135:
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Fumaroles are normally associated with the late stages of volcanic activity, although they may also precede volcanic activity and have been used to predict volcanic eruptions. In particular, changes in the composition and temperature of fumarole gases may point to an imminent eruption. An increase in
252:
sulfur oxide emissions is a particularly robust indication that new magma is rising from the depths, and may be detectable months to years before the eruption. Continued sulfur oxide emissions after an eruption is an indication that magma is continuing to rise towards the surface.
174:, but no liquid or solid material. The temperature of the gases leaving the vent ranges from about 100 to 1,000 °C (210 to 1,800 °F). The steam forms when groundwater is superheated by hot rock, then flashes (boils due to depressurization) as it approaches the surface.
1464:
Tamburello, G.; Hansteen, T. H.; Bredemeyer, S.; Aiuppa, A.; Tassi, F. (28 July 2014). "Gas emissions from five volcanoes in northern Chile and implications for the volatiles budget of the
Central Volcanic Zone: Volatiles budget of the CVZ, Chile".
290:
Fumaroles may persist for decades or centuries if located above a persistent heat source; or they may disappear within weeks to months if they occur atop a fresh volcanic deposit that quickly cools. The
64:. Most fumaroles die down within a few days or weeks of the end of an eruption, but a few are persistent, lasting for decades or longer. An area containing fumaroles is known as a
1118:
389:. Sulfur crystals at Sulfur Banks near Kilauea can grow to 2 centimeters (0.8 in) in length, and considerable sulfur has been deposited at Sulfur Cone within
79:
through heated rock. This is typically accompanied by volcanic gases given off by magma cooling deep below the surface. These volcanic gases include
1578:
Symonds, R.B.; Mizutani, Y.; Briggs, Paul H. (1996). "Long-term geochemical surveillance of fumaroles at Showa-Shinzan dome, Usu volcano, Japan".
307:
from the eruption, but over time most of them have become extinct. Persistent fumaroles are found at Sulfur Bank on the northern edge of the
1700:
1181:
Simpson, Mark P.; Bignall, Greg (January 2016). "Undeveloped high-enthalpy geothermal fields of the Taupo
Volcanic Zone, New Zealand".
1122:
1553:
197:. These have their origin in magma cooling underground. Not all these gases are present in all fumaroles; for example, fumaroles of
255:
Fumaroles may occur along tiny cracks, along long fissures, or in chaotic clusters or fields. They also occur on the surface of
871:
White, D.E.; Muffler, L.J.P.; Truesdell, A.H. (1971). "Vapor-dominated hydrothermal systems compared with hot-water systems".
1391:
1283:
162:, a domed structure with lateral openings, built over a kitchen to permit the escape of smoke) is an opening in a planet's
106:
Fumarole activity can break down rock around the vent, while simultaneously depositing sulfur and other minerals. Valuable
1099:
240:
can be formed by fumaroles when some of the steam condenses at the surface. Rising acidic vapors from below, such as CO
452:
Sulfur mining in
Indonesia is sometimes done for low pay, by hand, without respirators or other protective equipment.
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795:
765:
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110:
can form beneath fumaroles. However, active fumaroles can be a hazard due to their emission of hot, poisonous gases.
939:
1409:"The Pisciarelli main fumarole mechanisms reconstructed by electrical resistivity and induced polarization imaging"
516:
952:
61:
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in Hawaii, US, contain almost no hydrogen chloride or hydrogen fluoride. The gases may also include traces of
1300:
292:
314:, but most fumaroles in Hawaii last no more than a few months. There are still numerous active fumaroles at
56:
are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of
379:
107:
1019:
The
Novarupta-Katmai eruption of 1912– largest eruption of the twentieth century; centennial perspectives
362:
in the rock and works inwards until the entire joint block is altered. More extreme alteration (at lower
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818:
660:
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The acidic fumes from fumaroles can break down the rock around the vents, producing brightly colored
315:
477:
Fumaroles are found around the world in areas of volcanic activity. A few notable examples include:
1641:
1145:
973:
Neuendorf, Klaus K. E. (2005). Jackson, Julia A.; Mehl, James P.; Neuendorf, Klaus K. E. (eds.).
