, and sold a variety of items in bulk. They became the leading source of glassware in antiquity, shipping thousands of flasks, beads, and other glass objects across the Mediterranean. Excavations of colonies in Spain suggest they also used the

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As a mercantile power concentrated along a narrow coastal strip of land, the Phoenicians lacked the size and population to support a large military. Thus, as neighboring empires began to rise, the Phoenicians increasingly fell under the sway of foreign rulers, who to varying degrees circumscribed

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Women in Phoenicia took part in public events and religious processions, with depictions of banquets showing them casually sitting or reclining with men, dancing, and playing music. In most contexts, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men; female figures are almost always

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was a distinct class, usually of royal lineage or leading merchant families. The King was considered a representative of the gods and carried many obligations and duties concerning religious processions and rituals. Priests were thus highly influential and often became intertwined with the royal

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and copper ingots, which appear to predate Roman occupation, suggest the Phoenicians mined and processed metals on the island. The Iberian Peninsula was the richest source of numerous metals in antiquity, including gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead. The significant output of these metals

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Mining operations in the Phoenician homeland were limited; iron was the only metal of any worth. The first large-scale mining operations probably occurred in Cyprus, principally for copper. Sardinia may have been colonized almost exclusively for its mineral resources; Phoenician settlements were

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wood. Timber was probably the earliest and most lucrative source of wealth; neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia had adequate wood sources. Unable to rely solely on this limited resource, the Phoenicians developed an industrial base manufacturing a variety of goods for both everyday and luxury use. The

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The Phoenicians served as intermediaries between the disparate civilizations that spanned the Mediterranean and Near East, facilitating the exchange of goods and knowledge, culture, and religious traditions. Their expansive and enduring trade network is credited with laying the foundations of an

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By the mid-14th century BC, the Phoenician city-states were considered "favored cities" to the Egyptians. Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos were regarded as the most important. The Phoenicians had considerable autonomy, and their cities were reasonably well developed and prosperous. Byblos was the

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Haber, Marc; Doumet-Serhal, Claude; Scheib, Christiana; Xue, Yali; Danecek, Petr; Mezzavilla, Massimo; Youhanna, Sonia; Martiniano, Rui; Prado-Martinez, Javier; Szpak, Michał; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth; Schutkowski, Holger; Mikulski, Richard; Zalloua, Pierre; Kivisild, Toomas; Tyler-Smith, Chris

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may have played a role in forging social and political ties among citizens; Carthaginians were divided into different institutions that were solidified through communal feasts and banquets. Such festival groups may also have composed the voting cohort for selecting members of the city-state's

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Phoenician colonies were fairly autonomous. At most, they were expected to send annual tribute to their mother city, usually in the context of a religious offering. However, in the seventh century BC the western colonies came under the control of Carthage, which was exercised directly through

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BC. However, most scholars reject the idea of a migration; archaeological and historical evidence alike indicate millennia of population continuity in the region, and recent genetic research indicates that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population.

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In the fourth century BC, when the armies of Alexander the Great approached Tyre, they were met not by its King but by representatives of the commonwealth of the city. Similarly, historians at the time describe the "inhabitants" or "the people" of Sidon making peace with Alexander. When the

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The Phoenicians were not a nation in the political sense. However, they were organized into independent city-states that shared a common language and culture. The leading city-states were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. Rivalries were expected, but armed conflict was rare.

1404:, enlisting the help of the Egyptians, who were subsequently drawn into a war with the Persians. The resulting destruction of Sidon led to the resurgence of Tyre, which remained the dominant Phoenician city for two decades until the arrival of Alexander the Great. 2305:

decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring the administration of law and justice. As warfare was rare among the most mercantile Phoenicians, the army's commander was generally responsible for ensuring the defense and security of the city-state and its hinterlands.

2580: 1971:, serving as the principal beverage for offerings and sacrifice. An excavation of a small Phoenician town south of Sidon uncovered a wine factory used from at least the seventh century BC, which is believed to have been aimed for an overseas market. To prevent 1487:, coming under Ptolemaic rule in the third century BC. The Seleucids reclaimed the area the following century, holding it until the mid-first 2nd century BC. Under their rule, the Phoenicians were allowed a considerable degree of autonomy and self-governance. 1907:

marine snail, once profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea but exploited to local extinction. Phoenicians may have discovered the dye as early as 1750 BC. The Phoenicians established a second production center for the dye in

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The Phoenicians, known for their prowess in trade, seafaring and navigation, dominated commerce across classical antiquity and developed an expansive maritime trade network lasting over a millennium. This network facilitated cultural exchanges among major

583:. After reaching its zenith in the ninth century BC, the Phoenician civilization in the eastern Mediterranean gradually declined due to external influences and conquests. Yet, their presence persisted in the central and western Mediterranean until the 2485:

excavations outside Phoenicia proper. Phoenician art was highly influenced by many cultures, primarily Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. Greek inspiration was particularly pronounced in pottery, while Egyptian styles were most reflected in ivory work.

2263:. The Phoenicians kept records of their rulers in tomb inscriptions, which are among the few primary sources still available. Historians have determined a clear line of succession over centuries for some city-states, notably Byblos and Tyre. 1919:

The Phoenicians' exclusive command over the production and trade of the dye, combined with the labor-intensive extraction process, made it very expensive. Tyrian purple subsequently became associated with the upper classes. It soon became a

622:. The Phoenicians are also credited with innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, industry, agriculture, and government. Their international trade network is believed to have fostered the economic, political, and cultural foundations of 2521:

Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests. They have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different cultures but even socioeconomic status classes.

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that did not correspond precisely to a cohesive culture or society as it would have been understood natively. Therefore, the division between Canaanites and Phoenicians around 1200 BC is regarded as a modern and artificial division.

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during the Phoenician and Carthaginian occupation strongly implied large scale mining operations. The Carthaginians are documented to have relied on slave labor for mining, though it is unknown if the Phoenicians as a whole did so.

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to some of their trading partners. The ancient Iberians began producing wine from local grape varieties following their encounter with the Phoenicians. Iberian cultivars subsequently formed the basis of most western European wine.

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Being a society of independent city states, the Phoenicians apparently did not have a term to denote the land of Phoenicia as a whole; instead, demonyms were often derived from the name of the city an individual hailed from (e.g.,

1347:, took Babylon. As Cyrus began consolidating territories across the Near East, the Phoenicians apparently made the pragmatic calculation of " themselves to the Persians". Most of the Levant was consolidated by Cyrus into a single 4603:

Haber, Marc; Nassar, Joyce; Almarri, Mohamed A.; Saupe, Tina; Saag, Lehti; Griffith, Samuel J.; Doumet-Serhal, Claude; Chanteau, Julien; Saghieh-Beydoun, Muntaha; Xue, Yali; Scheib, Christiana L.; Tyler-Smith, Chris (2020).

1727:(1600–1100 BC) is considered the progenitor of classical Greece. Archaeological research suggests that the Minoans gradually imported Near Eastern goods, artistic styles, and customs from other cultures via the Phoenicians. 2686:. Religious rites were primarily for city-state purposes; payment of taxes by citizens was considered in the category of religious sacrifices. The Phoenician sacred writings known to the ancients have been lost. 2457:

The alphabet was adopted and modified by the Greeks probably in the eighth century BC. This most likely did not occur in a single instance but the process of commercial exchange. The legendary Phoenician hero

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maternal haplogroup was identified in the DNA of a 2,500-year-old male skeleton excavated from a Punic tomb in Tunisia. The lineage of this "Young Man of Byrsa" is believed to represent early gene flow from

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nurtured congeniality and community through a series of ritual meals shared among trusted kin in honor of deified ancestors. In Carthage, which had developed a complex republican system of government, the

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were largely indistinguishable before that time. Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian era.

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19th-century depiction of Phoenician sailors and merchants. The importance of trade to the Phoenician economy led to a gradual sharing of power between the King and assemblies of merchant families.

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The Semitic pantheon was well-populated; which god became primary evidently depended on the exigencies of a particular city-state. Melqart was prominent throughout Phoenicia and overseas, as was

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They filled the power vacuum caused by the Late Bronze Age collapse by becoming the sole mercantile and maritime power in the region, a status they would maintain for the next several centuries.

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integrating "peacefully and permanently" with Semitic Phoenician settlers. The study also found evidence suggesting that south Europeans may have likewise settled in the area of modern Lebanon.

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The Phoenician city-states were highly independent, competing with each other. Formal alliances between city-states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-states varied over time.

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suggests Phoenician clothing and metal goods were highly prized by the Greeks. Specialized goods were designed specifically for wealthier clientele, including ivory reliefs and plaques, carved

699:, the Ancient Egyptian word for 'carpenter'. This "land of carpenters" is generally identified as Phoenicia, given that Phoenicia played a central role in the lumber trade of the Levant. As an 1257:. By 738 BC, most of the Levant, including northern Phoenicia, were annexed; only Tyre and Byblos, the most powerful city-states, remained tributary states outside of direct Assyrian control. 1377:

The Phoenicians remained a core asset to the Achaemenid Empire, particularly for their prowess in maritime technology and navigation; they furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet during the

1203:. Carthage would grow into a multi-ethnic empire spanning North Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia, but would ultimately be destroyed by Rome in the 1055:

The recovery of the Mediterranean economy can be credited to Phoenician mariners and merchants, who re-established long-distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th century BC.

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without interruption. It is believed that they self-identified as Canaanites and referred to their land as Canaan, indicating a continuous cultural and geographical association. The name

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One 2018 study of mitochondrial lineages in Sardinia concluded that the Phoenicians were "inclusive, multicultural and featured significant female mobility", with evidence of indigenous

1272:, who enslaved its inhabitants and built a new city on its ruins. By the end of the century, the Assyrians had been weakened by successive revolts, which led to their destruction by the 10705: 2255:

Phoenician kings did not commemorate their reign through sculptures or monuments. Their wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually conveyed through ornate sarcophagi, like that of

575:. Each city-state was politically independent, and there is no evidence the Phoenicians viewed themselves as a single nationality. While most city-states were governed by some form of 2247:. Hereditary kings usually governed with absolute power over civic, commercial, and religious affairs. They often relied upon senior officials from the noble and merchant classes; the 832:. Historian Robert Drews believes the term "Canaanites" corresponds to the ethnic group referred to as "Phoenicians" by the ancient Greeks; archaeologist Jonathan N. Tubb argues that " 6655: 3887:

History, Captivating (2019). "The Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to the History of Phoenicia and the Impact Made by One of the Greatest Trading Civilizations of the Ancient World".

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Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were "advised by councils or assemblies which gradually took greater power". In the sixth century BC, during the period of

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in at least the third millennium BC. Phoenicians did not refer themselves as "Phoenicians" but rather are thought to have broadly referred to themselves as "Kenaʿani", meaning '

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Kings 16:34. Notwithstanding differences, cultural and religious similarities persisted between the ancient Hebrews and the Phoenicians. Biblical traditions state that the

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period. In particular, the Phoenicians can be modeled as a mixture of the local Bronze Age population (63%–88%) and a population coming from the North, related to ancient

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with hunting scene (8th century BC). The clothing and hairstyle of the figures are Egyptian. At the same time, the subject matter of the central scene conforms with the

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and the pontoon bridges that allowed his forces to cross into mainland Greece. Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by the Persian King following his defeat at the

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and Sidon-Dakerman (near Sidon), although, as of 2021, well over a hundred sites remain to be excavated, while others that have been are yet to be fully analysed. The

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as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship". The Assyrians appeared to have valued Phoenician ivory work in particular, collecting vast quantities in their palaces.

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were capturing Phoenician cities, especially in the north. Egypt subsequently lost its coastal holdings from Ugarit in northern Syria to Byblos near central Lebanon.

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beginning in the eighth century. The wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997 in the open sea 50 kilometres (30 mi) west of

1062:, the Phoenicians established ports, warehouses, markets, and settlement all across the Mediterranean and up to the southern Black Sea. Colonies were established on 1711: 8048: 2634:, Dido is described as having been the co-ruler of Tyre, using cleverness to escape the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion and to secure an ideal site for Carthage. 2701:" were allegedly used by the Phoenicians "to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire", and are condemned by Yahweh in the Hebrew Bible, particularly in 590:

The Phoenicians were long considered a lost civilization due to the lack of indigenous written records, and only since the mid-20th century have historians and

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island in Malta. Dated 700 BC, it is one of the oldest wrecks found in the Mediterranean. Fifty amphorae, used to contain wine and oil, were scattered nearby.

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Zarins, Juris (1992). "Pastoral Nomadism in Arabia: Ethnoarchaeology and the Archaeological Record—A Case Study". In Bar-Yosef, O.; Khazanov, A. (eds.).

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The Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to the History of Phoenicia and the Impact Made by One of the Greatest Trading Civilizations of the Ancient World

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Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth A.; Gosling, Anna L.; Boocock, James; Kardailsky, Olga; Kurumilian, Yara; Roudesli-Chebbi, Sihem; et al. (25 May 2016).

13576: 10909: 7611: 6641: 8644: 2056:, around 700 BC. An Assyrian account describes Phoenicians evading capture with these ships. The Phoenicians are also credited with inventing the 8685: 6074: 3159:

Niemeyer, Hans G. (2004). "The Phoenicians and the Birth of a Multinational Mediterranean Society". In Rollinger, Robert; Ulf, Christoph (eds.).

11258: 11120: 10433: 10381: 2832: 12286: 2060:, which was regarded as the most advanced and powerful vessel in the ancient Mediterranean world, and was eventually adopted by the Greeks. 8041: 4497:"Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences" 3706:"Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences" 2586:

Earring from a pair, each with four relief faces; late fourth–3rd century BC; gold; overall: 3.5 x 0.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

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who lived 3,750 and 3,650 years ago" to modern people, revealed that 93 percent of the genetic ancestry of people in Lebanon came from the

1420:. Alexander's main target in the Persian Levant was Tyre, now the region's largest and most important city. It capitulated after a roughly 1475:

When Alexander's empire collapsed after his death in 323 BC, the Phoenicians came under the control of the largest of its successors, the

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was a generally peaceful time of increasing population, trade, and prosperity, though there was competition for natural resources. In the

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Silva, Diógenes. "La literatura sobre fenicios en el territorio brasileño: orígenes y razones", PhD Thesis, Madrid - 2016. Available in

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dated to this period bears lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade networks.

11668: 11648: 4548: 1024:. Sidon and Tyre also commanded interest among Egyptian officials, beginning a pattern of rivalry that would span the next millennium. 9584: 13546: 11736: 10781: 6449: 2504:

in Jerusalem, which "presupposes a well-developed and highly respected craft industry in Phoenicia by the mid-tenth century BC". The

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The Phoenicians established vineyards and wineries in their colonies in North Africa, Sicily, France, and Spain, and may have taught

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BC). In 587 BC Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre, which resisted for thirteen years, but ultimately capitulated under "favorable terms".

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Tomàs, Carme (2006). "Differential maternal and paternal contributions to the genetic pool of Ibiza Island, Balearic Archipelago".

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The Babylonians, formerly vassals of the Assyrians, took advantage of the empire's collapse and rebelled, quickly establishing the

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By the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the richest and most powerful Phoenician city-state, particularly during the reign of

11324: 10818: 8034: 2796: 13641: 13636: 11658: 4716:"Addressing the controversial origin of the marble source used in the Phoenician anthropoid sarcophagi of Gadir (Cadiz, Spain)" 1761:

found in Cádiz, Spain, thought to have been imported from the Phoenician homeland around Sidon. Archaeological Museum of Cádiz.

996:, 'carpenters', such as Byblos, Arwad, and Ullasa for their crucial geographic and commercial links with the interior (via the 1191:

BC, places the foundation of Carthage in 814 BC, which is the date generally accepted by modern historians. Legend, including

486:. The territory of the Phoenicians expanded and contracted throughout history, with the core of their culture stretching from 13631: 13239: 12621: 11185: 10904: 7604: 6517: 6371: 6329: 6284: 6196: 6116: 5588: 5412: 5389: 5355: 5321: 5287: 5253: 5219: 5185: 5151: 5117: 4689: 4307: 4269: 3539: 3012: 2982: 2957: 2867: 2026: 2977:. Alter Orient und Altes Testament. Vol. 469. Germany: Ugarit-Verlag – Buch- und Medienhandel Münster. pp. 23–24. 13621: 11606: 6124: 5035: 1432:

and a puppet ruler was installed. The rest of Phoenicia easily came under his control, with Sidon surrendering peacefully.

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Carthage was founded by Phoenicians coming from Tyre, probably initially as a station in the metal trade with the southern

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BC). The expertise of Phoenician artisans sent by Hiram I of Tyre in significant construction projects during the reign of

548:, such as Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. The Phoenicians established colonies and trading posts across the Mediterranean; 13145: 2496:, such as terracotta masks. Phoenician artisans were known for their skill with wood, ivory, bronze, and textiles. In the 13413: 11653: 11557: 10796: 7667: 7301: 4578: 2462:

is credited with bringing the alphabet to Greece. However, it is more plausible that Phoenician immigrants brought it to

1435: 4331: 3247: 2308: 13626: 13291: 12291: 7578: 6619: 6261: 5731:"Furniture plaque carved in high relief with two Egyptianizing figures flanking a volute tree, c. 9th–8th century B.C." 5086: 4874: 4354: 1642: 1604: 651:, etc.) If the Phoenicians had an endonym to denote the land overall, some scholars believe that they would have used " 8026: 2930: 2270:, Tyre briefly adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges with authority roughly equivalent to the 1715:

Phoenician faces. Glass from Olbia, 4th century BC. The bold pools of color and detailed hair give a Greek impression.

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economically and culturally cohesive Mediterranean, which would be continued by the Greeks and especially the Romans.

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The most notable agricultural product was wine, which the Phoenicians helped propagate across the Mediterranean. The

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It is debated whether Phoenicians were actually distinct from the broader group of Semitic-speaking peoples known as

5513:(238 (Spring, 1980)). The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The American Schools of Oriental Research: 1–20. 2236:

was dominant between the 12th and 11th centuries BC and influenced its neighbors. However, by the tenth century BC,

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power and given the same rights as Persian satraps (governors), such as hereditary offices and minting their coins.

1268:

suppressed further rebellions across the region. During the seventh century BC, Sidon rebelled and was destroyed by

502:. Beyond their homeland, the Phoenicians extended through trade and colonization throughout the Mediterranean, from 13606: 11688: 11595: 10555: 7597: 3174: 2100:

Map of Phoenician (yellow labels) and Greek (red labels) colonies around 8th to 6th century BC (with German legend)

1654: 1511: 465: 13477: 2596: 12917: 11415: 10766: 10391: 9533: 9179: 8870: 6563: 2267: 1828:

theme of combat between man and beast. Phoenician artisans frequently adapted the styles of neighboring cultures.

1220: 12079: 9454: 4704:

A. B. Freijeiro, R. Corzo Sánchez, Der neue anthropoide Sarkophag von Cadiz. In: Madrider Mitteilungen 22, 1981.

4129: 75: 11405: 10812: 10791: 6321: 2199:

appointed magistrates. Carthage continued to send annual tribute to Tyre for some time after its independence.

2117: 1424:, during which many of its citizens fled to Carthage. Tyre's refusal to allow Alexander to visit its temple to 1319: 863:, rivalry between Egypt, the Mittani, the Hittites, and Assyria had a significant impact on Phoenician cities. 11706: 7803: 13355: 11749: 11731: 11379: 10411: 8058: 6665: 5061: 4205: 1611:-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the 1216: 13431: 1719:

Phoenician ties with the Greeks ran deep. The earliest verified relationship appears to have begun with the

1580:". Another study in 2006 found evidence for the genetic persistence of Phoenicians in the Spanish island of 552:, a settlement in northwest Africa, became a major civilization in its own right in the seventh century BC. 13616: 13350: 13234: 11673: 11270: 10889: 10828: 10658: 10468: 8001: 6398:, in S. Moscati (ed.), I Fenici ieri oggi domani : ricerche, scoperte, progetti, Roma, p. 203–214 4606:"A Genetic History of the Near East from an aDNA Time Course Sampling Eight Points in the Past 4,000 Years" 2732:

does not appear as elaborate as their Semitic cousins in Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called

2183:. The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean were along the northwest African coast and on 2041:

As early as 1200 BC, the Phoenicians built large merchant ships. During the Bronze Age, they developed the

1853:. Their exposure to a wide variety of cultures allowed them to manufacture goods for specific markets. The 1283:

in its place. Phoenician cities revolted several times throughout the reigns of the first Babylonian King,

6633: 13465: 13360: 12397: 11726: 11103: 11006: 10545: 10304: 7522: 7296: 4436:"A European Mitochondrial Haplotype Identified in Ancient Phoenician Remains from Carthage, North Africa" 2364: 1428:, culminating in the killing of his envoys, led to a brutal reprisal: 2,000 of its leading citizens were 1417: 822: 1125:, which was composed during this period, references the quality of Phoenician clothing and metal goods. 13601: 13521: 11582: 10845: 10688: 10560: 10450: 9208: 9172: 6677: 6395: 5639: 4210: 3069: 2915: 2559: 1817: 31: 5922:"New Evidence from Dor for the First Appearance of the Phoenicians along the Northern Coast of Israel" 5898: 2678:

The religious practices and beliefs of Phoenicia were generally common to those of their neighbors in

2071:

also appears in the Levant. The Phoenicians continued to contribute to cartography into the Iron Age.

1785:

by way of the Atlantic coast of southern Spain; alternatively, it may have come from northern Europe (

745:. In those records, it means 'crimson' or 'palm tree' and does not denote a group of people. The name 13656: 13571: 13318: 12466: 12030: 11815: 11744: 11319: 11175: 11108: 10334: 10277: 8062: 6587: 5505:

Cross, Frank Moore (1980). "Newly Found Inscriptions in Old Canaanite and Early Phoenician Scripts".

2683: 2402: 2091: 2075: 11236: 2108:

Numerous other cities existed in the Levant alone, many probably unknown, including Beiruta (modern

13611: 13591: 13276: 13251: 13101: 12760: 12755: 11856: 11576: 11361: 11068: 10595: 10590: 10396: 10127: 9677: 9330: 9195: 8920: 1048: 1012:

leading city; it was a center for bronze-making and the primary terminus of precious goods such as

1004:). The cities provided Egypt with access to Mesopotamian trade and abundant stocks of the region's 913: 880: 594:

been able to reveal a complex and influential civilization. Their best known legacy is the world's

521: 11463: 6385: 3563:"Proto-Canaanite, Archaic Greek, and the Script of the Aramaic Text on the Tell Fakhariyah Statue" 1951:

may have been domesticated by the Phoenicians or Canaanites, although it most likely arrived from

1746:

produced the large terracotta jars used for transporting wine. From Egypt, the Phoenicians bought

13661: 13596: 13561: 13556: 13541: 13536: 13531: 13526: 13448: 13343: 13224: 12765: 12718: 12661: 12360: 12304: 12052: 11805: 11678: 11334: 11282: 10985: 10776: 10683: 10570: 10205: 9556: 7752: 6780: 6577: 6402: 6359: 4682:

Sea routes: From Sidon to Huelva: Interconnections in the Mediterranean, 16th–6th c. BC

4350:"Identifying Genetic Traces of Historical Expansions: Phoenician Footprints in the Mediterranean" 3005:

Ancient cities: the archaeology of urban life in the ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome

2910: 2543: 2019: 1362: 909: 584: 17: 11721: 10145: 6524:, for a critical examination of the evidence of Phoenician trade with the South West of the U.K. 6433: 5575:

Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999).

4982:

Haggi, Arad (2010). "Report on Underwater Excavation at the Phoenician Harbour, Atlit, Israel".

2515: 1934:

concentrated in the southern parts of the island, close to sources of copper and lead. Piles of

1842: 1809:, whose location is unknown but may have been off the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula. 13566: 13365: 13266: 13261: 12949: 12897: 12817: 12750: 12654: 12639: 12532: 12299: 12253: 12094: 11981: 11843: 11711: 11356: 11165: 11160: 11090: 10980: 10823: 10695: 10428: 9858: 9809: 9752: 9697: 9551: 8755: 6454: 6159: 4060: 2741: 2475: 1821: 1670: 1491: 1444: 1421: 545: 6104: 5347:

Imperialism in the Ancient World: The Cambridge University Research Seminar in Ancient History

4259: 4191: 4163: 3767:

Stieglitz, Robert (1990). "The Geopolitics of the Phoenician Littoral in the Early Iron Age".

3617: 3365: 2689:

Several Canaanite practices are alleged in ancient sources and mentioned by scholars, such as

2096: 13551: 13296: 13256: 13069: 12944: 12008: 11998: 11957: 11928: 11834: 11716: 11390: 11366: 11221: 10700: 10585: 10483: 10458: 10050: 9929: 9883: 9814: 9779: 8629: 8076: 7919: 7326: 7274: 6923: 6315: 6139: 4295: 3677: 2422: 2296:

Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, the citizens nominated their candidate.

1874: 1280: 603: 479: 13184: 10015: 9523: 6889: 3028: 13389: 13219: 13189: 13064: 12995: 12966: 12885: 12219: 12057: 12047: 11810: 11683: 11623: 11476: 11410: 11253: 11241: 11085: 10894: 10653: 10648: 10550: 10510: 10314: 10210: 10200: 10193: 9747: 8865: 8695: 8570: 8226: 8135: 7398: 7392: 6938: 6805: 6625: 6482: 6440:

Cioffi, Robert L., "A Palm Tree, a Colour and a Mythical Bird" (review of Josephine Quinn,

4449: 3679:

Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl-fishing : Origins to the Age of Discoveries, Volume 224

2243:

At least in its earlier stages, Phoenician society was highly stratified and predominantly

1963:. Vines grew readily in the coastal Levant, and wine was exported to Egypt as early as the 1687: 1645:, researchers have shown that there is substantial genetic continuity in Lebanon since the 1588: 1352: 1314: 921: 816: 656: 520:, continuing their cultural traditions following the decline of most major cultures in the 13169: 10840: 8885: 2574:

Face bead; mid-4th–3rd century BC; glass; height: 2.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

1551: 1463:

The Phoenicians maintained cultural and commercial links with their western counterparts.

967:

have accepted these traditions and suggest a migration connected with the collapse of the

8: 13081: 12961: 12927: 12829: 12649: 12644: 12456: 12175: 12111: 11986: 11971: 11872: 11800: 11628: 11618: 11589: 11457: 11290: 11231: 10801: 10710: 10610: 10600: 10540: 10535: 10530: 10520: 10515: 10500: 10495: 10416: 10272: 10150: 10095: 10020: 9444: 9408: 8420: 7955: 7900: 7814: 7721: 7699: 7461: 7423: 7269: 5730: 2817: 2690: 2501: 2450: 2442: 2410: 2388: 2360: 2356: 2346: 1968: 1898: 1897:, which formed a major part of Phoenician wealth. The violet-purple dye derived from the 1869: 1720: 1440: 1413: 1254: 1181: 1142: 968: 937: 897: 675: 667: 623: 595: 233: 108: 12797: 12787: 5001:. College Station, TX: Texas A & M University Press. pp. 300, 51, 323–325, 332. 4453: 3789:

Bentley, Jerry H. (1999). "Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks for Historical Analysis".

3440: 2755:

for 'lord'. Such epithets may often have been merely local titles for the same deities.

2393: 2049:

joints proved effective enough to serve as a standard until late into the Roman Empire.

1522:'. Phoenicians specifically identified themselves with the city they hailed from (e.g., 13516: 13194: 13174: 13157: 13108: 12973: 12782: 12733: 12666: 12584: 12525: 12520: 12515: 12471: 12441: 12333: 12231: 12099: 12074: 11569: 11226: 11026: 11011: 10806: 10761: 10756: 10605: 10155: 9767: 8809: 8440: 8056: 7663: 7512: 6226:

Gaster, Theodor H. (1965). "The Religion of the Canaanites". In Ferm, Vergilius (ed.).

5937: 5688: 5680: 5530: 5522: 5472: 4802: 4735: 4630: 4605: 4549:"The DNA of ancient Canaanites lives on in modern-day Lebanese, genetic analysis shows" 4521: 4496: 4472: 4435: 4376: 4349: 4243:(2010). "Before Athens: Early Popular Government in Phoenician and Greek City States". 4187: 4011: 4003: 3856: 3848: 3802: 3732: 3705: 3385: 2729: 2679: 2643: 2376: 2256: 1805:

states that there was a highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin via the

1565: 1495: 1378: 1328: 990:(1479–1425 BC). The Egyptians targeted coastal cities which they wrote belonged to the 917: 536: 195: 122: 6830: 5879: 1615:. More specifically, the research of geneticist Chris Tyler-Smith and his team at the 1448: 13303: 13199: 13135: 13130: 13059: 12956: 12671: 12599: 12594: 12436: 12365: 12348: 12343: 12338: 12138: 12089: 11489: 11150: 11098: 11080: 11021: 10643: 10580: 10575: 10505: 10401: 10361: 10356: 10339: 10309: 9975: 9919: 9913: 9762: 9739: 9561: 9491: 9449: 9056: 8939: 8359: 8267: 8231: 7946: 7936: 7527: 7502: 7210: 6685: 6543: 6536: 6513: 6494: 6469: 6445: 6367: 6325: 6280: 6257: 6192: 6145: 6112: 5706: 5692: 5584: 5577: 5534: 5462: 5385: 5351: 5317: 5283: 5249: 5215: 5181: 5147: 5113: 4870: 4739: 4685: 4635: 4526: 4477: 4416: 4381: 4303: 4265: 4177: 4015: 3892: 3860: 3737: 3683: 3653: 3625: 3571: 3562: 3535: 3501: 3446: 3412: 3389: 3237:, 2nd edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51796-6, p. 345. 3008: 2978: 2953: 2898: 2863: 2771:(𐤌𐤓𐤆𐤄, 'place of reunion'), did much to foster social bonding and "kin" loyalty. 2726:

gave Phoenicia full political autonomy due to their supremacy in shipping and trade.

2046: 1850: 1774: 1561: 1480: 1468: 1390: 1344: 1288: 1152: 856: 619: 507: 219: 134: 4958: 3330: 3191: 655:" and therefore referred to themselves as "Canaanites". Krahmalkov reconstructs the 13152: 12939: 12934: 12890: 12877: 12807: 12775: 12770: 12634: 12629: 12611: 12572: 12505: 12488: 12429: 12419: 12414: 12355: 12311: 12281: 12241: 12224: 12207: 12170: 11921: 11795: 11530: 11246: 10990: 10899: 10620: 10615: 10423: 10366: 10349: 10319: 10250: 10025: 9804: 9682: 9609: 9429: 9305: 9027: 8976: 8900: 8511: 8151: 7996: 7537: 7507: 7481: 7311: 7089: 7052: 6381: 5929: 5899:"Identities and Peoples in History: Speculating on Ancient Mediterranean Mysteries" 5672: 5557: 5514: 5454: 4727: 4625: 4617: 4516: 4508: 4467: 4457: 4408: 4371: 4363: 4173: 4169: 3995: 3840: 3798: 3727: 3717: 3377: 2777:

held banquets for their membership on festival days, and many developed into elite

2368: 2287: 2192: 2164: 1838: 1724: 1666: 1620: 1616: 1138: 1071: 901: 848: 549: 407: 11482: 11351: 6612: 5561: 2433:. Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to 1753: 1673:, typically found in Europeans, appears in the region starting from the Iron Age. 799:, a Latin comedic play written in the early 2nd century BC, appears to preserve a 13370: 13338: 13211: 13179: 13162: 13118: 13113: 13091: 13086: 13044: 13037: 13012: 12872: 12867: 12708: 12589: 12483: 12478: 12446: 12271: 12261: 12155: 12148: 12143: 12128: 12084: 11966: 11952: 11211: 10565: 10525: 10463: 9566: 9501: 9355: 8469: 8379: 8344: 8013: 7982: 7977: 7967: 7677: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7492: 6852: 6743: 6463: 5379: 5345: 5311: 5277: 5243: 5209: 5175: 5141: 5105: 4462: 2857: 2694: 2612:

portrayed as clothed from head to feet, with the arms sometimes covered as well.

2446: 2430: 2426: 2284:), who were chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms. 1782: 1628: 1340: 1250: 860: 738: 365: 295: 12792: 11263: 6582: 6340: 6241: 2514:'s wife, Hecabe, as "the work of Sidonian women" and describes a mixing bowl of 1692: 13313: 13308: 13271: 13246: 13229: 13140: 13125: 13096: 13054: 12902: 12862: 12857: 12812: 12738: 12698: 12688: 12678: 12493: 12372: 12266: 12133: 12015: 11517: 11451: 11206: 10965: 10833: 10638: 10633: 10344: 10297: 10215: 10160: 9888: 9794: 9757: 9604: 9466: 9300: 9122: 8804: 8740: 8690: 8654: 8600: 8410: 8272: 7951: 7573: 7473: 7306: 7063: 6973: 6933: 6913: 6765: 6705: 6276: 6163: 5634: 4621: 4512: 4367: 4345: 3722: 3405: 3381: 2715: 2709: 2539: 2479: 2372: 2035:

Two Assyrian representations of ships, which could represent Phoenician vessels

1948: 1658: 1557: 1547: 1401: 1324: 1156: 1028: 986:

The first known account of the Phoenicians relates to the conquests of Pharaoh

948: 615: 611: 560: 351: 112: 59: 8210: 6624:

Josephine Quinn, associate professor in ancient history at Worcester College,

5476: 3831:

Chamorro, Javier G. (1987). "Survey of Archaeological Research on Tartessos".

2975:

Phoenician Identity in Context: Material Cultural Koiné in the Iron Age Levant

1765:

From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the most crucial being

1233:

palace gate depicting the collection of tribute from the Phoenician cities of

1082:, as well as the coasts of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. Phoenician 13510: 13492: 13479: 13394: 13281: 13076: 13049: 13022: 13000: 12978: 12745: 12728: 12713: 12557: 12510: 12498: 12424: 12316: 12190: 12185: 12160: 12042: 11865: 11550: 11510: 11496: 11155: 10970: 10745: 10292: 10287: 10260: 10188: 10085: 9619: 9541: 9290: 9270: 9233: 9067: 8830: 8561: 8541: 8400: 8375: 7859: 7855: 7688: 7378: 7222: 6988: 6847: 4323: 3208: 2822: 2654: 2649: 2497: 2237: 2068: 1952: 1921: 1894: 1739: 1535: 1456: 1273: 1234: 1210: 1116: 1005: 1001: 997: 885:

The Canaanite culture that gave rise to the Phoenicians apparently developed

777: 722: 648: 607: 606:, and which was transmitted across the Mediterranean and used to develop the 599: 564: 533: 468: 256: 98: 12822: 12802: 11503: 9826: 6978: 6597: 4657:. Translated by Reynolds, Sian. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 112–113. 3186:

Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. "The Phoenicians (1500–300 BC)". In

2500:, a craftsman from Tyre is commissioned to build and decorate the legendary 992: 687: 13286: 13027: 13017: 12983: 12912: 12907: 12834: 12624: 12606: 12567: 12562: 12542: 12537: 12409: 12402: 12392: 12387: 12382: 12276: 12214: 12195: 12180: 12116: 11611: 11301: 11295: 11201: 11196: 11135: 11016: 10371: 10245: 10220: 10172: 10165: 10090: 10005: 9641: 9576: 9434: 9372: 9295: 9253: 9062: 9052: 8935: 8770: 8590: 8586: 8349: 8324: 8252: 8091: 7992: 7477: 7469: 7190: 7184: 7058: 7041: 7017: 6948: 6884: 6695: 6663: 6505: 6294: 5458: 4639: 4530: 4481: 4420: 4385: 3953: 3741: 3235:

Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs

2827: 2488:

Phoenician art also differed from its contemporaries in its continuance of

2271: 1845:

metalwork (including bronze, iron, and gold), ivory carving, and woodwork.

1806: 1794: 1386: 1370: 1355:, which was roughly half the tribute that was required of Egypt and Libya. 1284: 1017: 987: 964: 932:

is considered quintessentially Canaanite archaeologically, even though the

893: 495: 471: 11536: 7779: 7589: 5431: 3520:

Tubb, Jonathan N. (1998), "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past)

3064: 1172:, means 'New City'. There is a tradition in some ancient sources, such as 13005: 12990: 12839: 12552: 12461: 12451: 12377: 12025: 12020: 11850: 11433: 11372: 11191: 11145: 11130: 11058: 10786: 10265: 10070: 9965: 9772: 9508: 9439: 9345: 9263: 9248: 9022: 8834: 8455: 8445: 8191: 8175: 8171: 7821: 7709: 7659: 7621: 7341: 7252: 7242: 7098: 7027: 6958: 6953: 6785: 5770: 5313:

West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives

2441:

is by convention given to inscriptions beginning around 1050 BC, because

1964: 1956: 1825: 1758: 1569: 1484: 1429: 1373:

of Sidon, who is seen at the back of the chariot, behind the Persian King

1265: 1021: 591: 580: 378: 156: 11888: 9945: 8791: 8659: 5948: 4824:. Translated by Hiller, Catherine. New York: William Morrow. p. 80. 4806: 4790: 4715: 4714:

Lapuente, P.; Rodà, I.; Gutiérrez Garcia-M, A.; Brilli, M. (June 2021).

13032: 12849: 12723: 12683: 12616: 11385: 11216: 11075: 11063: 10975: 10884: 10473: 10225: 9893: 9868: 9847: 9789: 9651: 9624: 9340: 9220: 9032: 8996: 8991: 8729: 8334: 8186: 8085: 7497: 7429: 7410: 7227: 6995: 6903: 6825: 6735: 6690: 5941: 5921: 5684: 5664: 5526: 4731: 4412: 4007: 3983: 3287: 3221: 2778: 2489: 2248: 1979: 1886: 1646: 1635: 1624: 1612: 1519: 1366: 1269: 1260:

Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon all rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 721 BC,

1204: 1177: 1146: 1108: 1083: 890: 841: 556: 514: 337: 152: 144: 11140: 6396:

Phoenician and the Phoenicians in the context of the Ancient Near East

3852: 3177:", Comparative Civilizations Review: Vol. 78 : No. 78, Article 4. 1975:, vessels were sealed with a layer of olive oil, pinewood, and resin. 1861:

shells, sculpted amber, and finely detailed and painted ostrich eggs.

1730:

To Egypt the Phoenicians sold logs of cedar for significant sums, and

981: 12922: 12693: 12577: 12547: 12328: 11993: 11395: 11308: 10282: 10255: 10065: 10010: 9994: 9852: 9692: 9646: 9571: 9546: 9513: 9367: 9310: 9285: 9153: 9148: 9138: 9047: 8945: 8924: 8775: 8735: 8680: 8460: 8288: 8146: 8116: 8081: 7871: 7557: 7487: 7415: 7346: 7321: 7257: 7237: 7232: 7103: 7074: 6928: 6790: 6510:

The South West to AD 1,000 (Regional history of England series No.:8)

6134:, edited by Sabatino Moscati, 38–45. Milan: Gruppo Editoriale Fabbri. 6075:"Long-lost Phoenician figurines could reveal secrets to ancient cult" 4433: 3917: 3248:"Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, φοῖνιξ" 2812: 2744: 2414: 2216: 1972: 1960: 1798: 1476: 1261: 1173: 944: 737:

used it with each of these meanings. The word is already attested in

730: 9164: 8930: 8889: 8385: 7146: 7122: 5933: 5676: 5518: 5173: 4713: 3999: 2180: 12323: 12106: 12064: 12003: 11543: 10045: 10040: 9908: 9863: 9784: 9672: 9667: 9636: 9393: 9350: 9315: 9280: 9228: 9112: 8915: 8854: 8850: 8750: 8710: 8675: 8623: 8606: 8424: 8415: 8195: 8165: 8156: 8106: 7865: 7850: 7846: 7830: 7796: 7784: 7772: 7747: 7444: 7404: 7216: 7202: 7046: 7006: 7000: 6754: 6748: 6700: 5110:

A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation

4440: 3844: 3411:. British Museum People of the Past. University of Oklahoma Press. 2733: 2703: 2659: 2493: 2434: 2244: 2225: 2188: 2168: 1858: 1790: 1786: 1770: 1735: 1662: 1650: 1464: 1382: 1134: 1067: 1059: 1036: 1032: 960: 933: 905: 837: 795: 670:) as containing a reference to the Phoenician homeland, calling it 525: 273: 164: 160: 148: 9990: 8880: 8860: 8206: 2375:. Punic was still spoken in the fifth century AD and known to St. 2176: 1996: 12236: 12165: 12121: 11976: 11828: 11275: 10771: 10663: 10060: 10030: 9985: 9970: 9955: 9950: 9903: 9873: 9596: 9403: 9398: 9335: 9275: 9238: 9116: 9107: 9092: 9082: 9042: 9017: 8971: 8909: 8905: 8765: 8745: 8719: 8705: 8699: 8551: 8531: 8521: 8516: 8480: 8475: 8430: 8394: 8390: 8329: 8261: 8216: 8161: 8125: 8121: 8100: 8096: 7924: 7889: 7883: 7877: 7767: 7735: 7714: 7532: 7331: 7163: 7132: 7070: 7022: 6943: 6879: 6815: 6810: 6770: 6760: 5794: 3224:" Iraq, vol. 6, no. 2, 1939, pp. 104–108 see p.106-107, number 8. 2759: 2748: 2723: 2617: 2535: 2401:, which bears the oldest inscription of the Phoenician alphabet. 2281: 2221: 2160: 2113: 2064: 2063:

The Phoenicians developed several other maritime inventions. The

2057: 2003: 1913: 1909: 1743: 1597: 1577: 1499: 1425: 1230: 1101: 1090: 956: 876: 726: 483: 260: 207: 129: 12037: 6620:"Phoenicia: An imaginary friend to nations in need of ancestors" 6528: 5106:"Conclusion: The Impact of City-State Cultures on World History" 4300:

The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-Rabbinic period

2413:. The Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet consists of 22 letters, all 12069: 11944: 11879: 11524: 11345: 10329: 10235: 10080: 10035: 9980: 9940: 9924: 9898: 9842: 9687: 9614: 9518: 9486: 9476: 9424: 9325: 9258: 9143: 9097: 9087: 9071: 9036: 9001: 8986: 8981: 8895: 8813: 8799: 8760: 8715: 8649: 8536: 8525: 8496: 8319: 8298: 8257: 8236: 8220: 8201: 8181: 8141: 7517: 7449: 7439: 7434: 7373: 7368: 7280: 7247: 7173: 7127: 7108: 7036: 6963: 6908: 6898: 6894: 6864: 6858: 6835: 6725: 6720: 6710: 6669: 5856:. United States of America: Eerdmans Publishing Co. p. 97. 4680:

Stager, L. E. (2003). "Phoenician shipwrecks in the deep sea".