823:
665:
431:
1666:
R.V.Morris, S.W.Squyres, et al. "The
Hydrothermal System at Home Plate in Gusev Crater, Mars".
1510:
Paola, G. M. (June 1971). "Geology of the
Corbetti Caldera area (Main Ethiopian Rift Valley)".
561:
503:
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785:
673:
491:
99:, and other gases. A fumarole that emits significant sulfur compounds is sometimes called a
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Fumaroles emitting sulfurous vapors form surface deposits of sulfur-rich minerals and of
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20:
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488:, which is now closely monitored because of the hazard it poses to nearby urbanization.
127:
1202:
624:
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Global
Volcanism Program, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution
980:
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888:
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506:, New Zealand, where fumaroles support a unique and critically endangered ecosystem
386:
326:
260:
230:
206:
202:
186:
88:
60:, but fumarole activity can also precede a volcanic eruption and has been used for
1407:
Troiano, A.; Isaia, R.; Tramparulo, F. D. A.; Di
Giuseppe, M. G. (December 2021).
1169:
33:
1383:
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632:
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Yellowstone
National Park has thousands of fumaroles, including Black Growler at
463:
in
California. The workers were overpowered by an accumulation of toxic fumes (a
417:
401:
359:
346:. At Sulfur Bank near Kilauea, mild alteration reduces the rock to gray to white
218:
163:
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1432:
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48:) is a vent in the surface of the Earth or another rocky planet from which hot
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892:
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1704:. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 300–301.
1689:
1343:
1326:
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435:
331:
182:
84:
1270:. History of Mechanism and Machine Science. Vol. 31. pp. 111–130.
570:, is suspected to be the eroded remains of an ancient and extinct fumarole.
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28:
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910:(Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute.
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760:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 70.
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335:
237:
1077:
700:(2nd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 53–55.
1613:
584:
509:
390:
351:
296:
1374:
Carrabba, Paola (2010). "The Gate of Hades: The Phlegraean Fields".
696:
Macdonald, Gordon A.; Abbott, Agatin T.; Peterson, Frank L. (1983).
1266:
Ferrara, Vincenzo (2016). "The Sulphur Mining Industry in Sicily".
520:
484:, Italy, known since ancient times and regarded as the entrance to
210:
1463:
500:, Ethiopia, where a geothermal power station is under construction
444:, which had a near-monopoly on sulfur prior to development of the
19:"Solfatara" redirects here. For the volcanic crater in Italy, see
1406:
594:
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caldera. Places in which these deposits have been mined include:
311:
308:
283:. When they occur in freezing environments, fumaroles may cause
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S, will then dissolve, creating steam-heated low-pH hot springs.
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303:. Initially, thousands of fumaroles occurred in the cooling
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In addition to steam, gases released by fumaroles include
171:
318:, US, some 70,000 years after the most recent eruption.
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695:
363:
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of the rock still discernible. Alteration begins along
979:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 257.
295:, for example, was formed during the 1912 eruption of
1577:
870:
790:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 47.
1021:. Reston: USGS Professional Paper 1791. p. 135.
728:(Fourth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
719:
717:
1217:"Eruption on Whakaari White Island kills 10 people"
1025:
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751:
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747:
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691:
689:
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685:
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1299:Hymon, Steve; Covarrubias, Amanda (9 April 2006).
1119:"The Struggle and Strain of Mining "Devil's Gold""
811:
653:
652:
1009:
714:
698:Volcanoes in the sea : the geology of Hawaii
438:, New Zealand (mined from the 1880s to the 1930s)
321:
1710:
1298:
742:
680:
1268:Essays on the History of Mechanical Engineering
838:
758:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
1580:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1180:
1094:
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617:
455:In April 2006 fumarole emissions killed three
71:The predominant vapor emitted by fumaroles is
1324:
755:
1325:Cantrell, Lee; Young, Michael (March 2009).