2752: 2698: 2671: 2663: 2630: 2625: 2459: 2409:

Around 1050 BC, the Phoenicians developed a script for writing

2398: 2260: 2184: 2172: 2152: 2151:

The earliest Phoenician settlements outside the Levant were on

2137: 2109: 2053: 1935: 1833: 1832:

Phoenicia lacked considerable natural resources other than its

1802: 1778: 1766: 1608: 1593: 1573: 1515: 1397: 1348: 1196: 1192: 1075: 1063: 952: 929: 925: 872: 852: 829: 700: 682: 652: 572: 517: 503: 499: 475: 291: 94: 4596: 2620:, portrayed in the Bible as the wicked princess of Sidon, and 1176:, for an "early" foundation date of around 1215 BC—before the 446: 13407: 12703: 10240: 10230: 10075: 10055: 10000: 9960: 9934: 9878: 9377: 9101: 9077: 8966: 8961: 8874: 8844: 8840: 8633: 8556: 8501: 8465: 8450: 8435: 8404: 8353: 8339: 8303: 8131: 8110: 7730: 7383: 7363: 7358: 7336: 7286: 7262: 7168: 7156: 7151: 7116: 7093: 7012: 6983: 6918: 6874: 6820: 6800: 5967: 2719: 2682:, which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the 2624:, the semi-legendary founder and first queen of Carthage. In 2511: 2506: 2463: 2418: 2350: 2312: 2233: 2195:. Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas. 2156: 2141: 2133: 2128: 1903: 1747: 1649:

interrupted by three significant admixture events during the

1581: 1527: 1238: 1121: 1079: 833: 800: 787: 780: 750: 734: 715: 708: 640: 568: 491: 487: 90: 45: 6001: 1607:, present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a 1393:, which he blamed on Phoenician cowardice and incompetence. 13652:

States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC

13647:

States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC

9837: 9496: 9481: 9461: 9362: 9243: 8725: 8639: 8565: 8546: 8506: 8293: 7726: 7316: 7291: 7140: 7084: 7079: 6869: 6842: 6795: 6775: 6715: 5818: 5449:

Crawley Quinn, Josephine (2018). "A New Phoenician World".

5413:"All at sea: The maritime lives of the ancient Phoenicians" 5174:

David Sacks; Oswyn Murray; Lisa R. Brody (1 January 2009).

5139: 4839:. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press. p. 85. 4130:"LacusCurtius • Diodorus Siculus — Book XVI Chapters 40‑65" 3954:"Lebanon – Assyrian and Babylonian domination of Phoenicia" 3818:

Studies in the Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel

3702: 2737: 2621: 2079: 2042: 1731: 1200: 900:, which in turn developed from a fusion of their ancestral 576: 452: 437: 428: 413: 277: 11913: 6111:. Translated by Turton, Mary. Cambridge University Press. 6109:

The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade

6040: 4296:"The Jews in Carthage and Western North Africa, 66-235 CE" 1502:

in 82 BC, ending the Hellenistic influence on the Levant.

1479:. The Phoenician homeland was repeatedly contested by the 1211:

Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)

1042: 449: 425: 9471: 8596: 7178: 5989: 5977: 5618:

The Archaic Greece: The Greek city-states 700–500 BC

5029:

Between east and west – The Phoenician shipwreck off Gozo

4765:

Hawkes, Christopher (1977). "Britain and Julius Caesar".

4661: 2052:

The Phoenicians were possibly the first to introduce the

1013: 579:, merchant families probably exercised influence through 422: 5344:

Garnsey, P. D. A.; Whittaker, C. R. (15 February 2007).

5112:. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 601–602. 4999:

Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant

4890: 4888: 4886: 3784: 3782: 3345: 3331:"The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World" 3124: 3122: 3083: 2859:

Traditions & Encounters: From the Beginnings to 1500

2670:

site), a city at the far north of the Phoenician coast.

2662:

with raised arm, 14th–12th century BC, found at ancient

2558:

Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; terracotta; height: 24.1 cm;

1967:

period (2686–2134 BC). Wine played an important part in

1893:

The most prized Phoenician goods were fabrics dyed with

1619:

in Britain, who compared "sampled ancient DNA from five

1412:

Phoenicia was one of the first areas to be conquered by

6254:

Phoenician Secrets: Exploring the Ancient Mediterranean

6052: 5860: 5830: 5806: 4602: 3929: 3203:

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Phoenicia".

3095: 2762:, a fertility goddess with regal and matronly aspects. 1264:

besieged Tyre and crushed the rebellion. His successor

803:

term for 'Phoenicians', which may be reconstructed as *

6028: 5782: 5574: 5548:

Millard, A. R. (1986). "The Infancy of the Alphabet".

5143:

Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam

4168:. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 32–50. 3905: 3748: 3175:

The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World

2876: 2534:

Decorative plaque which depicts a fighting of man and

9728: 5926:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

5669:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

5507:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

5337: 5279:

North Africa: A History from Antiquity to the Present

4883: 4746: 4579:"Ancient Phoenician life was mixed and multicultural" 3779: 3769:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

3163:. Stuttgart: Franz Stiener Verlag. pp. 246, 250. 3152: 3119: 3007:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 189–190. 1837:

Phoenicians developed or mastered techniques such as

1351:(province) and forced to pay a yearly tribute of 350 851:

is largely unknown. The two most important sites are

443: 434: 419: 410: 6493:, foreword by Guy Gay-Para, H & D, Paris, 2005, 6158: 5966:

Here, Baal was used instead of the storm god's name

5758: 5746: 5597: 5310:

Swartz, B. K.; Dumett, Raymond E. (1 January 1980).

4915:"2,600-year-old wine 'factory' unearthed in Lebanon" 4165:

The Phoenician Cities: A Case-Study of Hellenisation

3923: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3308: 1510:

The people now known as Phoenicians were a group of

1008:. There was no equivalent in the Egyptian homeland. 955:

reports a claim that they came from Tylos and Arad (

6534:Soren, David; Khader, Aicha B.; Slim, Hedi (1990). 3984:"Tyre in the Early Persian Period (539-486 B.C.E.)" 3618:"Tylos and Tyre. Bahrain in the Graeco-Roman World" 3532:

The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia

3264: 3190:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. 3107: 3045: 1249:The Assyrian conquest of Phoenicia began with King 1207:(264–146 BC) before being rebuilt as a Roman city. 982:

Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)

951:around 2750 BC and the first-century AD geographer 947:claimed that the Phoenicians had migrated from the 821:Since little has survived of Phoenician records or 440: 416: 6535: 6504: 6458:, vol. 41, no. 1 (3 January 2019), pp. 15–16. 6240: 5629: 5627: 5576: 4789:Markoe, Glenn; McGovern, Patrick E. (March 1990). 3561: 3404: 3161:Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World 3139: 3137: 2747:. Other gods were called by royal titles, such as 1407: 1104:, the King of Israel, is documented in the Bible. 5303: 5201: 4245:Geopolitics, History, and International Relations 3948: 3946: 3944: 3305: 3192:http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/phoe/hd_phoe.htm 2849: 1723:on Crete (1950–1450 BC), which together with the 13508: 5453:. Princeton University Press. pp. 153–175. 5343: 5087:"2,700-Year-Old Phoenician Shipwreck Discovered" 5062:"2,700-Year-Old Phoenician Shipwreck Discovered" 4162:Millar, Fergus (2006). "The Phoenician Cities". 3222:The Phoenician Inscriptions of the Cyprus Museum 2789: 2782: 2772: 2766: 2085: 1381:of the late fifth century BC. Phoenicians under 1160: 6533: 6130:Bondi, S. F. 1988. "The Course of History". In 5624: 5490:Pritchard, James B.; Edey, Maitland A. (1974). 5167: 5133: 3615: 3134: 2856:Bentley, Jerry H.; Ziegler, Herbert F. (2000). 1335:in 480 BC (1915 drawing by A. C. Weatherstone). 259:becomes dominant city-state under the reign of 6607:The quest for the Phoenicians in South Lebanon 5140:Eric H. Cline; Mark W. Graham (27 June 2011). 5016:. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 84. 4788: 3941: 3682:. American Philosophical Society. p. 48. 3620:. In Khalifa, Haya Ali; Rice, Michael (eds.). 2855: 2833:Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas 2421:). It is believed to be a continuation of the 2002:Warship with two rows of oars, in relief from 1308: 1031:report that from 1350 to 1300 BC, neighboring 896:culture. Ghassulian itself developed from the 11929: 9180: 8042: 7605: 6649: 6189:The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems 5489: 5448: 5371: 5034:(Report). University of Malta. Archived from 4984:International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 3647: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3479: 3477: 3464: 3462: 721:, which meant variably 'Phoenician person', ' 13386:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 6487: 6216: 6170: 5309: 5207: 4684:. Museum of Cycladic Art. pp. 233–248. 4338: 3675: 3611: 3609: 1564:(J2)—thought to have originated between the 1199:, assigns the founding of the city to Queen 598:, whose origin was connected to that of the 7619: 5269: 3981: 3696: 3286:, vol. 51, no. 1, 2001, pp. 113–15. JSTOR, 3029:"Who Were The Phoenicians? | History Today" 2718:lived among local Phoenicians. Eventually, 2466:, whence it gradually diffused northwards. 2319:4th century BC). National Museum of Beirut. 2275: 1603:According to a 2017 study published by the 770: 762: 754: 51: 11936: 11922: 11722:Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle 11669:International Congress of Maritime Museums 11649:Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology 10941: 9187: 9173: 8049: 8035: 7656:Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 7612: 7598: 6656: 6642: 6418:. Penguin (original ed.:Robert Hale 1960). 6413: 6228:(Original ed.: Philosophical Library 1950) 6208:Europe Between the Oceans; 9000 BC-AD 1000 6046: 6024:. New York: Quill Books. pp. 311–333. 5498: 5377: 5350:. Cambridge University Press. p. 80. 5235: 5146:. Cambridge University Press. p. 70. 4834: 4542: 4540: 4302:. Cambridge University Press. p. 69. 4287: 4058: 3911: 3820:. Atlanta: Scholars Press. pp. 29–55. 3622:Bahrain Through The Ages – the Archaeology 3548: 3474: 3459: 3370:Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 3209:https://www.britannica.com/place/Phoenicia 2972: 2423:Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script 2211: 2123: 1884:BC) depicting a man wearing an all-purple 74: 11782: 11737:National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology 6380: 6144:. New York City: Charles Scribner's Son. 5282:. University of Texas Press. p. 25. 4996: 4945:Planet of the Grapes: A Geography of Wine 4894: 4849: 4629: 4520: 4471: 4461: 4401:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4375: 4239: 3766: 3731: 3721: 3671: 3669: 3606: 2945: 2299: 2175:, as well as on the European mainland in 1128: 13577:Ancient history of the Iberian Peninsula 6270: 6205: 5276:Naylor, Phillip Chiviges (1 July 2009). 5208:Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). 4854:. London: John Murray. pp. 162–164. 4667: 3830: 3534:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 3483: 3468: 3299: 3214: 3158: 2653: 2595: 2392: 2367:. Its descendant language spoken in the 2315:from Tyre with Phoenician inscriptions ( 2307: 2286: 2215: 2132:Ruins of the ancient Phoenician city of 2127: 2095: 1868: 1816: 1752: 1710: 1691: 1434: 1400:of Sidon led a failed rebellion against 1361: 1318: 1224: 912:(PPNB) farming cultures, practicing the 741:Linear B from the 2nd millennium BC, as 474:originating in the coastal strip of the 13210: 11707:Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology 6617: 6437:, PhD Thesis, 2008, Strasbourg, France. 6407:Lectures on the Religion of the Semites 6349: 6338: 6303:. Paris: Librairie Artheme Fayard 1992) 6210:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 6186: 6137: 6069: 6067: 6019: 6007: 5995: 5983: 5971: 5954: 5866: 5836: 5824: 5776: 5615: 5603: 5547: 5494:. New York: Time-Life Books. p. 7. 5177:Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World 5084: 5011: 4864: 4652: 4537: 4344: 4257: 3886: 3788: 3643: 3641: 3583: 3529: 3396: 3143: 3113: 2740:(𐤁𐤏𐤋, 'master', 'lord'), a powerful 2240:rose to become the most powerful city. 2074:In 2014, a 12 metres (39 ft) long 1925:and specific descriptions are unknown. 1047:Sometime between 1200 and 1150 BC, the 1043:Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC) 898:Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex 513:The Phoenicians directly succeeded the 14: 13509: 11659:European Association of Archaeologists 6542:. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. 6313: 6293: 6238: 6225: 6034: 5847: 5845: 5812: 5800: 5662: 5658: 5656: 5579:World History: Patterns of Interaction 5275: 5103: 5026: 4909: 4907: 4905: 4903: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4764: 4752: 4679: 4293: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4161: 4061:"A History of Phoenician Civilization" 3935: 3882: 3880: 3878: 3876: 3874: 3872: 3870: 3815: 3754: 3666: 3495: 3128: 3101: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2765:Religious institutions in Tyre called 2202: 1418:military campaigns across western Asia 963:). Some archaeologists working on the 943:The fourth-century BC Greek historian 11917: 11781: 10940: 10915:Pompey's campaign against the pirates 10873: 10743: 10742: 10125: 9727: 9206: 9194: 9168: 8030: 8012: 7991: 7981: 7899: 7870: 7802: 7778: 7593: 6637: 6461: 6401: 6358: 6354:. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger. 6251: 6247:. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger. 6103: 6058: 5919: 5896: 5851: 5788: 5764: 5752: 5504: 5241: 4981: 4495:Harb, Marc; et al. (July 2017). 4398: 4157: 4155: 4153: 4151: 4149: 4113: 4098: 4083: 4043: 4028: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3559: 3363: 3351: 3328: 3270: 3089: 3051: 3002: 2928: 2882: 2437:, North Africa, and Europe. The name 707:was evidently borrowed into Greek as 27:Ancient Semitic maritime civilization 13414: 6064: 5214:. Infobase Publishing. p. 586. 5085:Lorenzi, Rossella (28 August 2014). 4942: 4819: 4546: 4494: 4206:"Alexander's Siege of Tyre, 332 BCE" 3638: 3514: 3438: 3402: 3288:http://www.jstor.org/stable/27926965 2159:, gradually moving westward towards 80:Map of the Phoenicia region in green 11654:Archaeological Institute of America 6273:The Phoenicians: Lost Civilizations 6234:]. New York City: Citadel Pres. 5842: 5653: 5620:. Ernest Benn Ltd & Tonnbridge. 5180:. Infobase Publishing. p. 76. 4900: 4869:. Captivating History. p. 60. 4773: 4334:from the original on June 28, 2023. 4224: 3867: 3650:The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf 2991: 2932:A Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature 1669:(12%–37%). The results show that a 1396:In the mid-fourth century BC, King 24: 7579:Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions 6664:Ancient states and regions in the 6425: 6141:Dictionary of Comparative Religion 5583:. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. 5316:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 236. 5242:Smith, Richard L. (31 July 2008). 5014:Ancient Phoenicia: An Introduction 4835:Moore, Karl; Lewis, David (1999). 4767:Proceedings of the British Academy 4610:American Journal of Human Genetics 4501:American Journal of Human Genetics 4355:American Journal of Human Genetics 4298:. In Davies, William David (ed.). 4146: 4022: 3970: 3803:10.1111/j.1931-0846.1999.tb00214.x 3710:American Journal of Human Genetics 2510:mentions the embroidered robes of 1643:American Journal of Human Genetics 1605:American Journal of Human Genetics 1541: 1343:, king and founder of the Persian 555:The Phoenicians were organized in 25: 13673: 11664:Institute of Nautical Archaeology 11054:Coastal defence and fortification 10429:Roman circumnavigation of Britain 9729:Navigation, and ports and harbors 6602:: The Phoenicians (audio archive) 6557: 5707:"The Phoenicians (1500–300 B.C.)" 5665:"The Emergence of Phoenician Art" 5059: 3566:. In Miller; et al. (eds.). 3188:Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History 2751:, meaning 'king of the city', or 2736:(𐤀𐤋, 'god'). The son of El was 1696:Major Phoenician trade networks ( 1641:In a 2020 study published in the 1333:second Persian invasion of Greece 685:contain references to a "land of 563:, of which the most notable were 13547:6th-century BC disestablishments 13457: 13440: 13423: 11898: 11764: 11689:Society for American Archaeology 10923: 10856: 10725: 10108: 9710: 8057: 6434:Les ports phéniciens et puniques 6317:Peoples of the Past: Phoenicians 6252:Holst, Sanford (30 April 2011). 6182:]. New York City: Taplinger. 6013: 5960: 5913: 5890: 5872: 5723: 5699: 5663:Markoe, Glenn E. (August 1990). 5609: 5568: 5541: 5483: 5442: 5429: 5423: 5405: 5245:Premodern Trade in World History 5211:Encyclopedia of European Peoples 4559:from the original on Aug 9, 2021 3924:Charles-Picard & Picard 1968 3335:Comparative Civilizations Review 2579: 2567: 2551: 2527: 2018: 1995: 1864: 1512:ancient Semitic-speaking peoples 1184:, a Greek historian from Sicily 406: 383: 358: 344: 330: 172:Major kings of Phoenician cities 13582:Ancient history of North Africa 11121:Phoenician discovery of America 8691:Heq she Elisha (Ksar es-Seghir) 5909:(2) – via Boston College. 5492:Introduction to The Sea Traders 5097: 5078: 5053: 5020: 5005: 4990: 4975: 4951: 4936: 4858: 4843: 4828: 4813: 4758: 4707: 4698: 4673: 4646: 4571: 4488: 4427: 4392: 4316: 4278: 4251: 4198: 4122: 4107: 4092: 4077: 4052: 4037: 3833:American Journal of Archaeology 3824: 3809: 3760: 3589: 3523: 3489: 3432: 3357: 3293: 3276: 3240: 3227: 3197: 3180: 3167: 3057: 2607:BC). National Museum of Beirut. 1986: 1552:Lebanese people § Genetics 1505: 1483:of Egypt during the forty-year 1467:recounts how the Seleucid King 1408:Hellenistic period (332–152 BC) 1221:Phoenicia under Babylonian rule 928:. The Late Bronze Age state of 294:conquers Phoenicia and rest of 10813:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 8063:Phoenician cities and colonies 6465:Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic 6366:. Princeton University Press. 6345:. London, England: Elek Books. 6322:University of California Press 6180:The Life and Death of Carthage 6079:The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com 5104:Hansen, Mogens Herman (2000). 5027:Gambin, Timmy (October 2017). 4261:Studies in Hellenistic Judaism 4192:10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8 4174:10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8 3599:1.1, 2.44 & 7.89; Strabo, 3144:Fischer, Steven Roger (2004). 3021: 2966: 2939: 2922: 2904: 2895:Carthage and the Carthaginians 2888: 1942: 1627:(the other 7 percent was of a 1107:During the rule of the priest 624:Classical Western civilization 587:in the mid-second century BC. 482:, primarily located in modern 276:founded (in Roman accounts by 215:• 820 – 774 BC 203:• 969 – 936 BC 13: 1: 13642:Former countries in West Asia 13637:History of Palestine (region) 11732:Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa 10407:Phoenician maritime expansion 6529:https://eprints.ucm.es/39468/ 6414:Warmington, Brian H. (1964). 6409:. New York: Meridian Library. 6342:Ancient Semitic Civilizations 6138:Brandon, S.G.F., ed. (1970). 5562:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978 5378:P. Roberts (1 October 2004). 4865:History, Captivating (2019). 3624:. Routledge. pp. 401–2. 3500:. Madison: Prehistory Press. 3148:. Reaktion Books. p. 90. 2838: 2730:Canaanite religious mythology 2601: 2316: 2086:Important cities and colonies 2007: 1878: 1781:"may have been acquired from 1697: 1548:Canaan § Genetic studies 1299: 1292: 1241:(859–824 BC). British Museum. 1229:Two bronze fragments from an 1217:Phoenicia under Assyrian rule 1185: 1094: 971: 660: 186: 13632:History of the Mediterranean 11674:Nautical Archaeology Society 6831:Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia 6588:Resources in other libraries 6468:. Harvard University Press. 6444:, Princeton, 2017, 360 pp., 6442:In Search of the Phoenicians 6364:In Search of the Phoenicians 6352:The World of the Phoenicians 5451:In Search of the Phoenicians 5384:. Pascal Press. p. 64. 4921:. 2020-09-14. Archived from 4463:10.1371/journal.pone.0155046 3366:"Canaanites and Philistines" 2843: 2600:Female figurines from Tyre ( 2224:, located in the village of 2027:Timber Transportation relief 1560:found that six subclades of 1161: 788: 716: 629: 7: 13622:Iron Age cultures of Africa 11943: 11727:Museum of Ancient Seafaring 11104:Temple of Poseidon, Sounion 10910:Kidnapping of Julius Caesar 10767:Indus–Mesopotamia relations 10126: 9207: 6271:Jigoulov, Vadim S. (2021). 4997:Wachsmann, Shelley (1998). 4547:Abed, Mira (27 July 2017). 3982:Katzenstein, Jacob (1979). 3816:Barnes, William H. (1991). 3445:. Oxford University Press. 3403:Tubb, Johnathan N. (1998). 2806: 2637: 2382: 2365:Northwest Semitic languages 2340: 2331: 1812: 1738:, Israel. Pottery kilns at 1309:Persian period (539–332 BC) 89:None; dominant cities were 10: 13678: 11583:Phoenician Ship Expedition 10874: 10424:Pytheas' voyage to Britain 10417:Circumnavigation of Africa 9043:Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte) 6609:(archived 10 January 2009) 6512:. Harlow, Essex: Longman. 6350:Moscati, Sabatino (1965). 6339:Moscati, Sabatino (1957). 6127:, University of Liverpool. 6095: 5803:, pp. 113–143, 114–5. 5640:World History Encyclopedia 5436:World History Encyclopedia 4852:The Secret Lives of Colour 4850:St. Clair, Kassia (2016). 4837:Birth of the Multinational 4622:10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.008 4513:10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.013 4368:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.10.012 4258:Feldman, Louis H. (1996). 4211:World History Encyclopedia 3988:The Biblical Archaeologist 3723:10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.013 3568:Ancient Israelite Religion 3442:Ancient Israel's Neighbors 3382:10.1177/030908929802308104 3284:Israel Exploration Journal 3211:. Accessed 9 January 2022. 3070:World History Encyclopedia 2916:Collins English Dictionary 2697:. Special sites known as " 2647: 2641: 2560:Metropolitan Museum of Art 2492:conventions well into the 2473: 2386: 2344: 2089: 1685: 1676: 1545: 1312: 1287:(626–605 BC), and his son 1214: 1132: 870: 866: 814: 810: 781: 709: 151:, with varying degrees of 46: 32:Phoenicia (disambiguation) 29: 13627:Iron Age cultures of Asia 13379: 13331: 12848: 12252: 11951: 11896: 11788: 11777: 11762: 11697: 11639: 11442: 11426: 11174: 11109:Samothrace temple complex 11044: 10999: 10958: 10951: 10947: 10936: 10921: 10880: 10869: 10854: 10752: 10738: 10723: 10676: 10629: 10482: 10449: 10442: 10380: 10181: 10138: 10134: 10121: 10106: 9825: 9738: 9734: 9723: 9708: 9660: 9595: 9532: 9417: 9386: 9219: 9215: 9202: 9131: 9010: 8954: 8823: 8796:Portus Magonis (Portimão) 8784: 8668: 8615: 8579: 8489: 8368: 8360:Strato's Tower (Caesarea) 8312: 8281: 8245: 8069: 8009: 7988: 7976: 7973: 7966: 7963: 7945: 7935: 7918: 7911: 7909: 7875: 7863: 7854: 7845: 7840: 7812: 7795: 7766: 7751: 7746: 7725: 7720: 7708: 7698: 7686: 7676: 7658: 7655: 7645: 7640: 7635: 7628: 7566: 7460: 7201: 6734: 6676: 6583:Resources in your library 6508:; Andrew Fleming (1987). 6314:Markoe, Glenn E. (2000). 6309:]. Oxford: Blackwell. 6299:(Original ed. in French: 6187:Coulmas, Florian (1996). 6020:Carlyon, Richard (1981). 5897:Nisan, Mordechai (2015). 5248:. Routledge. p. 65. 4653:Braudel, Fernand (2001). 4059:MAMcIntosh (2018-08-29). 3652:. Routledge. p. 20. 3498:Pastoralism in the Levant 2935:. Adan and Charles Black. 2417:(and is thus strictly an 2403:National Museum of Beirut 2092:List of Phoenician cities 1928: 1455:Alexander's empire had a 1167: 695:being the plural form of 309: 305: 288: 270: 253: 243: 239: 229: 225: 213: 201: 183: 179: 171: 140: 128: 118: 104: 85: 73: 68: 39: 13587:Ancient Israel and Judah 10397:Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul 8542:Ornithon (Tell el-Burak) 7637:Northwestern Mesopotamia 6462:Cross, Frank M. (1973). 6387:The History of Phoenicia 6360:Quinn, Josephine Crawley 6206:Cunliffe, Barry (2008). 5779:, e.g., p. 40 & 113. 4655:Memory and Mediterranean 4294:Selzer, Claudia (1984). 4116:The Histories, Book VIII 3616:Bowersock, G.W. (1986). 3290:. Accessed 27 Aug. 2022. 2591: 1955:via trade routes across 1681: 1049:Late Bronze Age collapse 914:domestication of animals 881:Prehistory of the Levant 596:oldest verified alphabet 522:Late Bronze Age collapse 13607:Axial Age civilizations 11679:RPM Nautical Foundation 11416:Surviving ancient ships 11335:Marsala Punic shipwreck 6239:Harden, Donald (1962). 6218:Histoire de la Phénicie 6172:Vie et mort de Carthage 6160:Charles-Picard, Gilbert 5974:, pp. 315, 28, 124 5852:Dever, William (2008). 5616:Jeffery, L. H. (1976). 4963:Encyclopædia Britannica 4101:The Histories, Book VII 4046:The Histories, Book III 4031:The Histories, Book III 3958:Encyclopedia Britannica 3891:. Captivating History. 3530:Woodard, Roger (2008). 3439:Doak, Brian R. (2020). 3205:Encyclopedia Britannica 3173:Scott, John C. (2018) " 3003:Gates, Charles (2011). 2952:. Infobase Publishing. 2946:Malaspina, Ann (2009). 