1100:"Kawah Ijen: Between potential & threat"
864:
779:
777:
756:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
1089:
906:Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "fumarole".
1301:"How Routine Turned to Tragedy at Mammoth"
726:A dictionary of geology and earth sciences
1486:
1440:
1342:
998:fumarole field A group of cool fumaroles.
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783:
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1684:Sulfur Mining on Gunung Welirang Volcano
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1143:
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378:. The same process can produce valuable
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133:
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27:
1331:Wilderness & Environmental Medicine
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528:, São Miguel Island, Azores (Portugal)
469:) in a crevasse they had fallen into.
1509:
1327:"Fatal Fall into a Volcanic Fumarole"
1121:. National Geographic. Archived from
1117:Dukehart, Coburn (17 November 2015).
1084:Macdonald, Abbott & Peterson 1983
1003:
16:Volcanic opening that emits hot gases
924:
832:participating institution membership
674:participating institution membership
625:"fumerole – Definition and meaning"
13:
1614:"Morne Trois Pitons National Park"
1376:Natural Heritage from East to West
448:for mining sulfur from salt domes.
14:
1730:
1677:
1203:10.1016/j.geothermics.2015.08.006
1558:Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research
938: This article incorporates
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517:Morne Trois Pitons National Park
374:to produce red to reddish-brown
122:Sampling gases at a fumarole on
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1063:Yellowstone Geology and History
1037:Volcanic Features and Landforms
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953:United States Geological Survey
784:Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2004).
535:and numerous fumaroles dotting
279:release gases or interact with
75:, formed by the circulation of
850:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
804:
646:
629:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
472:
322:Economic resources and hazards
225:gases can be referred to as a
113:
1:
1668:Lunar & Planetary Science
1059:"Summary of Eruption History"
610:
293:Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes
108:hydrothermal mineral deposits
1648:. U.S. National Park Service
1600:10.1016/0377-0273(96)00029-7
1467:Geophysical Research Letters
1384:10.1007/978-3-642-01577-9_24
560:, which was examined by the
271:and gas vents where shallow
7:
1276:10.1007/978-3-319-22680-4_8
573:
459:workers east of Chair 3 at
83:compounds, such as various
10:
1737:
1433:10.1038/s41598-021-97413-1
1242:"Disaster at White Island"
543:
366:) reduces the material to
236:, "sulfur"). Acid-sulfate
18:
1646:Yellowstone National Park
1146:"Welirang volcano photos"
893:10.2113/gsecongeo.66.1.75
819:Oxford English Dictionary
661:Oxford English Dictionary
461:Mammoth Mountain Ski Area
380:hydrothermal ore deposits
316:Yellowstone National Park
1344:10.1580/08-WEME-CR-199.1
1065:. U.S. Geological Survey
724:Allaby, Michael (2013).
515:Valley of Desolation in
424:, New Zealand (mined by
221:. A fumarole that emits
1701:Encyclopædia Britannica
1642:"Hydrothermal Features"
1512:Bulletin Volcanologique
1039:. National Park Service
824:Oxford University Press
666:Oxford University Press
548:The formation known as
432:Whakaari / White Island
1246:New Zealand Geographic
1144:Pfeiffer, Tom (2006).
940:public domain material
562:Mars Exploration Rover
339:
147:
131:
37:
492:Central Volcanic Zone
329:
137:
121:
31:
1479:10.1002/2014GL060653
1378:. pp. 193–200.
412:San Pedro de Atacama
285:fumarolic ice towers
1592:1996JVGR...73..177S
1524:1971BVol...35..497D
1425:2021NatSR..1118639T
1195:2016Geoth..59..325S
1106:. 19 December 2011.
976:Glossary of Geology
949:USGS Photo Glossary
908:Glossary of geology
885:1971EcGeo..66...75W
822:(Online ed.).
664:(Online ed.).
533:Norris Geyser Basin
504:Taupō Volcanic Zone
62:eruption prediction
21:Solfatara (volcano)
1532:10.1007/BF02596970
1413:Scientific Reports
354:with the original
340:
148:
132:
38:
1473:(14): 4961–4969.