2790: 2783: 2773: 2767: 2544:Cleveland Museum of Art 2212:Politics and government 2124:Phoenician colonization 2116:, Botrys, Sarepta, and 2076:Phoenician trading ship 1667:South-Eastern Europeans 936:does not belong to the 910:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B 585:destruction of Carthage 546:cradles of civilization 69:2500 BC–64 BC 11712:Giza Solar boat museum 11166:Underwater exploration 11161:Underwater archaeology 11126:Pre-Columbian theories 10981:John Sinclair Morrison 10942:Research and education 10392:Austronesian Expansion 7797:Middle Hittite Kingdom 7424:Luwian-Aramaean states 6488: 6455:London Review of Books 6217: 6176:Paris: Hatchette 1968) 6171: 6168:(Original French ed.: 6125:Review by Roger Wright 5459:10.2307/j.ctvc77kkd.13 5012:Woolmer, Mark (2011). 4820:Herm, Gerhard (1975). 4791:"A Nation of Artisans" 4348:; et al. (2008). 3648:Rice, Michael (1994). 3560:Naveh, Joseph (1987). 3364:Drews, Robert (1998). 3329:Scott, John C (2018). 3233:James P. Allen (2010) 2675: 2608: 2476:Phoenician metal bowls 2469: 2406: 2320: 2300:Law and administration 2292: 2276: 2229: 2144: 2101: 1890: 1829: 1762: 1725:Mycenaean civilization 1716: 1704: 1492:Seleucid Dynastic Wars 1452: 1439:A naval action during 1374: 1336: 1242: 1129:Foundation of Carthage 771: 763: 755: 559:, similar to those of 379:Syria (Roman province) 52: 13493:34.12361°N 35.65111°E 13356:Medieval great powers 11783:Legend and literature 11741:Viking ship museums: 11717:Grand Egyptian Museum 11477:Austronesian replicas 11452:Heyerdahl expeditions 11362:Caligula's Giant Ship 11222:Dover Bronze Age Boat 9884:Berenice Troglodytica 8386:Cape Melqart (Cefalù) 7920:Neo-Babylonian Empire 7753:Old Babylonian Empire 7668:Early Dynastic period 7275:Neo-Babylonian Empire 6859:Canaanite city-states 6483:Thiollet, Jean-Pierre 6191:. Oxford: Blackwell. 5957:, p. 258 ("El"). 4925:on September 15, 2020 4919:History & Culture 4134:penelope.uchicago.edu 4086:The Histories, Book V 3676:R. A. Donkin (1998). 3252:www.perseus.tufts.edu 2684:ancient Semitic world 2657: 2599: 2429:and in Canaan in the 2396: 2311: 2290: 2228:, in southern Lebanon 2219: 2131: 2099: 1872: 1822:Phoenician metal bowl 1820: 1756: 1714: 1695: 1447:(332 BC). Drawing by 1438: 1365: 1322: 1281:Neo-Babylonian Empire 1228: 1180:in 1180 BC. However, 1174:Philistos of Syracuse 1155:. The city's name in 604:Proto-Sinaitic script 480:eastern Mediterranean 159:elements; oligarchic 105:Common languages 13366:European colonialism 13351:Ancient great powers 11684:Sea Research Society 11086:Maritime archaeology 10895:Ameinias the Phocian 10890:Mediterranean piracy 9063:Maqom Hadesh (Ounga) 8901:Carthage (Cartagena) 8289:Callista (Santorini) 8227:Tipasa in Mauretania 8187:Rusippisir (Taksebt) 7647:Southern Mesopotamia 7642:Northern Mesopotamia 7558:Tanukhid confederacy 7393:New Kingdom of Egypt 6626:University of Oxford 6105:Aubet, Maria Eugenia 6010:, pp. 173, 501. 5903:The Levantine Review 5854:Did God Have a Wife? 5060:Klein, Christopher. 4048:. pp. 218, §91. 3146:A history of writing 3033:www.historytoday.com 2929:Kitto, John (1851). 2359:was a member of the 2222:King Hiram I of Tyre 2112:) Ampi, Amia, Arqa, 1688:Phoenicians and wine 1671:Steppe-like ancestry 1556:A 2008 study led by 1514:that emerged in the 1315:Achaemenid Phoenicia 1020:from as far east as 922:Neolithic Revolution 817:History of Phoenicia 657:Honeyman inscription 30:For other uses, see 13617:Bronze Age cultures 13489: / 13361:Modern great powers 10777:Maritime Jade Route 9930:Kaveri Poompattinam 8800:Olissipona (Lisbon) 7901:Neo-Assyrian Empire 7815:Bronze Age Collapse 7748:Old Hittite Kingdom 7722:Old Assyrian period 7700:Third Dynasty of Ur 7270:Neo-Assyrian Empire 7053:Paleo-Syrian states 6618:Sam Haselby (ed.). 6613:Phoenician Alphabet 6489:Je m'appelle Byblos 6403:Smith, W. Robertson 6394:Röllig, W. (1995), 6307:Carthage. A History 6256:. Santorini Books. 6022:A Guide to the Gods 5827:, pp. 512–513. 5417:press.princeton.edu 5381:HSC Ancient History 4454:2016PLoSO..1155046M 3889:Captivating History 3791:Geographical Review 3354:, pp. 24, 204. 3092:, pp. 201–203. 2973:Meir Edrey (2019). 2818:Names of the Levant 2691:temple prostitution 2562:(New York City, US) 2389:Phoenician alphabet 2369:Carthaginian Empire 2357:Phoenician language 2347:Phoenician language 2203:Society and culture 1969:Phoenician religion 1899:hypobranchial gland 1721:Minoan civilization 1441:Alexander the Great 1414:Alexander the Great 1255:Tiglath-Pileser III 1143:History of Carthage 969:Dilmun civilization 938:Canaanite languages 920:, which led to the 668:William F. Albright 245:• Established 234:Classical antiquity 190: 1800 BC 13498:34.12361; 35.65111 11325:Bajo de la Campana 11027:Peter Throckmorton 11012:Jean-Yves Empereur 10986:William L. Rodgers 10807:Maritime Silk Road 8972:Balanaea (Baniyas) 8202:Rusuccuru (Dellys) 7757:Southern Akkadians 7664:Jemdet Nasr period 7513:Herodian Tetrarchy 6431:Carayon, Nicolas, 6081:. 8 September 2020 5944:– via JSTOR. 5920:Stern, E. (1990). 5041:on 6 November 2020 4943:Sechrist, Robert. 4732:10.1111/arcm.12623 4413:10.1002/ajpa.20273 4346:Zalloua, Pierre A. 4241:Stockwell, Stephen 3570:. Fortress Press. 2885:, pp. 18, 44. 2676: 2644:Canaanite religion 2628:'s epic poem, the 2609: 2451:Canaanite dialects 2411:their own language 2407: 2377:Augustine of Hippo 2321: 2293: 2230: 2145: 2102: 1891: 1830: 1763: 1717: 1705: 1587:In 2016, the rare 1566:Caucasus Mountains 1496:Tigranes the Great 1453: 1379:Greco-Persian Wars 1375: 1337: 1329:Xerxes I of Persia 1323:Phoenicians build 1243: 918:8.2 kiloyear event 620:Cyrillic alphabets 123:Canaanite religion 13602:Ancient Near East 13522:2nd millennium BC 13405: 13404: 13327: 13326: 13292:Polish–Lithuanian 12467:Gurjara-Pratihara 11911: 11910: 11907: 11906: 11773: 11772: 11760: 11759: 11380:Madrague de Giens 11099:Temple of Isthmia 11095:Maritime temples 11081:Marine navigation 11040: 11039: 11032:Shelley Wachsmann 11022:J. Richard Steffy 10932: 10931: 10865: 10864: 10734: 10733: 10721: 10720: 10672: 10671: 10402:Ocean exploration 10117: 10116: 10104: 10103: 9763:Rutter (nautical) 9719: 9718: 9706: 9705: 9562:Mortise and tenon 9196:Ancient seafaring 9162: 9161: 8792:Portus Hannibalis 8681:Arambys (Mogador) 8566:Ushu (Palaetyrus) 8547:Porphyreon (Jieh) 8416:Kapara (Soluntum) 8232:Tipasa in Numidia 8182:Rusicade (Skikda) 8024: 8023: 8019: 8018: 7947:Macedonian Empire 7937:Achaemenid Empire 7810:c. 1200–1150 BCE 7793:c. 1400–1200 BCE 7764:c. 1600–1400 BCE 7744:c. 1800–1600 BCE 7706:c. 2000–1800 BCE 7696:c. 2100–2000 BCE 7684:c. 2200–2100 BCE 7674:c. 2350–2200 BCE 7653:c. 3500–2350 BCE 7587: 7586: 7528:Nabataean Kingdom 7503:Hasmonean dynasty 7498:Ghassanid Kingdom 7211:Achaemenid Empire 7047:Ib'al Confederacy 6686:Kish civilization 6564:Library resources 6519:978-0-582-49274-5 6450:978 0 691 17527 0 6382:Rawlinson, George 6373:978-1-4008-8911-2 6331:978-0-520-22614-2 6286:978-1-789-14478-9 6232:Ancient Religions 6198:978-0-631-21481-6 6118:978-0-521-79543-2 6061:, pp. 33–43. 6047:Warmington (1964) 5998:, pp. 29–30. 5986:, pp. 113–4. 5734:www.metmuseum.org 5711:www.metmuseum.org 5590:978-0-395-87274-1 5550:World Archaeology 5391:978-1-74125-179-1 5357:978-0-521-03390-9 5323:978-3-11-080068-5 5289:978-0-292-77878-8 5255:978-0-203-89352-4 5221:978-1-4381-2918-1 5187:978-1-4381-1020-2 5153:978-0-521-88911-7 5119:978-87-7876-177-4 4691:978-960-7064-40-0 4670:, pp. 241–2. 4585:. 10 January 2018 4553:Los Angeles Times 4309:978-0-521-77248-8 4284:Rives, 1995 p.220 4271:978-90-04-10418-1 3938:, pp. 20–23. 3926:, pp. 28–35. 3912:Warmington (1964) 3541:978-0-521-68498-9 3220:Honeyman, A. M. " 3104:, pp. 10–12. 3014:978-0-203-83057-4 2984:978-3-86835-282-5 2959:978-1-4381-0579-6 2899:R. Bosworth Smith 2869:978-0-07-004949-9 2047:mortise-and-tenon 1949:common grape vine 1912:, in present-day 1777:. Tin for making 1775:Iberian Peninsula 1562:Haplogroup J-M172 1481:Ptolemaic Kingdom 1422:seven month siege 1391:Battle of Salamis 1345:Achaemenid Empire 1289:Nebuchadnezzar II 1153:Iberian Peninsula 934:Ugaritic language 889:from the earlier 857:Middle Bronze Age 508:Iberian Peninsula 399: 398: 395: 394: 391: 390: 371: 370: 220:Pygmalion of Tyre 16:(Redirected from 13669: 13657:Canaanite people 13572:Ancient Anatolia 13504: 13503: 13501: 13500: 13499: 13494: 13490: 13487: 13486: 13485: 13482: 13470: 13462: 13461: 13460: 13453: 13445: 13444: 13443: 13436: 13428: 13427: 13426: 13416: 13208: 13207: 12873:Austro-Hungarian 12573:Chagatai Khanate 11938: 11931: 11924: 11915: 11914: 11902: 11901: 11796:Ark of bulrushes 11779: 11778: 11768: 11767: 11406:Oldest surviving 11116:Nusantao network 10991:Chester G. Starr 10956: 10955: 10949: 10948: 10938: 10937: 10927: 10926: 10900:Cilician pirates 10871: 10870: 10860: 10859: 10797:Sa Huynh-Kalanay 10792:Iron Age Britain 10740: 10739: 10729: 10728: 10447: 10446: 10136: 10135: 10123: 10122: 10112: 10111: 10026:Ptolemais Theron 9736: 9735: 9725: 9724: 9714: 9713: 9306:Single-outrigger 9217: 9216: 9204: 9203: 9189: 9182: 9175: 9166: 9165: 8931:Tagilit (Tíjola) 8706:Shalat (Chellah) 8676:Azama (Azemmour) 8061: 8051: 8044: 8037: 8028: 8027: 7997:Byzantine Empire 7872:Middle Babylonia 7838:c. 1150–911 BCE 7631: 7630: 7614: 7607: 7600: 7591: 7590: 7538:Palmyrene Empire 7508:Herodian kingdom 7482:Byzantine Empire 7297:Israel (Samaria) 6658: 6651: 6644: 6635: 6634: 6630: 6553: 6541: 6523: 6491: 6479: 6419: 6410: 6391: 6377: 6355: 6346: 6335: 6320:. Berkeley, CA: 6310: 6290: 6267: 6248: 6246: 6235: 6220: 6214:Elayi, J. 2013. 6211: 6202: 6183: 6174: 6155: 6122: 6090: 6089: 6087: 6086: 6071: 6062: 6056: 6050: 6044: 6038: 6032: 6026: 6025: 6017: 6011: 6005: 5999: 5993: 5987: 5981: 5975: 5964: 5958: 5952: 5946: 5945: 5917: 5911: 5910: 5894: 5888: 5887: 5876: 5870: 5864: 5858: 5857: 5849: 5840: 5834: 5828: 5822: 5816: 5815:, pp. 83–4. 5810: 5804: 5798: 5792: 5791:, pp. 1–15. 5786: 5780: 5774: 5768: 5762: 5756: 5750: 5744: 5743: 5741: 5740: 5727: 5721: 5720: 5718: 5717: 5703: 5697: 5696: 5660: 5651: 5650: 5648: 5647: 5635:"Phoenician Art" 5631: 5622: 5621: 5613: 5607: 5601: 5595: 5594: 5582: 5572: 5566: 5565: 5545: 5539: 5538: 5502: 5496: 5495: 5487: 5481: 5480: 5446: 5440: 5439: 5430:Mark, Joshua J. 5427: 5421: 5420: 5409: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5398: 5375: 5369: 5368: 5366: 5364: 5341: 5335: 5334: 5332: 5330: 5307: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5296: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5262: 5239: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5205: 5199: 5198: 5196: 5194: 5171: 5165: 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and in 2606: 2603: 2583: 2571: 2555: 2531: 2502:Solomon's Temple 2425:attested in the 2318: 2279: 2193:Balearic Islands 2165:Balearic Islands 2022: 2012: 2009: 1999: 1883: 1880: 1702: 1699: 1621:Canaanite people 1617:Sanger Institute 1304: 1301: 1297: 1294: 1246:their autonomy. 1190: 1187: 1171: 1169: 1164: 1139:Ancient Carthage 1099: 1096: 1072:Balearic Islands 1006:native cedarwood 976: 973: 849:Early Bronze Age 791: 784: 783: 774: 766: 758: 719: 712: 711: 665: 662: 614:and in turn the 459: 458: 455: 454: 451: 448: 445: 442: 439: 436: 431: 430: 427: 424: 421: 418: 415: 412: 387: 386: 375: 374: 362: 361: 348: 347: 334: 333: 327: 326: 311: 310: 191: 188: 78: 63: 55: 49: 48: 37: 36: 21: 13677: 13676: 13672: 13671: 13670: 13668: 13667: 13666: 13612:Bronze Age Asia 13592:Ancient Lebanon 13507: 13506: 13497: 13495: 13491: 13488: 13483: 13480: 13478: 13476: 13475: 13473: 13469:from Wikisource 13463: 13458: 13456: 13446: 13441: 13439: 13435:from Wiktionary 13429: 13424: 13422: 13419: 13415:sister projects 13412:at Knowledge's 13406: 13401: 13390:American Empire 13375: 13371:African empires 13323: 13206: 12898:Central African 12844: 12662:Romano-Germanic 12248: 11982:Middle Assyrian 11955: 11947: 11942: 11912: 11903: 11899: 11894: 11784: 11769: 11765: 11756: 11699: 11693: 11641: 11640:Institutes and 11635: 11590:Viking replicas 11531:Balangay Voyage 11444: 11438: 11422: 11177: 11170: 11046: 11036: 10995: 10943: 10928: 10924: 10919: 10876: 10861: 10857: 10852: 10748: 10730: 10726: 10717: 10668: 10625: 10478: 10438: 10383: 10376: 10177: 10130: 10113: 10109: 10100: 9976:Mueang Phra Rot 9830: 9821: 9730: 9715: 9711: 9702: 9656: 9630:Triangular sail 9591: 9528: 9502:Sail components 9413: 9382: 9356:Tessarakonteres 9211: 9198: 9193: 9163: 9158: 9127: 9018:Aspis (Kelibia) 9006: 8950: 8819: 8805:Ossonoba (Faro) 8780: 8664: 8611: 8575: 8512:Athar (Tripoli) 8485: 8364: 8308: 8277: 8241: 8117:Iol (Cherchell) 8065: 8055: 8025: 8020: 8014:Sassanid Empire 7983:Parthian Empire 7978:Seleucid Empire 7968:Seleucid Empire 7887: 7881: 7858: 7849: 7678:Akkadian Empire 7624: 7618: 7588: 7583: 7562: 7553:Sasanian Empire 7548:Seleucid Empire 7543:Parthian Empire 7493:Emesene Dynasty 7456: 7302:Israel (united) 7217:Aramaean states 7197: 6744:Akkadian Empire 6730: 6672: 6662: 6594: 6593: 6592: 6572: 6571: 6567: 6560: 6550: 6520: 6476: 6428: 6426:Further reading 6423: 6422: 6374: 6332: 6287: 6264: 6243:The Phoenicians 6222:. Paris: Perrin 6199: 6164:Picard, Colette 6152: 6132:The Phoenicians 6119: 6098: 6093: 6084: 6082: 6073: 6072: 6065: 6057: 6053: 6045: 6041: 6033: 6029: 6018: 6014: 6006: 6002: 5994: 5990: 5982: 5978: 5965: 5961: 5953: 5949: 5934:10.2307/1357206 5918: 5914: 5895: 5891: 5878: 5877: 5873: 5865: 5861: 5850: 5843: 5835: 5831: 5823: 5819: 5811: 5807: 5799: 5795: 5787: 5783: 5775: 5771: 5763: 5759: 5751: 5747: 5738: 5736: 5729: 5728: 5724: 5715: 5713: 5705: 5704: 5700: 5677:10.2307/1357205 5661: 5654: 5645: 5643: 5633: 5632: 5625: 5614: 5610: 5602: 5598: 5591: 5573: 5569: 5546: 5542: 5519:10.2307/1356511 5503: 5499: 5488: 5484: 5469: 5447: 5443: 5428: 5424: 5411: 5410: 5406: 5396: 5394: 5392: 5376: 5372: 5362: 5360: 5358: 5342: 5338: 5328: 5326: 5324: 5308: 5304: 5294: 5292: 5290: 5274: 5270: 5260: 5258: 5256: 5240: 5236: 5226: 5224: 5222: 5206: 5202: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5172: 5168: 5158: 5156: 5154: 5138: 5134: 5124: 5122: 5120: 5102: 5098: 5083: 5079: 5070: 5068: 5058: 5054: 5044: 5042: 5038: 5031: 5025: 5021: 5010: 5006: 4995: 4991: 4980: 4976: 4967: 4965: 4959:"Galley | ship" 4957: 4956: 4952: 4947:. pp. 6–7. 4941: 4937: 4928: 4926: 4913: 4912: 4901: 4893: 4884: 4877: 4863: 4859: 4848: 4844: 4833: 4829: 4822:The Phoenicians 4818: 4814: 4787: 4774: 4763: 4759: 4751: 4747: 4712: 4708: 4703: 4699: 4692: 4678: 4674: 4668:Cunliffe (2008) 4666: 4662: 4651: 4647: 4601: 4597: 4588: 4586: 4583:Cosmos Magazine 4577: 4576: 4572: 4562: 4560: 4545: 4538: 4493: 4489: 4448:(5): e0155046. 4432: 4428: 4397: 4393: 4343: 4339: 4322: 4321: 4317: 4310: 4292: 4288: 4283: 4279: 4272: 4256: 4252: 4238: 4225: 4216: 4214: 4204: 4203: 4199: 4184: 4160: 4147: 4138: 4136: 4128: 4127: 4123: 4118:. pp. §90. 4112: 4108: 4103:. pp. §23. 4097: 4093: 4082: 4078: 4069: 4067: 4057: 4053: 4042: 4038: 4033:. pp. §19. 4027: 4023: 4000:10.2307/3209545 3980: 3971: 3962: 3960: 3952: 3951: 3942: 3934: 3930: 3922: 3918: 3910: 3906: 3899: 3885: 3868: 3829: 3825: 3814: 3810: 3787: 3780: 3765: 3761: 3753: 3749: 3701: 3697: 3690: 3674: 3667: 3660: 3646: 3639: 3632: 3614: 3607: 3594: 3590: 3578: 3558: 3549: 3542: 3528: 3524: 3519: 3515: 3508: 3494: 3490: 3486:, pp. 18–9 3482: 3475: 3467: 3460: 3453: 3437: 3433: 3423: 3421: 3419: 3401: 3397: 3362: 3358: 3350: 3346: 3327: 3306: 3298: 3294: 3282:Naveh, Joseph. 3281: 3277: 3269: 3265: 3256: 3254: 3246: 3245: 3241: 3232: 3228: 3219: 3215: 3202: 3198: 3185: 3181: 3172: 3168: 3157: 3153: 3142: 3135: 3127: 3120: 3112: 3108: 3100: 3096: 3088: 3084: 3075: 3073: 3063: 3062: 3058: 3050: 3046: 3037: 3035: 3027: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3001: 2992: 2985: 2971: 2967: 2960: 2944: 2940: 2927: 2923: 2909: 2905: 2893: 2889: 2881: 2877: 2870: 2862:. McGraw Hill. 2854: 2850: 2846: 2841: 2809: 2695:child sacrifice 2672:Musée du Louvre 2652: 2646: 2640: 2605: 1000–550 2604: 2594: 2587: 2584: 2575: 2572: 2563: 2556: 2547: 2532: 2482: 2472: 2431:Late Bronze Age 2397:Sarcophagus of 2391: 2385: 2353: 2345:Main articles: 2343: 2334: 2302: 2268:Babylonian rule 2214: 2205: 2126: 2094: 2088: 2078:was found near 2039: 2038: 2037: 2036: 2032: 2031: 2030: 2023: 2015: 2014: 2010: 2000: 1989: 1945: 1931: 1881: 1867: 1841:, engraved and 1815: 1701: 1200–800 1700: 1690: 1684: 1679: 1629:Eurasian steppe 1554: 1544: 1542:Genetic studies 1508: 1449:André Castaigne 1410: 1341:Cyrus the Great 1325:pontoon bridges 1317: 1311: 1302: 1295: 1251:Shalmaneser III 1223: 1215:Main articles: 1213: 1188: 1168:𐤒𐤓𐤕 𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕 1165: 1149: 1133:Main articles: 1131: 1097: 1058:Early into the 1045: 984: 974: 883: 871:Main articles: 869: 861:Late Bronze Age 847:The Phoenician 819: 813: 739:Mycenaean Greek 663: 632: 466:ancient Semitic 433: 409: 405: 384: 366:Egyptian Empire 359: 345: 331: 298: 296:Seleucid Empire 281: 263: 246: 216: 204: 192: 189: 167:after c. 480 BC 81: 64: 57: 50: 44: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13675: 13665: 13664: 13662:Tribe of Asher 13659: 13654: 13649: 13644: 13639: 13634: 13629: 13624: 13619: 13614: 13609: 13604: 13599: 13597:Ancient Levant 13594: 13589: 13584: 13579: 13574: 13569: 13564: 13562:Ancient Europe 13559: 13557:Ancient Africa 13554: 13549: 13544: 13542:6th century BC 13539: 13537:7th century BC 13534: 13532:8th century BC 13529: 13527:9th century BC 13524: 13519: 13472: 13471: 13454: 13437: 13408: 13403: 13402: 13400: 13399: 13398: 13397: 13392: 13383: 13381: 13377: 13376: 13374: 13373: 13368: 13363: 13358: 13353: 13348: 13347: 13346: 13335: 13333: 13329: 13328: 13325: 13324: 13322: 13321: 13316: 13311: 13306: 13301: 13300: 13299: 13289: 13284: 13279: 13274: 13269: 13264: 13259: 13254: 13249: 13244: 13243: 13242: 13237: 13227: 13222: 13216: 13214: 13205: 13204: 13203: 13202: 13197: 13192: 13187: 13182: 13172: 13167: 13166: 13165: 13155: 13150: 13149: 13148: 13143: 13138: 13128: 13123: 13122: 13121: 13116: 13106: 13105: 13104: 13099: 13094: 13089: 13084: 13074: 13073: 13072: 13067: 13057: 13052: 13047: 13042: 13041: 13040: 13035: 13030: 13025: 13020: 13010: 13009: 13008: 13003: 12993: 12988: 12987: 12986: 12981: 12971: 12970: 12969: 12964: 12954: 12953: 12952: 12947: 12937: 12932: 12931: 12930: 12925: 12920: 12915: 12910: 12900: 12895: 12894: 12893: 12888: 12880: 12875: 12870: 12865: 12860: 12854: 12852: 12846: 12845: 12843: 12842: 12837: 12832: 12827: 12826: 12825: 12820: 12815: 12810: 12805: 12800: 12795: 12785: 12780: 12779: 12778: 12773: 12768: 12763: 12758: 12753: 12743: 12742: 12741: 12736: 12731: 12726: 12716: 12711: 12706: 12701: 12696: 12691: 12686: 12681: 12676: 12675: 12674: 12669: 12659: 12658: 12657: 12652: 12647: 12642: 12637: 12632: 12619: 12614: 12609: 12604: 12603: 12602: 12597: 12592: 12582: 12581: 12580: 12575: 12570: 12565: 12555: 12550: 12545: 12540: 12535: 12530: 12529: 12528: 12523: 12518: 12513: 12503: 12502: 12501: 12496: 12491: 12486: 12476: 12475: 12474: 12469: 12464: 12454: 12449: 12444: 12439: 12434: 12433: 12432: 12427: 12422: 12412: 12407: 12406: 12405: 12400: 12395: 12390: 12385: 12380: 12370: 12369: 12368: 12363: 12353: 12352: 12351: 12346: 12341: 12336: 12326: 12321: 12320: 12319: 12309: 12308: 12307: 12302: 12294: 12289: 12284: 12279: 12274: 12269: 12264: 12258: 12256: 12254:Post-classical 12250: 12249: 12247: 12246: 12245: 12244: 12234: 12229: 12228: 12227: 12222: 12212: 12211: 12210: 12200: 12199: 12198: 12193: 12188: 12183: 12178: 12173: 12163: 12158: 12153: 12152: 12151: 12146: 12141: 12136: 12126: 12125: 12124: 12119: 12109: 12104: 12103: 12102: 12097: 12092: 12087: 12082: 12072: 12067: 12062: 12061: 12060: 12055: 12053:Middle Kingdom 12050: 12040: 12035: 12034: 12033: 12028: 12023: 12013: 12012: 12011: 12009:Neo-Babylonian 12006: 12001: 11999:Old Babylonian 11991: 11990: 11989: 11984: 11974: 11969: 11963: 11961: 11949: 11948: 11941: 11940: 11933: 11926: 11918: 11909: 11908: 11905: 11904: 11897: 11895: 11893: 11892: 11885: 11884: 11883: 11876: 11869: 11862: 11854: 11847: 11840: 11832: 11822: 11821: 11820: 11819: 11818: 11813: 11808: 11798: 11789: 11786: 11785: 11775: 11774: 11771: 11770: 11763: 11761: 11758: 11757: 11755: 11754: 11753: 11752: 11747: 11739: 11734: 11729: 11724: 11719: 11714: 11709: 11703: 11701: 11695: 11694: 11692: 11691: 11686: 11681: 11676: 11671: 11666: 11661: 11656: 11651: 11645: 11643: 11637: 11636: 11634: 11633: 11632: 11631: 11626: 11621: 11616: 11609: 11601: 11600: 11599: 11587: 11586: 11585: 11580: 11573: 11565:Mediterranean 11563: 11562: 11561: 11554: 11547: 11540: 11533: 11528: 11521: 11518:Alingano Maisu 11514: 11507: 11500: 11493: 11486: 11474: 11473: 11472: 11461: 11448: 11446: 11440: 11439: 11437: 11436: 11430: 11428: 11424: 11423: 11421: 11420: 11419: 11418: 11413: 11408: 11400: 11399: 11398: 11393: 11388: 11383: 11376: 11369: 11367:De Meern ships 11364: 11359: 11354: 11349: 11339: 11338: 11337: 11329: 11328: 11327: 11322: 11314: 11313: 11312: 11305: 11298: 11293: 11285: 11280: 11279: 11278: 11268: 11267: 11266: 11261: 11251: 11250: 11249: 11244: 11239: 11237:Cape Gelidonya 11234: 11229: 11224: 11219: 11214: 11209: 11204: 11199: 11194: 11182: 11180: 11172: 11171: 11169: 11168: 11163: 11158: 11153: 11148: 11143: 11138: 11133: 11128: 11123: 11118: 11113: 11112: 11111: 11106: 11101: 11093: 11088: 11083: 11078: 11073: 11072: 11071: 11061: 11056: 11050: 11048: 11042: 11041: 11038: 11037: 11035: 11034: 11029: 11024: 11019: 11014: 11009: 11003: 11001: 11000:Archaeologists 10997: 10996: 10994: 10993: 10988: 10983: 10978: 10973: 10968: 10966:David Blackman 10962: 10960: 10953: 10945: 10944: 10934: 10933: 10930: 10929: 10922: 10920: 10918: 10917: 10912: 10907: 10905:Jewish pirates 10902: 10897: 10892: 10887: 10881: 10878: 10877: 10867: 10866: 10863: 10862: 10855: 10853: 10851: 10850: 10849: 10848: 10838: 10837: 10836: 10826: 10821: 10816: 10809: 10804: 10799: 10794: 10789: 10784: 10779: 10774: 10769: 10764: 10759: 10753: 10750: 10749: 10736: 10735: 10732: 10731: 10724: 10722: 10719: 10718: 10716: 10715: 10714: 10713: 10703: 10698: 10693: 10692: 10691: 10680: 10678: 10674: 10673: 10670: 10669: 10667: 10666: 10661: 10656: 10651: 10646: 10641: 10636: 10630: 10627: 10626: 10624: 10623: 10618: 10613: 10608: 10603: 10598: 10593: 10591:Lake Trasimene 10588: 10583: 10578: 10573: 10568: 10563: 10558: 10553: 10548: 10543: 10538: 10533: 10528: 10523: 10518: 10513: 10508: 10503: 10498: 10492:Mediterranean: 10488: 10486: 10480: 10479: 10477: 10476: 10471: 10466: 10461: 10455: 10453: 10444: 10440: 10439: 10437: 10436: 10431: 10426: 10421: 10420: 10419: 10414: 10404: 10399: 10394: 10388: 10386: 10378: 10377: 10375: 10374: 10369: 10364: 10359: 10354: 10353: 10352: 10347: 10337: 10332: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10312: 10307: 10302: 10301: 10300: 10295: 10290: 10280: 10275: 10270: 10269: 10268: 10263: 10258: 10253: 10248: 10243: 10238: 10233: 10228: 10223: 10218: 10213: 10208: 10198: 10197: 10196: 10185: 10183: 10179: 10178: 10176: 10175: 10170: 10169: 10168: 10163: 10153: 10148: 10142: 10140: 10132: 10131: 10119: 10118: 10115: 10114: 10107: 10105: 10102: 10101: 10099: 10098: 10093: 10088: 10083: 10078: 10073: 10068: 10063: 10058: 10053: 10048: 10043: 10038: 10033: 10028: 10023: 10018: 10013: 10008: 10003: 9998: 9988: 9983: 9978: 9973: 9968: 9963: 9958: 9953: 9948: 9943: 9938: 9932: 9927: 9922: 9917: 9911: 9906: 9901: 9896: 9891: 9886: 9881: 9876: 9871: 9866: 9861: 9856: 9850: 9845: 9840: 9834: 9832: 9823: 9822: 9820: 9819: 9818: 9817: 9812: 9807: 9799: 9798: 9797: 9795:Maritime pilot 9792: 9782: 9777: 9776: 9775: 9765: 9760: 9758:Portolan chart 9755: 9750: 9744: 9742: 9732: 9731: 9721: 9720: 9717: 9716: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9703: 9701: 9700: 9695: 9690: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9670: 9664: 9662: 9658: 9657: 9655: 9654: 9649: 9644: 9639: 9634: 9633: 9632: 9627: 9622: 9617: 9607: 9601: 9599: 9593: 9592: 9590: 9589: 9588: 9587: 9579: 9574: 9569: 9564: 9559: 9554: 9549: 9544: 9538: 9536: 9530: 9529: 9527: 9526: 9521: 9516: 9511: 9506: 9505: 9504: 9494: 9489: 9484: 9479: 9474: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9458: 9457: 9447: 9442: 9437: 9432: 9427: 9421: 9419: 9415: 9414: 9412: 9411: 9406: 9401: 9396: 9390: 9388: 9384: 9383: 9381: 9380: 9375: 9370: 9365: 9360: 9359: 9358: 9353: 9348: 9343: 9338: 9333: 9331:Oared warships 9328: 9320: 9319: 9318: 9313: 9308: 9298: 9293: 9288: 9283: 9278: 9273: 9268: 9267: 9266: 9256: 9251: 9246: 9241: 9236: 9231: 9225: 9223: 9213: 9212: 9200: 9199: 9192: 9191: 9184: 9177: 9169: 9160: 9159: 9157: 9156: 9151: 9146: 9141: 9135: 9133: 9129: 9128: 9126: 9125: 9120: 9110: 9105: 9095: 9090: 9088:Sicca (El Kef) 9085: 9080: 9075: 9065: 9060: 9050: 9045: 9040: 9030: 9025: 9020: 9014: 9012: 9008: 9007: 9005: 9004: 8999: 8994: 8989: 8984: 8979: 8974: 8969: 8964: 8958: 8956: 8952: 8951: 8949: 8948: 8943: 8933: 8928: 8918: 8913: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8883: 8878: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8848: 8838: 8827: 8825: 8821: 8820: 8818: 8817: 8807: 8802: 8797: 8794: 8788: 8786: 8782: 8781: 8779: 8778: 8773: 8768: 8763: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8738: 8733: 8723: 8713: 8708: 8703: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8678: 8672: 8670: 8666: 8665: 8663: 8662: 8657: 8655:Ras il-Wardija 8652: 8647: 8642: 8637: 8627: 8619: 8617: 8613: 8612: 8610: 8609: 8604: 8594: 8583: 8581: 8577: 8576: 8574: 8573: 8568: 8559: 8554: 8549: 8544: 8539: 8537:Gebal (Byblos) 8534: 8532:Botrys (Teros) 8529: 8519: 8514: 8509: 8504: 8499: 8493: 8491: 8487: 8486: 8484: 8483: 8478: 8473: 8463: 8458: 8453: 8448: 8443: 8438: 8433: 8428: 8418: 8413: 8411:Heraclea Minoa 8408: 8398: 8388: 8383: 8372: 8370: 8366: 8365: 8363: 8362: 8357: 8347: 8342: 8337: 8332: 8327: 8322: 8316: 8314: 8310: 8309: 8307: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8291: 8285: 8283: 8279: 8278: 8276: 8275: 8270: 8265: 8255: 8249: 8247: 8243: 8242: 8240: 8239: 8234: 8229: 8224: 8214: 8204: 8199: 8189: 8184: 8179: 8169: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8144: 8142:Kissi (Djinet) 8139: 8129: 8119: 8114: 8104: 8094: 8089: 8079: 8073: 8071: 8067: 8066: 8054: 8053: 8046: 8039: 8031: 8022: 8021: 8017: 8016: 8011: 8007: 8006: 7990: 7989:63 BCE–224 CE 7986: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7971: 7970: 7965: 7961: 7960: 7952:Ancient Greeks 7944: 7940: 7939: 7934: 7930: 7929: 7917: 7913: 7912: 7910: 7908: 7904: 7903: 7898: 7894: 7893: 7874: 7869: 7862: 7853: 7844: 7839: 7835: 7834: 7827: 7811: 7807: 7806: 7804:Middle Assyria 7801: 7799: 7794: 7790: 7789: 7777: 7765: 7761: 7760: 7750: 7745: 7741: 7740: 7724: 7719: 7707: 7703: 7702: 7697: 7693: 7692: 7685: 7681: 7680: 7675: 7671: 7670: 7657: 7654: 7650: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7626: 7625: 7617: 7616: 7609: 7602: 7594: 7585: 7584: 7582: 7581: 7576: 7574:Amarna letters 7570: 7568: 7564: 7563: 7561: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7474:Roman Republic 7466: 7464: 7458: 7457: 7455: 7454: 7453: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7437: 7432: 7420: 7419: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7395: 7390: 7389: 7388: 7387: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7277: 7272: 7267: 7266: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7225: 7213: 7207: 7205: 7199: 7198: 7196: 7195: 7194: 7193: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7160: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7137: 7136: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7113: 7112: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7087: 7082: 7077: 7068: 7067: 7066: 7049: 7044: 7039: 7034: 7033: 7032: 7031: 7030: 7020: 7015: 7003: 7001:Hittite Empire 6998: 6993: 6992: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6839: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6755:Amorite states 6751: 6746: 6740: 6738: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6682: 6680: 6674: 6673: 6661: 6660: 6653: 6646: 6638: 6632: 6631: 6615: 6610: 6604: 6591: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6574: 6573: 6562: 6561: 6559: 6558:External links 6556: 6555: 6554: 6548: 6531: 6525: 6518: 6502: 6480: 6474: 6459: 6438: 6427: 6424: 6421: 6420: 6411: 6399: 6392: 6378: 6372: 6356: 6347: 6336: 6330: 6311: 6291: 6285: 6277:Reaktion Books 6268: 6263:978-0983327905 6262: 6249: 6236: 6223: 6212: 6203: 6197: 6184: 6156: 6150: 6135: 6128: 6117: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6091: 6063: 6051: 6049:, p. 148. 6039: 6037:, p. 120. 6027: 6012: 6008:Brandon (1970) 6000: 5996:Brandon (1970) 5988: 5984:Moscati (1957) 5976: 5972:Brandon (1970) 5959: 5955:Brandon (1970) 5947: 5928:(279): 27–34. 5912: 5889: 5871: 5869:, p. 173. 5867:Brandon (1970) 5859: 5841: 5839:, p. 448. 5837:Brandon (1970) 5829: 5825:Brandon (1970) 5817: 5805: 5793: 5781: 5777:Moscati (1957) 5769: 5757: 5745: 5722: 5698: 5671:(279): 13–26. 5652: 5623: 5608: 5604:Moscati (1965) 5596: 5589: 5567: 5556:(3): 390–398. 5540: 5497: 5482: 5477:j.ctvc77kkd.13 5467: 5441: 5422: 5404: 5390: 5370: 5356: 5336: 5322: 5302: 5288: 5268: 5254: 5234: 5220: 5200: 5186: 5166: 5152: 5132: 5118: 5096: 5077: 5052: 5019: 5004: 4989: 4974: 4950: 4935: 4899: 4882: 4876:978-1647482053 4875: 4857: 4842: 4827: 4812: 4772: 4769:(63): 124–192. 4757: 4755:, p. 103. 4745: 4726:(3): 467–480. 4706: 4697: 4690: 4672: 4660: 4645: 4616:(1): 149–157. 4595: 4570: 4536: 4507:(2): 274–282. 4487: 4426: 4407:(2): 268–278. 4391: 4362:(5): 633–642. 4337: 4328:britannica.com 4315: 4308: 4286: 4277: 4270: 4250: 4223: 4197: 4182: 4145: 4121: 4106: 4091: 4076: 4051: 4036: 4021: 3969: 3940: 3928: 3916: 3904: 3897: 3866: 3845:10.2307/505217 3839:(2): 197–232. 3823: 3808: 3797:(2): 215–219. 3778: 3759: 3747: 3716:(2): 274–282. 3695: 3688: 3665: 3658: 3637: 3630: 3605: 3588: 3584:Coulmas (1996) 3576: 3547: 3540: 3522: 3513: 3506: 3488: 3473: 3458: 3451: 3431: 3417: 3395: 3356: 3344: 3304: 3292: 3275: 3263: 3239: 3226: 3213: 3196: 3194:(October 2004) 3179: 3166: 3151: 3133: 3131:, p. 111. 3118: 3106: 3094: 3082: 3056: 3044: 3020: 3013: 2990: 2983: 2965: 2958: 2938: 2921: 2903: 2887: 2875: 2868: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2836: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2820: 2815: 2808: 2805: 2716:Tribe of Asher 2642:Main article: 2639: 2636: 2593: 2590: 2589: 2588: 2585: 2578: 2576: 2573: 2566: 2564: 2557: 2550: 2548: 2540:Nimrud ivories 2538:; 900–800 BC; 2533: 2526: 2480:Nimrud ivories 2471: 2468: 2387:Main article: 2384: 2381: 2363:branch of the 2342: 2339: 2333: 2330: 2301: 2298: 2213: 2210: 2204: 2201: 2140:, present-day 2125: 2122: 2090:Main article: 2087: 2084: 2034: 2033: 2024: 2017: 2016: 2001: 1994: 1993: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1944: 1941: 1930: 1927: 1866: 1863: 1851:potter's wheel 1814: 1811: 1769:, mostly from 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1558:Pierre Zalloua 1543: 1540: 1507: 1504: 1409: 1406: 1402:Artaxerxes III 1313:Main article: 1310: 1307: 1212: 1209: 1130: 1127: 1098: 969–936 1044: 1041: 1029:Amarna letters 1002:Orontes rivers 983: 980: 949:Erythraean Sea 908:cultures with 868: 865: 815:Main article: 812: 809: 776:), comes from 631: 628: 612:Greek alphabet 592:archaeologists 561:ancient Greece 478:region of the 469:thalassocratic 397: 396: 393: 392: 389: 388: 381: 372: 369: 368: 363: 355: 354: 352:Hittite Empire 349: 341: 340: 335: 323: 322: 317: 307: 306: 303: 302: 299: 289: 286: 285: 282: 271: 268: 267: 264: 254: 251: 250: 247: 244: 241: 240: 237: 236: 231: 230:Historical era 227: 226: 223: 222: 217: 214: 211: 210: 205: 202: 199: 198: 193: 184: 181: 180: 177: 176: 173: 169: 168: 142: 138: 137: 132: 126: 125: 120: 116: 115: 106: 102: 101: 87: 83: 82: 79: 71: 70: 66: 65: 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13674: 13663: 13660: 13658: 13655: 13653: 13650: 13648: 13645: 13643: 13640: 13638: 13635: 13633: 13630: 13628: 13625: 13623: 13620: 13618: 13615: 13613: 13610: 13608: 13605: 13603: 13600: 13598: 13595: 13593: 13590: 13588: 13585: 13583: 13580: 13578: 13575: 13573: 13570: 13568: 13567:Ancient Syria 13565: 13563: 13560: 13558: 13555: 13553: 13550: 13548: 13545: 13543: 13540: 13538: 13535: 13533: 13530: 13528: 13525: 13523: 13520: 13518: 13515: 13514: 13512: 13505: 13502: 13468: 13467: 13455: 13451: 13450: 13438: 13434: 13433: 13421: 13420: 13417: 13411: 13396: 13395:Soviet empire 13393: 13391: 13388: 13387: 13385: 13384: 13382: 13380:Miscellaneous 13378: 13372: 13369: 13367: 13364: 13362: 13359: 13357: 13354: 13352: 13349: 13345: 13342: 13341: 13340: 13337: 13336: 13334: 13330: 13320: 13317: 13315: 13312: 13310: 13307: 13305: 13302: 13298: 13295: 13294: 13293: 13290: 13288: 13285: 13283: 13280: 13278: 13275: 13273: 13270: 13268: 13265: 13263: 13260: 13258: 13255: 13253: 13250: 13248: 13245: 13241: 13238: 13236: 13233: 13232: 13231: 13228: 13226: 13223: 13221: 13218: 13217: 13215: 13213: 13209: 13201: 13198: 13196: 13193: 13191: 13188: 13186: 13183: 13181: 13178: 13177: 13176: 13173: 13171: 13168: 13164: 13161: 13160: 13159: 13156: 13154: 13151: 13147: 13144: 13142: 13139: 13137: 13134: 13133: 13132: 13129: 13127: 13124: 13120: 13117: 13115: 13112: 13111: 13110: 13107: 13103: 13100: 13098: 13095: 13093: 13090: 13088: 13085: 13083: 13080: 13079: 13078: 13075: 13071: 13068: 13066: 13063: 13062: 13061: 13058: 13056: 13053: 13051: 13048: 13046: 13043: 13039: 13036: 13034: 13031: 13029: 13026: 13024: 13021: 13019: 13016: 13015: 13014: 13011: 13007: 13004: 13002: 12999: 12998: 12997: 12994: 12992: 12989: 12985: 12982: 12980: 12979:German Empire 12977: 12976: 12975: 12972: 12968: 12965: 12963: 12960: 12959: 12958: 12955: 12951: 12948: 12946: 12943: 12942: 12941: 12938: 12936: 12933: 12929: 12926: 12924: 12921: 12919: 12916: 12914: 12911: 12909: 12906: 12905: 12904: 12901: 12899: 12896: 12892: 12889: 12887: 12884: 12883: 12881: 12879: 12876: 12874: 12871: 12869: 12866: 12864: 12861: 12859: 12856: 12855: 12853: 12851: 12847: 12841: 12838: 12836: 12833: 12831: 12828: 12824: 12821: 12819: 12816: 12814: 12811: 12809: 12806: 12804: 12801: 12799: 12796: 12794: 12791: 12790: 12789: 12786: 12784: 12781: 12777: 12774: 12772: 12769: 12767: 12764: 12762: 12759: 12757: 12754: 12752: 12749: 12748: 12747: 12744: 12740: 12737: 12735: 12732: 12730: 12727: 12725: 12722: 12721: 12720: 12719:Turco-Persian 12717: 12715: 12712: 12710: 12707: 12705: 12702: 12700: 12697: 12695: 12692: 12690: 12687: 12685: 12682: 12680: 12677: 12673: 12670: 12668: 12665: 12664: 12663: 12660: 12656: 12653: 12651: 12648: 12646: 12643: 12641: 12638: 12636: 12633: 12631: 12628: 12627: 12626: 12623: 12620: 12618: 12615: 12613: 12610: 12608: 12605: 12601: 12598: 12596: 12593: 12591: 12588: 12587: 12586: 12583: 12579: 12576: 12574: 12571: 12569: 12566: 12564: 12561: 12560: 12559: 12556: 12554: 12551: 12549: 12546: 12544: 12541: 12539: 12536: 12534: 12531: 12527: 12524: 12522: 12519: 12517: 12514: 12512: 12509: 12508: 12507: 12504: 12500: 12497: 12495: 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12481: 12480: 12477: 12473: 12470: 12468: 12465: 12463: 12460: 12459: 12458: 12455: 12453: 12450: 12448: 12445: 12443: 12440: 12438: 12435: 12431: 12428: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12418: 12417: 12416: 12413: 12411: 12408: 12404: 12401: 12399: 12396: 12394: 12391: 12389: 12386: 12384: 12381: 12379: 12376: 12375: 12374: 12371: 12367: 12364: 12362: 12359: 12358: 12357: 12354: 12350: 12347: 12345: 12342: 12340: 12337: 12335: 12332: 12331: 12330: 12327: 12325: 12322: 12318: 12315: 12314: 12313: 12310: 12306: 12303: 12301: 12298: 12297: 12295: 12293: 12290: 12288: 12285: 12283: 12280: 12278: 12275: 12273: 12270: 12268: 12265: 12263: 12260: 12259: 12257: 12255: 12251: 12243: 12240: 12239: 12238: 12235: 12233: 12230: 12226: 12223: 12221: 12218: 12217: 12216: 12213: 12209: 12206: 12205: 12204: 12201: 12197: 12194: 12192: 12189: 12187: 12184: 12182: 12179: 12177: 12174: 12172: 12169: 12168: 12167: 12164: 12162: 12159: 12157: 12154: 12150: 12147: 12145: 12142: 12140: 12137: 12135: 12132: 12131: 12130: 12127: 12123: 12120: 12118: 12115: 12114: 12113: 12110: 12108: 12105: 12101: 12098: 12096: 12093: 12091: 12088: 12086: 12083: 12081: 12078: 12077: 12076: 12073: 12071: 12068: 12066: 12063: 12059: 12056: 12054: 12051: 12049: 12046: 12045: 12044: 12041: 12039: 12036: 12032: 12029: 12027: 12024: 12022: 12019: 12018: 12017: 12014: 12010: 12007: 12005: 12002: 12000: 11997: 11996: 11995: 11992: 11988: 11985: 11983: 11980: 11979: 11978: 11975: 11973: 11970: 11968: 11965: 11964: 11962: 11959: 11954: 11950: 11946: 11939: 11934: 11932: 11927: 11925: 11920: 11919: 11916: 11891: 11890: 11886: 11882: 11881: 11877: 11875: 11874: 11870: 11868: 11867: 11866:Metamorphoses 11863: 11861: 11859: 11858:The Histories 11855: 11853: 11852: 11848: 11846: 11845: 11841: 11839: 11837: 11836:The Histories 11833: 11831: 11830: 11826: 11825: 11823: 11817: 11814: 11812: 11809: 11807: 11804: 11803: 11802: 11799: 11797: 11794: 11793: 11791: 11790: 11787: 11780: 11776: 11751: 11748: 11746: 11743: 11742: 11740: 11738: 11735: 11733: 11730: 11728: 11725: 11723: 11720: 11718: 11715: 11713: 11710: 11708: 11705: 11704: 11702: 11696: 11690: 11687: 11685: 11682: 11680: 11677: 11675: 11672: 11670: 11667: 11665: 11662: 11660: 11657: 11655: 11652: 11650: 11647: 11646: 11644: 11638: 11630: 11627: 11625: 11622: 11620: 11617: 11615: 11614: 11610: 11608: 11605: 11604: 11602: 11598: 11597: 11593: 11592: 11591: 11588: 11584: 11581: 11579: 11578: 11574: 11572: 11571: 11567: 11566: 11564: 11560: 11559: 11555: 11553: 11552: 11551:Marumaru Atua 11548: 11546: 11545: 11541: 11539: 11538: 11534: 11532: 11529: 11527: 11526: 11522: 11520: 11519: 11515: 11513: 11512: 11511:Samudra Raksa 11508: 11506: 11505: 11501: 11499: 11498: 11497:Te Au o Tonga 11494: 11492: 11491: 11487: 11485: 11484: 11480: 11479: 11478: 11475: 11471: 11470: 11466: 11462: 11460: 11459: 11455: 11454: 11453: 11450: 11449: 11447: 11441: 11435: 11432: 11431: 11429: 11425: 11417: 11414: 11412: 11409: 11407: 11404: 11403: 11401: 11397: 11394: 11392: 11389: 11387: 11384: 11382: 11381: 11377: 11375: 11374: 11370: 11368: 11365: 11363: 11360: 11358: 11357:Blackfriars I 11355: 11353: 11352:Arles Rhône 3 11350: 11348: 11347: 11343: 11342: 11340: 11336: 11333: 11332: 11330: 11326: 11323: 11321: 11318: 11317: 11315: 11311: 11310: 11306: 11304: 11303: 11299: 11297: 11294: 11292: 11289: 11288: 11286: 11284: 11281: 11277: 11274: 11273: 11272: 11269: 11265: 