1393:978-3-642-01576-2
1305:Los Angeles Times
1285:978-3-319-22679-8
1221:nzhistory.govt.nz
1150:Volcano Discovery
852:. Merriam-Webster
830:(Subscription or
672:(Subscription or
590:Hydrothermal vent
387:fumarole minerals
344:alteration haloes
195:hydrogen fluoride
191:hydrogen chloride
97:hydrogen fluoride
93:hydrogen chloride
58:volcanic activity
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537:Roaring Mountain
498:Corbetti Caldera
207:carbon disulfide
203:carbonyl sulfide
187:hydrogen sulfide
91:, and sometimes
89:hydrogen sulfide
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1125:on 9 April 2021
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418:Mount Tongariro
402:Arjuno-Welirang
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219:carbon monoxide
130:, United States
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1692:, ed. (1911).
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1011:Hildreth, W.
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580:Boiling Lake
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554:Gusev Crater
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32:Fumarole at
25:
1670:XXXIX(2008)
1554:"Fumaroles"
1488:10447/99158
1189:: 325–346.
1183:Geothermics
1033:"Fumaroles"
856:20 February
846:"Solfatara"
813:"solfatara"
605:Mud volcano
473:Occurrences
428:until 1950)
404:, Indonesia
372:iron oxides
281:groundwater
261:pyroclastic
238:hot springs
124:Mount Baker
114:Description
77:groundwater
1251:26 October
1226:26 October
958:6 February
945:"Fumarole"
917:0922152349
834:required.)
707:0824808320
676:required.)
655:"fumarole"
611:References
550:Home Plate
457:ski-patrol
398:Kawah Ijen
382:at depth.
336:Kawah Ijen
259:flows and
229:(from old
128:Washington
1719:Fumaroles
1540:130428510
1361:207182190
787:Volcanism
585:Cold seep
510:Mount Usu
391:Mauna Loa
352:kaolinite
297:Novarupta
263:flows. A
227:solfatara
223:sulfurous
160:fumerolle
101:solfatara
36:, Bolivia
1713:Category
1497:55877335
1451:34545113
1353:19364170
1017:(2012).
574:See also
521:Dominica
414:in Chile
211:hydrogen
156:fumerole
152:fumarole
46:fumerole
42:fumarole
1652:1 March
1626:28 July
1588:Bibcode
1563:1 March
1520:Bibcode
1442:8452721
1421:Bibcode
1191:Bibcode
1155:1 March
1129:1 March
1069:1 March
1043:1 March
881:Bibcode
595:Mofetta
544:On Mars
512:, Japan
434:in the
356:texture
312:caldera
309:Kilauea
275:or hot
231:Italian
215:methane
199:Kilauea
146:, Italy
140:Vulcano
1622:. 1997
1619:UNESCO
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992:6 June
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638:4 June
600:Mudpot
567:Spirit
564:(MER)
526:Furnas
466:mazuku
442:Sicily
360:joints
301:Alaska
193:, and
144:Sicily
81:sulfur
54:vapors
1536:S2CID
1493:S2CID
1357:S2CID
1310:9 May
942:from
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670:
426:Māori
410:near
273:magma
244:and H
234:solfo
217:, or
172:gases
168:steam
164:crust
73:steam
1654:2022
1628:2020
1565:2022
1447:PMID
1388:ISBN
1349:PMID
1312:2011
1280:ISBN
1253:2021
1228:2021
1157:2022
1131:2022
1071:2022
1045:2022
994:2015
981:ISBN
960:2019
912:ISBN
858:2020
792:ISBN
762:ISBN
730:ISBN
702:ISBN
640:2023
558:Mars
486:Hell
400:and
376:clay
370:and
350:and
348:opal
257:lava
170:and
154:(or
87:and
52:and
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1596:doi
1528:doi
1483:hdl
1475:doi
1437:PMC
1429:doi
1380:doi
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