11262: 11260: 11257: 11256: 11255: 11252: 11248: 11245: 11243: 11240: 11238: 11235: 11233: 11230: 11228: 11225: 11223: 11220: 11218: 11215: 11213: 11210: 11208: 11205: 11203: 11200: 11198: 11195: 11193: 11190: 11189: 11187: 11184: 11183: 11181: 11179: 11173: 11167: 11164: 11162: 11159: 11157: 11156:Thalassocracy 11154: 11152: 11149: 11147: 11144: 11142: 11141:Shell middens 11139: 11137: 11134: 11132: 11129: 11127: 11124: 11122: 11119: 11117: 11114: 11110: 11107: 11105: 11102: 11100: 11097: 11096: 11094: 11092: 11091:Naval warfare 11089: 11087: 11084: 11082: 11079: 11077: 11074: 11070: 11067: 11066: 11065: 11062: 11060: 11057: 11055: 11052: 11051: 11049: 11043: 11033: 11030: 11028: 11025: 11023: 11020: 11018: 11015: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11004: 11002: 10998: 10992: 10989: 10987: 10984: 10982: 10979: 10977: 10974: 10972: 10971:Lionel Casson 10969: 10967: 10964: 10963: 10961: 10957: 10954: 10950: 10946: 10939: 10935: 10916: 10913: 10911: 10908: 10906: 10903: 10901: 10898: 10896: 10893: 10891: 10888: 10886: 10883: 10882: 10879: 10872: 10868: 10847: 10844: 10843: 10842: 10839: 10835: 10832: 10831: 10830: 10827: 10825: 10822: 10820: 10817: 10815: 10814: 10810: 10808: 10805: 10803: 10802:Incense trade 10800: 10798: 10795: 10793: 10790: 10788: 10785: 10783: 10780: 10778: 10775: 10773: 10770: 10768: 10765: 10763: 10760: 10758: 10755: 10754: 10751: 10747: 10741: 10737: 10712: 10709: 10708: 10707: 10706:South America 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10690: 10687: 10686: 10685: 10682: 10681: 10679: 10675: 10665: 10662: 10660: 10657: 10655: 10654:Sailing ships 10652: 10650: 10649:Oared vessels 10647: 10645: 10642: 10640: 10637: 10635: 10632: 10631: 10628: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10614: 10612: 10609: 10607: 10604: 10602: 10599: 10597: 10594: 10592: 10589: 10587: 10584: 10582: 10579: 10577: 10574: 10572: 10571:Cape Hermaeum 10569: 10567: 10564: 10562: 10559: 10557: 10554: 10552: 10549: 10547: 10544: 10542: 10539: 10537: 10534: 10532: 10529: 10527: 10524: 10522: 10519: 10517: 10514: 10512: 10509: 10507: 10504: 10502: 10499: 10497: 10493: 10490: 10489: 10487: 10485: 10481: 10475: 10472: 10470: 10467: 10465: 10462: 10460: 10457: 10456: 10454: 10452: 10448: 10445: 10441: 10435: 10432: 10430: 10427: 10425: 10422: 10418: 10415: 10413: 10410: 10409: 10408: 10405: 10403: 10400: 10398: 10395: 10393: 10390: 10389: 10387: 10385: 10382:Migration and 10379: 10373: 10370: 10368: 10365: 10363: 10360: 10358: 10355: 10351: 10348: 10346: 10343: 10342: 10341: 10338: 10336: 10333: 10331: 10328: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10306: 10303: 10299: 10296: 10294: 10291: 10289: 10286: 10285: 10284: 10281: 10279: 10276: 10274: 10271: 10267: 10264: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10254: 10252: 10249: 10247: 10244: 10242: 10239: 10237: 10234: 10232: 10229: 10227: 10224: 10222: 10219: 10217: 10214: 10212: 10209: 10207: 10204: 10203: 10202: 10199: 10195: 10192: 10191: 10190: 10189:Ancient Egypt 10187: 10186: 10184: 10182:Civilizations 10180: 10174: 10171: 10167: 10164: 10162: 10159: 10158: 10157: 10154: 10152: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10143: 10141: 10137: 10133: 10129: 10124: 10120: 10097: 10094: 10092: 10089: 10087: 10084: 10082: 10079: 10077: 10074: 10072: 10069: 10067: 10064: 10062: 10059: 10057: 10054: 10052: 10049: 10047: 10044: 10042: 10039: 10037: 10034: 10032: 10029: 10027: 10024: 10022: 10019: 10017: 10014: 10012: 10009: 10007: 10004: 10002: 9999: 9996: 9992: 9989: 9987: 9984: 9982: 9979: 9977: 9974: 9972: 9969: 9967: 9964: 9962: 9959: 9957: 9954: 9952: 9949: 9947: 9944: 9942: 9939: 9936: 9933: 9931: 9928: 9926: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9915: 9912: 9910: 9907: 9905: 9902: 9900: 9897: 9895: 9892: 9890: 9887: 9885: 9882: 9880: 9877: 9875: 9872: 9870: 9867: 9865: 9862: 9860: 9857: 9854: 9851: 9849: 9846: 9844: 9841: 9839: 9836: 9835: 9833: 9828: 9824: 9816: 9813: 9811: 9808: 9806: 9803: 9802: 9800: 9796: 9793: 9791: 9788: 9787: 9786: 9783: 9781: 9778: 9774: 9771: 9770: 9769: 9766: 9764: 9761: 9759: 9756: 9754: 9751: 9749: 9746: 9745: 9743: 9741: 9737: 9733: 9726: 9722: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9691: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9665: 9663: 9659: 9653: 9650: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9631: 9628: 9626: 9623: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9612: 9611: 9608: 9606: 9603: 9602: 9600: 9598: 9594: 9586: 9583: 9582: 9580: 9578: 9575: 9573: 9570: 9568: 9565: 9563: 9560: 9558: 9557:Clinker built 9555: 9553: 9550: 9548: 9545: 9543: 9542:Boat building 9540: 9539: 9537: 9535: 9531: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9515: 9512: 9510: 9507: 9503: 9500: 9499: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9456: 9453: 9452: 9451: 9448: 9446: 9443: 9441: 9438: 9436: 9433: 9431: 9428: 9426: 9423: 9422: 9420: 9416: 9410: 9407: 9405: 9402: 9400: 9397: 9395: 9392: 9391: 9389: 9385: 9379: 9376: 9374: 9371: 9369: 9366: 9364: 9361: 9357: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9344: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9323: 9321: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9307: 9304: 9303: 9302: 9299: 9297: 9294: 9292: 9291:Navis lusoria 9289: 9287: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9272: 9269: 9265: 9262: 9261: 9260: 9257: 9255: 9252: 9250: 9247: 9245: 9242: 9240: 9237: 9235: 9232: 9230: 9227: 9226: 9224: 9222: 9218: 9214: 9210: 9205: 9201: 9197: 9190: 9185: 9183: 9178: 9176: 9171: 9170: 9167: 9155: 9152: 9150: 9147: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9136: 9134: 9130: 9124: 9121: 9118: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9106: 9103: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9079: 9076: 9073: 9069: 9066: 9064: 9061: 9058: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9046: 9044: 9041: 9038: 9034: 9031: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9021: 9019: 9016: 9015: 9013: 9009: 9003: 9000: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8983: 8980: 8978: 8975: 8973: 8970: 8968: 8967:Marat (Amrit) 8965: 8963: 8960: 8959: 8957: 8953: 8947: 8944: 8941: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8926: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8911: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8891: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8876: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8861:Gadir (Cadiz) 8859: 8856: 8852: 8849: 8846: 8842: 8839: 8836: 8832: 8829: 8828: 8826: 8822: 8815: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8789: 8787: 8783: 8777: 8774: 8772: 8769: 8767: 8764: 8762: 8759: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8731: 8727: 8724: 8721: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8704: 8701: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8686:Caricus Murus 8684: 8682: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8673: 8671: 8667: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8640:Gaulos (Gozo) 8638: 8635: 8631: 8628: 8625: 8621: 8620: 8618: 8614: 8608: 8605: 8602: 8598: 8595: 8592: 8588: 8585: 8584: 8582: 8578: 8572: 8569: 8567: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8527: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8513: 8510: 8508: 8505: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8494: 8492: 8488: 8482: 8481:Ṣiṣ (Palermo) 8479: 8477: 8474: 8471: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8452: 8449: 8447: 8444: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8432: 8429: 8426: 8422: 8419: 8417: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8406: 8402: 8399: 8396: 8392: 8389: 8387: 8384: 8381: 8377: 8374: 8373: 8371: 8367: 8361: 8358: 8355: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8331: 8328: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8317: 8315: 8311: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8286: 8284: 8280: 8274: 8271: 8269: 8266: 8263: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8251: 8250: 8248: 8244: 8238: 8235: 8233: 8230: 8228: 8225: 8222: 8218: 8215: 8212: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8197: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8177: 8173: 8170: 8167: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8137: 8133: 8130: 8127: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8112: 8108: 8105: 8102: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8087: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8074: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8052: 8047: 8045: 8040: 8038: 8033: 8032: 8029: 8015: 8008: 8004: 8003: 7998: 7994: 7987: 7984: 7979: 7972: 7969: 7962: 7958: 7957: 7953: 7948: 7942: 7941: 7938: 7932: 7931: 7927: 7926: 7921: 7915: 7914: 7906: 7905: 7902: 7896: 7895: 7892: 7891: 7886: 7885: 7880: 7879: 7873: 7868: 7867: 7861: 7857: 7852: 7848: 7843: 7837: 7836: 7833: 7832: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7817: 7816: 7809: 7808: 7805: 7800: 7798: 7792: 7791: 7787: 7786: 7781: 7775: 7774: 7769: 7763: 7762: 7758: 7754: 7749: 7743: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7732: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7716: 7711: 7705: 7704: 7701: 7695: 7694: 7691: 7690: 7683: 7682: 7679: 7673: 7672: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7652: 7651: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7632: 7627: 7623: 7615: 7610: 7608: 7603: 7601: 7596: 7595: 7592: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7571: 7569: 7565: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7483: 7479: 7475: 7471: 7468: 7467: 7465: 7463: 7462:Classical Age 7459: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7428: 7427: 7426: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7406: 7403: 7402: 7401: 7400: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7352: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7324: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7284: 7283: 7282: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7223:Aram-Damascus 7221: 7220: 7219: 7218: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7208: 7206: 7204: 7200: 7192: 7189: 7188: 7187: 7186: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7144: 7143: 7142: 7138: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7120: 7119: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7072: 7069: 7065: 7062: 7061: 7060: 7057: 7056: 7055: 7054: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7029: 7026: 7025: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7010: 7009: 7008: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6862: 6861: 6860: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6781:First Babylon 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6758: 6757: 6756: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6741: 6739: 6737: 6733: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6683: 6681: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6659: 6654: 6652: 6647: 6645: 6640: 6639: 6636: 6628: 6627: 6621: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6601: 6598:BBC Radio4 – 6596: 6595: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6551: 6549:9780671669027 6545: 6540: 6539: 6532: 6530: 6526: 6521: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6506:Todd, Malcolm 6503: 6500: 6499:2-914266-04-9 6496: 6492: 6490: 6484: 6481: 6477: 6475:9780674091764 6471: 6467: 6466: 6460: 6457: 6456: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6430: 6429: 6417: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6388: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6348: 6344: 6343: 6337: 6333: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6318: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6295:Lancel, Serge 6292: 6288: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6269: 6265: 6259: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6244: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6213: 6209: 6204: 6200: 6194: 6190: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6151:9780684310091 6147: 6143: 6142: 6136: 6133: 6129: 6126: 6120: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6101: 6080: 6076: 6070: 6068: 6060: 6055: 6048: 6043: 6036: 6035:Markoe (2000) 6031: 6023: 6016: 6009: 6004: 5997: 5992: 5985: 5980: 5973: 5969: 5963: 5956: 5951: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5916: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5893: 5885: 5881: 5875: 5868: 5863: 5855: 5848: 5846: 5838: 5833: 5826: 5821: 5814: 5813:Harden (1962) 5809: 5802: 5801:Gaster (1965) 5797: 5790: 5785: 5778: 5773: 5767:, p. 44. 5766: 5761: 5755:, p. 31. 5754: 5749: 5735: 5732: 5726: 5712: 5708: 5702: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5659: 5657: 5642: 5641: 5636: 5630: 5628: 5619: 5612: 5605: 5600: 5592: 5586: 5581: 5580: 5571: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5544: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5501: 5493: 5486: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5468:9780691195964 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5445: 5437: 5433: 5426: 5418: 5414: 5408: 5393: 5387: 5383: 5382: 5374: 5359: 5353: 5349: 5348: 5340: 5325: 5319: 5315: 5314: 5306: 5291: 5285: 5281: 5280: 5272: 5257: 5251: 5247: 5246: 5238: 5223: 5217: 5213: 5212: 5204: 5189: 5183: 5179: 5178: 5170: 5155: 5149: 5145: 5144: 5136: 5121: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5100: 5092: 5088: 5081: 5067: 5063: 5056: 5037: 5030: 5023: 5015: 5008: 5000: 4993: 4985: 4978: 4964: 4960: 4954: 4946: 4939: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4910: 4908: 4906: 4904: 4896: 4891: 4889: 4887: 4878: 4872: 4868: 4861: 4853: 4846: 4838: 4831: 4823: 4816: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4768: 4761: 4754: 4753:Markoe (2000) 4749: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4710: 4701: 4693: 4687: 4683: 4676: 4669: 4664: 4656: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4599: 4584: 4580: 4574: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4543: 4541: 4532: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4491: 4483: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4442: 4437: 4430: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4395: 4387: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4356: 4351: 4347: 4341: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4319: 4311: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4290: 4281: 4273: 4267: 4263: 4262: 4254: 4247:(2): 128–129. 4246: 4242: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4213: 4212: 4207: 4201: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4183:9780807830307 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4166: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4152: 4150: 4135: 4131: 4125: 4117: 4110: 4102: 4095: 4087: 4080: 4066: 4062: 4055: 4047: 4040: 4032: 4025: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3959: 3955: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3937: 3932: 3925: 3920: 3913: 3908: 3900: 3898:9781647482053 3894: 3890: 3883: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3827: 3819: 3812: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3785: 3783: 3774: 3770: 3763: 3756: 3755:Markoe (2000) 3751: 3743: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3699: 3691: 3689:0-87169-224-4 3685: 3681: 3680: 3672: 3670: 3661: 3659:0-415-03268-7 3655: 3651: 3644: 3642: 3633: 3631:0-7103-0112-X 3627: 3623: 3619: 3612: 3610: 3602: 3598: 3592: 3585: 3579: 3577:0-8006-0831-3 3573: 3569: 3564: 3556: 3554: 3552: 3543: 3537: 3533: 3526: 3517: 3509: 3507:0-9629110-8-9 3503: 3499: 3492: 3485: 3484:Jigoulov 2021 3480: 3478: 3470: 3469:Jigoulov 2021 3465: 3463: 3454: 3452:9780190690632 3448: 3444: 3443: 3435: 3420: 3418:9780806131085 3414: 3409: 3408: 3399: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3376:(81): 39–61. 3375: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3353: 3348: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3301: 3300:Jigoulov 2021 3296: 3289: 3285: 3279: 3273:, p. 48. 3272: 3267: 3253: 3249: 3243: 3236: 3230: 3223: 3217: 3210: 3206: 3200: 3193: 3189: 3183: 3176: 3170: 3162: 3155: 3147: 3140: 3138: 3130: 3129:Markoe (2000) 3125: 3123: 3115: 3110: 3103: 3102:Markoe (2000) 3098: 3091: 3086: 3072: 3071: 3066: 3060: 3054:, p. 17. 3053: 3048: 3034: 3030: 3024: 3016: 3010: 3006: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2986: 2980: 2976: 2969: 2961: 2955: 2951: 2950: 2942: 2934: 2933: 2925: 2918: 2917: 2912: 2907: 2900: 2896: 2891: 2884: 2879: 2871: 2865: 2861: 2860: 2852: 2848: 2834: 2831: 2829: 2826: 2824: 2823:Phoenicianism 2821: 2819: 2816: 2814: 2811: 2810: 2804: 2800: 2798: 2792: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2769: 2763: 2761: 2756: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2712: 2711: 2706: 2705: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2687: 2685: 2681: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2656: 2651: 2650:Sanchuniathon 2645: 2635: 2633: 2632: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2613: 2598: 2582: 2577: 2570: 2565: 2561: 2554: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2530: 2525: 2524: 2523: 2519: 2517: 2516:chased silver 2513: 2509: 2508: 2503: 2499: 2498:Old Testament 2495: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2477: 2467: 2465: 2461: 2455: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2404: 2400: 2395: 2390: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2352: 2348: 2338: 2329: 2325: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2297: 2289: 2285: 2283: 2278: 2273: 2269: 2264: 2262: 2258: 2253: 2250: 2246: 2241: 2239: 2235: 2227: 2223: 2218: 2209: 2200: 2196: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2149: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2130: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2106: 2098: 2093: 2083: 2081: 2077: 2072: 2070: 2069:admiralty law 2066: 2061: 2059: 2055: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2029:at the Louvre 2028: 2021: 2005: 1998: 1984: 1981: 1976: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1953:Transcaucasia 1950: 1940: 1937: 1926: 1923: 1922:status symbol 1917: 1915: 1911: 1906: 1905: 1900: 1896: 1895:Tyrian purple 1889: 1888: 1876: 1871: 1865:Tyrian purple 1862: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1846: 1844: 1840: 1835: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1760: 1755: 1751: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1722: 1713: 1709: 1694: 1689: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1639: 1637: 1632: 1631:population). 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1601: 1599: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1553: 1549: 1539: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1503: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1488: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1472:"relatives". 1470: 1466: 1461: 1458: 1457:Hellenization 1450: 1446: 1445:Siege of Tyre 1442: 1437: 1433: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1405: 1403: 1399: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1372: 1369:-era coin of 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1306: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1277: 1275: 1274:Median Empire 1271: 1267: 1263: 1258: 1256: 1252: 1247: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1227: 1222: 1218: 1208: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1163: 1158: 1154: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1126: 1124: 1123: 1118: 1117:Tyrian purple 1112: 1110: 1105: 1103: 1092: 1087: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1056: 1053: 1050: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1009: 1007: 1003: 999: 998:Nahr al-Kabir 995: 994: 989: 979: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 941: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 892: 888: 882: 878: 874: 864: 862: 858: 854: 850: 845: 843: 839: 835: 831: 826: 824: 818: 808: 806: 802: 798: 797: 792: 790: 779: 775: 773: 767: 765: 759: 757: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 723:Tyrian purple 720: 718: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 689: 684: 679: 677: 673: 669: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 627: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 608:Arabic script 605: 601: 600:Hebrew script 597: 593: 588: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 553: 551: 547: 541: 538: 535: 534:ancient Greek 531: 527: 524:and into the 523: 519: 516: 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 470: 467: 463: 457: 403: 382: 380: 377: 376: 373: 367: 364: 357: 356: 353: 350: 343: 342: 339: 336: 329: 328: 325: 324: 321: 318: 316: 313: 312: 308: 304: 300: 297: 293: 287: 283: 279: 275: 269: 265: 262: 258: 252: 248: 242: 238: 235: 232: 228: 224: 221: 218: 212: 209: 206: 200: 197: 194: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 143: 139: 136: 133: 131: 127: 124: 121: 117: 114: 110: 107: 103: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 77: 72: 67: 61: 54: 43: 38: 33: 19: 13552:Ancient Asia 13474: 13464: 13452:from Commons 13447: 13430: 13409: 13146:Contemporary 12996:Indo-Persian 12984:Nazi Germany 12928:Contemporary 12830:Vijayanagara 12729:Great Seljuk 12640:Thessalonica 12568:Golden Horde 12208:Carthaginian 12202: 11987:Neo-Assyrian 11972:Neo-Sumerian 11887: 11878: 11871: 11864: 11857: 11849: 11844:On the Ocean 11842: 11835: 11827: 11824:Literature: 11612: 11594: 11575: 11568: 11558:Aotearoa One 11556: 11549: 11542: 11535: 11523: 11516: 11509: 11502: 11495: 11488: 11481: 11468: 11464: 11456: 11443:Experimental 11411:Museum ships 11378: 11371: 11344: 11316:Phoenician: 11307: 11302:Leontophoros 11300: 11264:Butuan boats 11259:Pontian boat 11197:Dufuna canoe 11136:Shipbuilding 11047:and theories 11017:Boris Rankov 10811: 10744:Economy and 10644:Incendiaries 10491: 10324: 10278:Indus Valley 10246:Tarumanagara 10173:Ubaid period 10091:Wadi al-Jarf 10006:Ostia Antica 9610:Fore-and-aft 9577:Shipbuilding 9552:Carvel built 9534:Construction 9492:Steering oar 9373:Sailing ship 9296:Obelisk ship 9254:Dugout canoe 8771:Thymiaterium 8645:Għajn Qajjet 8470:Sant'Antioco 8092:Hippo Regius 8000: 7993:Ancient Rome 7964:311–129 BCE 7950: 7943:336–301 BCE 7933:539–331 BCE 7923: 7916:626–539 BCE 7907:729–609 BCE 7897:911–729 BCE 7888: 7882: 7876: 7864: 7841: 7829: 7819: 7813: 7783: 7771: 7756: 7733: 7712: 7687: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7620:Timeline of 7478:Roman Empire 7470:Ancient Rome 7422: 7397: 7353: 7279: 7215: 7183: 7139: 7115: 7051: 7005: 6968: 6857: 6753: 6696:Chagar Bazar 6623: 6599: 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Retrieved 6078: 6059:Smith (1956) 6054: 6042: 6030: 6021: 6015: 6003: 5991: 5979: 5962: 5950: 5925: 5915: 5906: 5902: 5892: 5883: 5874: 5862: 5853: 5832: 5820: 5808: 5796: 5789:Smith (1956) 5784: 5772: 5765:Holst (2011) 5760: 5753:Holst (2011) 5748: 5737:. Retrieved 5733: 5725: 5714:. Retrieved 5710: 5701: 5668: 5644:. Retrieved 5638: 5617: 5611: 5599: 5578: 5570: 5553: 5549: 5543: 5510: 5506: 5500: 5491: 5485: 5450: 5444: 5435: 5425: 5416: 5407: 5395:. Retrieved 5380: 5373: 5361:. Retrieved 5346: 5339: 5327:. Retrieved 5312: 5305: 5293:. Retrieved 5278: 5271: 5259:. Retrieved 5244: 5237: 5225:. Retrieved 5210: 5203: 5191:. Retrieved 5176: 5169: 5157:. Retrieved 5142: 5135: 5123:. Retrieved 5109: 5099: 5090: 5080: 5069:. Retrieved 5065: 5055: 5043:. Retrieved 5036:the original 5022: 5013: 5007: 4998: 4992: 4983: 4977: 4966:. Retrieved 4962: 4953: 4944: 4938: 4927:. 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Retrieved 3032: 3023: 3004: 2974: 2968: 2948: 2941: 2931: 2924: 2914: 2906: 2894: 2890: 2878: 2858: 2851: 2828:Punic people 2801: 2779:fraternities 2764: 2757: 2728: 2708: 2702: 2688: 2677: 2667: 2629: 2614: 2610: 2520: 2505: 2487: 2483: 2456: 2449:, and other 2438: 2408: 2354: 2335: 2326: 2322: 2303: 2294: 2272:Roman consul 2265: 2254: 2242: 2231: 2206: 2197: 2150: 2146: 2107: 2103: 2073: 2062: 2051: 2040: 1987:Shipbuilding 1977: 1946: 1932: 1918: 1902: 1892: 1885: 1854: 1847: 1839:glass-making 1831: 1826:Mesopotamian 1807:Cassiterides 1797:and coastal 1795:Rhone valley 1764: 1729: 1718: 1706: 1640: 1633: 1602: 1586: 1555: 1531: 1523: 1509: 1506:Demographics 1489: 1474: 1462: 1454: 1411: 1395: 1387:Xerxes Canal 1376: 1371:Abdashtart I 1357: 1338: 1285:Nabopolassar 1278: 1259: 1248: 1244: 1178:fall of Troy 1150: 1120: 1113: 1106: 1088: 1057: 1054: 1046: 1026: 1018:lapis lazuli 1010: 991: 988:Thutmose III 985: 965:Persian Gulf 942: 894:chalcolithic 886: 884: 846: 827: 820: 804: 794: 786: 769: 761: 753: 746: 742: 714: 704: 696: 692: 686: 681:Obelisks at 680: 671: 644: 636: 633: 589: 554: 542: 529: 512: 496:Mount Carmel 472:civilization 461: 401: 400: 320:Succeeded by 319: 314: 249:2500 BC 41: 13496: / 13432:Definitions 12734:Khwarezmian 12667:Carolingian 12472:Rashtrakuta 12176:Shaishunaga 12075:Hellenistic 12058:New Kingdom 12048:Old Kingdom 11851:Argonautica 11838:(Herodotus) 11801:Flood myths 11698:Museums and 11642:conferences 11607:Vital Alsar 11445:archaeology 11254:Austronesia 11247:Hjortspring 11242:Rochelongue 11192:Pesse canoe 11146:Ship burial 11131:Sea Peoples 11064:Lighthouses 11059:Grave goods 11007:George Bass 10787:Spice trade 10384:exploration 10206:Philippines 10201:Austronesia 10194:Old Kingdom 10071:Trincomalee 10021:Prosphorion 9966:Myos Hormos 9810:Micronesian 9801:By region: 9773:Lighthouses 9581:By region: 9346:Quinquereme 9271:Kunlun ship 9264:Penteconter 9249:Dragon boat 9023:Bulla Regia 8571:Umm al-Amad 8456:Pantelleria 8325:Akka (Acre) 8211:Aïn Oulmene 8192:Rusubbicari 8176:Tamentfoust 8136:Constantine 8010:224–mid 7C 7974:129–63 BCE 7956:Macedonians 7851:city-states 7847:Neo-Hittite 7822:Sea Peoples 7738:city-states 7717:city-states 7660:Uruk period 7622:Mesopotamia 7243:Bit Bahiani 7028:Tell Hadidi 6600:In Our Time 5432:"Phoenicia" 5397:17 February 5363:22 February 5329:17 February 5295:23 February 5227:23 February 5159:24 February 4795:Archaeology 4324:"Phoenicia" 4114:Herodotus. 4099:Herodotus. 4084:Herodotus. 4044:Herodotus. 4029:Herodotus. 3936:Lancel 1995 3065:"Phoenicia" 2911:"Phoenicia" 2274:, known as 2245:monarchical 1965:Old Kingdom 1957:Mesopotamia 1943:Viticulture 1757:Phoenician 1665:or ancient 1655:Hellenistic 1570:Mesopotamia 1490:During the 1485:Syrian Wars 1469:Demetrius I 1416:during his 1339:In 539 BC, 1331:during the 1266:Sennacherib 1162:Qart-Ḥadašt 1022:Afghanistan 975: 1750 916:during the 747:Phoenicians 743:po-ni-ki-jo 581:oligarchies 557:city-states 315:Preceded by 284:814 BC 266:969 BC 157:plutocratic 145:City-states 13511:Categories 13484:35°39′04″E 13481:34°07′25″N 13304:Portuguese 13185:Revival Le 13175:Vietnamese 12818:Later Tran 12788:Vietnamese 12684:Singhasari 12672:Holy Roman 12296:Bulgarian 12232:Satavahana 12203:Phoenician 12139:Achaemenid 12100:Indo-Greek 12080:Macedonian 11994:Babylonian 11860:(Polybius) 11504:Hawaiʻiloa 11386:Nemi ships 11271:Black Sea‎ 11217:Khufu ship 11178:and relics 11076:Marine art 11069:Alexandria 10976:Fik Meijer 10959:Historians 10846:Indo-Roman 10659:Greek navy 10561:Salamis II 10551:Hellespont 10511:Artemisium 10501:Nile Delta 10464:Achaemenid 10357:Achaemenid 10226:Langkasuka 10221:Micronesia 10139:Prehistory 10066:Sounagoura 9894:Chittagong 9869:Barbarikon 9848:Alexandria 9790:Pilot boat 9740:Navigation 9572:Sewn-plank 9567:Lashed-lug 9445:Figurehead 9418:Components 9387:Propulsion 9341:Quadrireme 9322:Polyremes 9301:Outriggers 9033:Hadrumetum 8851:Akra Leuka 8730:Casablanca 8562:Sur (Tyre) 7734:and other 7713:and other 7430:Carchemish 7411:Nabataeans 7228:Aram Rehob 6996:Carchemish 6806:Third Mari 6786:Third Ebla 6736:Bronze Age 6691:Tell Halaf 6678:Copper Age 6275:. London: 6085:2020-09-11 5884:Britannica 5739:2020-04-19 5716:2020-04-19 5646:2020-04-19 5071:2020-04-23 5045:6 November 4986:(39): 283. 4968:2020-04-19 4929:2020-09-15 4589:2020-04-25 4217:2019-03-07 4139:2020-04-20 4070:2020-04-20 4065:Brewminate 3963:2020-04-22 3595:Herodotos 3407:Canaanites 3257:2017-02-03 3076:2017-08-09 3038:2020-04-20 2883:Aubet 2001 2839:References 2668:Ras Shamra 2658:Figure of 2648:See also: 2546:(Ohio, US) 2490:Bronze Age 2474:See also: 2443:Phoenician 2439:Phoenician 2415:consonants 2371:is termed 2328:remedies. 2249:priesthood 2011: 700 1980:winemaking 1887:toga picta 1882: 350 1793:) via the 1759:sarcophagi 1686:See also: 1663:Anatolians 1647:Bronze Age 1636:Sardinians 1625:Canaanites 1613:Bronze Age 1546:See also: 1520:Canaanites 1451:, 1888–89. 1385:built the 1367:Achaemenid 1303: 562 1296: 605 1270:Esarhaddon 1205:Punic Wars 1189: 300 1147:Punic Wars 1119:. Homer's 1084:hacksilver 891:Ghassulian 842:Israelites 830:Canaanites 823:literature 676:Phoenician 664: 900 659:(dated to 518:Canaanites 515:Bronze Age 498:in modern 490:in modern 338:Canaanites 301:64 BC 196:Abishemu I 153:oligarchic 141:Government 135:Phoenician 130:Demonym(s) 109:Phoenician 13517:Phoenicia 13410:Phoenicia 13297:Couronian 12935:Ethiopian 12923:Manchukuo 12878:Brazilian 12724:Ghaznavid 12694:Srivijaya 12645:Trebizond 12630:Byzantine 12612:North Sea 12607:Norwegian 12595:Almoravid 12578:Ilkhanate 12548:Majapahit 12521:Muromachi 12430:Solomonic 12415:Ethiopian 12329:Caliphate 12262:Aragonese 12090:Ptolemaic 11873:Geography 11811:Gilgamesh 11700:memorials 11624:Viracocha 11537:Faʻafaite 11490:Sarimanok 11396:Yassi Ada 11309:Syracusia 11232:Canaanite 11207:Moor Sand 10677:By region 10639:Grappling 10611:Naulochus 10601:Myonessus 10556:Echinades 10541:Arginusae 10536:Cynossema 10521:Naupactus 10516:Eurymedon 10350:Classical 10325:Phoenicia 10320:Mycenaean 10283:Tamilakam 10266:Polynesia 10256:Srivijaya 10051:Satingpra 10011:Palembang 9995:Cattigara 9937:(Kadaram) 9920:Jambukola 9914:Guangzhou 9855:(Podouke) 9853:Arikamedu 9815:Polynesia 9748:Celestial 9661:Armaments 9647:Spritsail 9605:Crab claw 9547:Careening 9514:Sternpost 9368:Reed boat 9311:Catamaran 9286:Multihull 9154:Tahpanhes 9149:Gibraltar 9144:Phoenicus 9139:Myriandus 9048:Kerkouane 8925:Almunecar 8736:Volubilis 8607:Tsabratan 8461:Selinunte 8431:Lilybaeum 8198:El Bahri) 8172:Rusguniae 8147:Macomades 8082:Cartennae 7925:Chaldeans 7842:Phoenicia 7780:Karduniaš 7523:Macedonia 7488:Commagene 7416:Qedarites 7354:Phoenicia 7322:Philistia 7238:Bit Agusi 7233:Bit-Adini 7075:Tall Bazi 6969:Phoenicia 6939:Jerusalem 6791:Ekallatum 6569:Phoenicia 6405:(1956) . 5693:163353156 5535:222445150 4740:225150177 4264:. BRILL. 4016:165757132 3994:(1): 31. 3861:191378720 3601:Geography 3597:Histories 3424:9 October 3390:144074940 2844:Citations 2813:Maronites 2745:storm god 2710:2nd Kings 2361:Canaanite 2045:. Pegged 1973:oxidation 1961:Black Sea 1609:Canaanite 1477:Seleucids 1430:crucified 1262:Sargon II 945:Herodotus 834:Ammonites 731:date palm 678:: 𐤐𐤕). 630:Etymology 530:Phoenicia 464:, was an 402:Phoenicia 147:ruled by 119:Religion 42:Phoenicia 13277:Japanese 13240:Scottish 13220:American 13212:Colonial 13141:Imperial 13109:Moroccan 13045:Japanese 13023:Afsharid 12882:Burmese 12868:Austrian 12823:Later Le 12798:Early Le 12783:Venetian 12709:Tiwanaku 12622:Hellenic 12585:Moroccan 12516:Kamakura 12506:Japanese 12489:Saffarid 12442:Georgian 12356:Chalukya 12334:Rashidun 12324:Calakmul 12292:Bruneian 12171:Haryanka 12149:Sasanian 12144:Parthian 12095:Bactrian 12085:Seleucid 12065:Goguryeo 12043:Egyptian 11977:Assyrian 11967:Akkadian 11958:Colonies 11889:Tākitimu 11792:Legend: 11750:Roskilde 11629:Tangaroa 11570:Olympias 11544:Gaualofa 11483:Hōkūleʻa 11458:Kon-Tiki 11291:Ashkelon 11227:Uluburun 11186:Earliest 10952:Scholars 10834:shipping 10634:Boarding 10546:Mytilene 10531:Syracuse 10496:Alashiya 10459:Egyptian 10443:Military 10434:Timeline 10412:Sardinia 10335:Carthage 10251:Kalingga 10211:Sa Huỳnh 10146:Timeline 10096:Zanzibar 10046:Sarapion 10041:Rhacotis 9971:Martaban 9916:(Canton) 9909:Godavaya 9904:Giao Chỉ 9874:Barygaza 9864:Avalites 9785:Piloting 9673:Catapult 9668:Ballista 9642:Mast-aft 9455:Planking 9394:Paddling 9351:Hexareme 9316:Trimaran 9281:Longship 9229:Balangay 9113:Thysdrus 9057:Monastir 9028:Carthage 8936:Toscanos 8916:Saguntum 8906:Rushadir 8855:Alicante 8785:Portugal 8751:Oualidia 8711:Tamusida 8660:Tas-Silġ 8624:Cospicua 8622:Maleth ( 8441:Neapolis 8425:Cagliari 8391:Drepanum 8350:Shikmona 8268:Lapathus 8196:Zemmouri 8166:Azeffoun 8157:Rachgoun 8107:Igilgili 8077:Camarata 7866:Arameans 7860:Damascus 7831:Arameans 7785:Kassites 7773:Hurrians 7445:Palistin 7405:Itureans 7203:Iron Age 7007:Hurrians 6749:Alashiya 6701:Hamoukar 6538:Carthage 6416:Carthage 6384:(1889). 6362:(2017). 6301:Carthage 6297:(1995). 6166:(1968). 6107:(2001). 4807:41765806 4640:32470374 4563:5 August 4557:Archived 4531:28757201 4482:27224451 4441:PLoS ONE 4421:16323196 4386:18976729 4332:Archived 3742:28757201 3704:(2017). 2807:See also 2797:Assembly 2704:Jeremiah 2638:Religion 2494:Iron Age 2435:Anatolia 2383:Alphabet 2341:Language 2332:Military 2282:shophets 2252:family. 2226:Hanaouay 2220:Tomb of 2191:and the 2189:Sardinia 2169:Sardinia 2118:Tripolis 1875:Etruscan 1813:Industry 1799:Massalia 1791:Brittany 1787:Cornwall 1773:and the 1771:Sardinia 1651:Iron Age 1572:and the 1538:, etc.) 1524:Sidonian 1465:Polybius 1383:Xerxes I 1231:Assyrian 1170:‎) 1135:Carthage 1109:Ithobaal 1068:Sardinia 1060:Iron Age 1037:Hittites 1033:Amorites 1000:and the 961:Muharraq 940:proper. 906:Harifian 902:Natufian 838:Moabites 796:Poenulus 789:Phoiníkē 768:, later 764:poenicus 637:Sidonian 602:via the 577:kingship 550:Carthage 526:Iron Age 462:Phœnicia 274:Carthage 165:Carthage 161:republic 53:Phoiníkē 13344:largest 13339:Empires 13319:Swedish 13314:Spanish 13309:Russian 13272:Italian 13247:Chinese 13235:English 13230:British 13225:Belgian 13200:Vietnam 13190:Tay son 13136:Tsarist 13131:Russian 13126:Ottoman 13092:Dzungar 13087:Khoshut 13060:Mexican 13055:Maratha 13038:Pahlavi 13018:Safavid 13013:Iranian 12940:Haitian 12903:Chinese 12863:Ashanti 12835:Wagadou 12761:Eastern 12756:Western 12739:Timurid 12699:Tibetan 12689:Songhai 12679:Serbian 12600:Almohad 12590:Idrisid 12494:Samanid 12484:Tahirid 12479:Iranian 12457:Kannauj 12437:Genoese 12373:Chinese 12366:Eastern 12361:Western 12349:Fatimid 12344:Abbasid 12339:Umayyad 12312:Burmese 12272:Ayyubid 12267:Angevin 12237:Xianbei 12225:Eastern 12220:Western 12166:Magadha 12129:Iranian 12122:Xiongnu 12107:Hittite 12016:Chinese 12004:Kassite 11953:Ancient 11945:Empires 11829:Odyssey 11806:Genesis 11603:Others 11402:Lists: 11391:Marausa 11341:Roman: 11331:Punic: 11296:Kyrenia 11287:Greek: 11283:Marsala 11276:Sinop D 11151:Tacking 10885:History 10772:Meluhha 10762:Fishing 10757:Whaling 10664:Ramming 10586:Aegates 10581:Drepana 10576:Ecnomus 10506:Salamis 10494: 10484:Battles 10362:Nabatea 10345:Archaic 10315:Nuragic 10305:Somalia 10156:Oceania 10151:Britain 10128:History 10061:Socotra 10031:Qandala 10016:Piraeus 9986:Muziris 9956:Madurai 9951:Manthai 9889:Canopus 9859:Arsinoe 9831:harbors 9780:History 9768:Coastal 9698:Sambuca 9683:Dolphin 9597:Rigging 9409:Poling 9399:Sailing 9336:Trireme 9276:Liburna 9239:Coracle 9209:Vessels 9117:El Djem 9108:Thapsus 9098:Tayinat 9093:Tabarka 9083:Ruspina 9011:Tunisia 8946:Tyreche 8910:Melilla 8871:Iboshim 8776:Rusibis 8746:Rusadir 8741:Mogador 8720:Tangier 8700:Larache 8669:Morocco 8601:Tripoli 8552:Sarepta 8517:Baalbek 8490:Lebanon 8476:Tharros 8395:Trapani 8262:Larnaca 8217:Thagora 8162:Rusazus 8126:Tigzirt 8122:Iomnium 8101:Algiers 8097:Icosium 8070:Algeria 7768:Mitanni 7736:Amorite 7715:Amorite 7689:Gutians 7567:Sources 7533:Osroene 7332:Ascalon 7307:Jericho 7185:Nuhašše 7133:Suteans 7071:Armanum 7023:Mitanni 7018:Nuhašše 6979:Shechem 6959:Megiddo 6954:Lakisha 6944:Kenites 6934:Jericho 6914:Dimasqu 6885:Aštartu 6880:Ascalon 6816:Palmyra 6771:Andarig 6761:Alalakh 6706:Jericho 6668:of the 6666:history 6629:. Aeon. 6096:Sources 5942:1357206 5880:"Asher" 5685:1357205 5527:1356511 5261:3 March 5193:3 March 5125:5 April 5066:HISTORY 4631:7332655 4522:5544389 4473:4880306 4450:Bibcode 4377:2668035 4008:3209545 3733:5544389 3603:16.3.4. 2949:Lebanon 2901:, p. 16 2781:. Each 2760:Astarte 2749:Melqart 2724:Solomon 2699:Tophets 2618:Jezebel 2536:griffin 2277:sufetes 2161:Corsica 2114:Baalbek 2065:amphora 2058:trireme 2004:Nineveh 1959:or the 1914:Morocco 1910:Mogador 1901:of the 1783:Galicia 1744:Sarepta 1736:Ascalon 1677:Economy 1659:Ottoman 1598:Maghreb 1596:to the 1578:Lebanon 1500:Armenia 1426:Melqart 1353:talents 1349:satrapy 1182:Timaeus 1102:Solomon 1091:Hiram I 993:Fenekhu 957:Bahrain 924:in the 887:in situ 877:Retjenu 867:Origins 811:History 782:Φοινίκη 772:pūnicus 749:, like 727:crimson 717:phoînix 506:to the 484:Lebanon 290:• 272:• 261:Hiram I 255:• 208:Hiram I 185:• 86:Capital 47:Φοινίκη 18:Fenicia 13282:Mongol 13267:German 13262:French 13252:Danish 13195:Dainam 13170:Tongan 13158:Somali 13153:Sokoto 13119:'Alawi 13097:Kalmyk 13077:Mongol 13070:Second 13050:Korean 13001:Mughal 12991:Indian 12974:German 12967:Second 12957:French 12950:Second 12886:Second 12858:Afghan 12850:Modern 12776:Kyrgyz 12771:Uighur 12766:Second 12746:Turkic 12714:Toltec 12650:Epirus 12635:Nicaea 12558:Mongol 12511:Yamato 12447:Huetar 12305:Second 12242:Rouran 12191:Shunga 12186:Maurya 12161:Kushan 12134:Median 12112:Hunnic 12070:Harsha 11880:Aeneid 11596:Viking 11577:Regina 11346:Alkedo 11202:Abydos 11176:Wrecks 11045:Topics 10875:Piracy 10829:Greece 10689:Odisha 10621:Actium 10616:Mycale 10451:Navies 10340:Greece 10330:Olmecs 10298:Pandya 10273:Minoan 10236:Champa 10216:Lapita 10161:Remote 10081:Tyndis 10036:Quilon 9981:Muscat 9946:Lothal 9941:Korkai 9925:Jeddah 9899:Essina 9843:Adulis 9753:Charts 9688:Harpax 9678:Corvus 9652:Square 9620:Settee 9615:Lateen 9524:Tiller 9519:Strake 9487:Rudder 9477:Paddle 9425:Anchor 9404:Towing 9326:Bireme 9259:Galley 9234:Bangka 9072:Djerba 9068:Meninx 9053:Lepcis 9037:Sousse 9002:Ugarit 8992:Shuksi 8987:Safita 8982:Paltus 8890:Málaga 8886:Malake 8831:Abdera 8814:Tavira 8696:Likush 8650:Mtarfa 8587:Lepcis 8526:Beirut 8421:Karaly 8345:Reshef 8335:Michal 8320:Achzib 8313:Israel 8299:Rhodes 8282:Greece 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