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combat this. Nevertheless, with the view to keep people as safe and healthy as possible, the children being top priority, we need to temporarily evacuate the citizens in the nearest towns of Kiev region. For these reasons, starting from 27 April 1986, 14:00 each apartment block will be able to have a bus at its disposal, supervised by the police and the city officials. It is highly advisable to take your documents, some vital personal belongings and a certain amount of food, just in case, with you. The senior executives of public and industrial facilities of the city has decided on the list of employees needed to stay in
Pripyat to maintain these facilities in a good working order. All the houses will be guarded by the police during the evacuation period. Comrades, leaving your residences temporarily please make sure you have turned off the lights, electrical equipment and water and shut the windows. Please keep calm and orderly in the process of this short-term evacuation.
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in neutron density was recorded in the sub-reactor space, before levelling off in early 2021. This indicated increasing levels of fission as water levels dropped, the opposite of what had been expected, and atypical compared to other fuel-containing areas. The fluctuations have led to fears that a self-sustaining reaction could be created, which would likely spread more radioactive dust and debris throughout the New Safe
Confinement, making future cleanup even more difficult. Potential solutions include using a robot to drill into the fuel and insert boron carbide control rods. In early 2021, a ChNPP press release stated that the observed increase in neutron densities had leveled off since the beginning of that year.
4251:), but it was only in the tragic days following the Chernobyl disaster that glasnost began to change from an official slogan into an everyday practice. The truth about Chernobyl that eventually hit the newspapers opened the way to a more truthful examination of other social problems. More and more articles were written about drug abuse, crime, corruption and the mistakes of leaders of various ranks. A wave of 'bad news' swept over the readers in 1986–87, shaking the consciousness of society. Many were horrified to find out about the numerous calamities of which they had previously had no idea. It often seemed to people that there were many more outrages in the epoch of
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200:
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877:
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affected has decreased since 1986. Northern
Ireland was released from all restrictions in 2000, and by 2009, 369 farms containing around 190,000 sheep remained under the restrictions in Wales, Cumbria, and northern Scotland. The restrictions applying in Scotland were lifted in 2010, while those applying to Wales and Cumbria were lifted during 2012, meaning no farms in the UK remain restricted because of Chernobyl. The legislation used to control sheep movement and compensate farmers was revoked during 2012, by the relevant authorities in the UK.
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1799:. It was feared that if this mixture melted through the floor into the pool of water, the resulting steam production would further contaminate the area or even cause another explosion, ejecting more radioactive material. It became necessary to drain the pool. These fears ultimately proved unfounded, since corium began dripping harmlessly into the flooded bubbler pools before the water could be removed. The molten fuel hit the water and cooled into a light-brown ceramic pumice, whose low density allowed it to float on the water's surface.
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1312:, a combustible material, had been used in the construction of the roof of the reactor building and the turbine hall. Ejected material ignited at least five fires on the roof of the adjacent reactor No. 3, which was still operating. It was imperative to put out those fires and protect the cooling systems of reactor No. 3. Inside reactor No. 3, the chief of the night shift, Yuri Bagdasarov, wanted to shut down the reactor immediately, but chief engineer Nikolai Fomin would not allow this. The operators were given
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40:
1979:
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temperature and reduced the existing steam voids in the core. Because water absorbs neutrons better than steam, the neutron flux and reactivity decreased. The operators responded by removing more manual control rods to maintain power. It was around this time that the number of control rods inserted in the reactor fell below the required value of 15. This was not apparent to the operators, because the RBMK did not have any instruments capable of calculating the inserted rod worth in real time.
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little or no role in the progression or consequences of the accident. The red glow observed during the
Chernobyl accident was the expected color of luminescence for graphite at 700°C and not a large-scale graphite fire, as some have incorrectly assumed." Similarly, nuclear physicist Yevgeny Velikhov, noted some two weeks after the accident, "Until now the possibility of a catastrophe really did exist: A great quantity of fuel and graphite of the reactor was in an
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1990:
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1458:(INSAG) in 1985. INSAG produced two significant reports on Chernobyl: INSAG-1 in 1986, and a revised report, INSAG-7, in 1992. According to INSAG-1, the main cause of the accident was the operators' actions, but according to INSAG-7, the main cause was the reactor's design. Both reports identified an inadequate "safety culture" (INSAG-1 coined the term) at all managerial and operational levels as a major underlying factor.
3197:/L, allowing most water to be reported as safe. Officially it was stated that all contaminants had settled to the bottom "in an insoluble phase" and would not dissolve for 800–1000 years. A year after the accident it was announced that even the water of the Chernobyl plant's cooling pond was within acceptable norms. Despite this, two months after the disaster the Kiev water supply was switched from the Dnieper to the
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1882:"sarcophagus"—a concrete structure that would entomb the reactor and reduce radioactive dust being released. The initial plan was to use robots to clear the roof. The Soviets used approximately 60 remote-controlled robots, most of them built in the Soviet Union. Many failed due to the difficult terrain, combined with the effect of high radiation fields on their batteries and electronic controls. In 1987,
1260:—a short half-life isotope—four days after the explosion. This meant that a nuclear event in the reactor may have ejected xenon to higher altitudes in the atmosphere than the later fire did, allowing widespread movement of xenon to remote locations. This was an alternative to the more accepted explanation of a positive-feedback power excursion where the reactor disassembled itself by steam explosion.
2437:. On 28 April, workers at the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant, 1,100 km (680 mi) from Chernobyl, were found with radioactive particles on their clothing. Sweden's elevated radioactivity levels, detected at noon on 28 April, were traced back to the western Soviet Union. Meanwhile, Finland also detected rising radiation levels, but a civil service strike delayed the response and publication.
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reactor. Several minutes elapsed before the reactor was restored to 160 MW at 00:39, at which point most control rods were at their upper limits, but the rod configuration was still within its normal operating limit, with
Operational Reactivity Margin (ORM) equivalent to having more than 15 rods inserted. Over the next twenty minutes, reactor power would be increased further to 200 MW.
4855:На АЭС с реакторами РБМК-1000 используется выбег главных циркуляционных насосов (ГЦН) как самозащита при внезапном исчезновении электропитания собственных нужд (СН). Пока не включится резервное питание, циркуляция может осуществляться за счет выбега. С этой целью для увеличения продолжительности выбега, на валу электродвигателя –привода ГЦН установлен маховик с достаточно большой маховой массой.
3548:, with half-lives of 8 days, 2.07 years, 30.2 years and 28.8 years respectively. The iodine was initially viewed with less alarm than the other isotopes, because of its short half-life, but it is highly volatile and appears to have travelled furthest and caused the most severe health problems. Strontium is the least volatile and of main concern in the areas near Chernobyl.
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1116:, each of which had a graphite neutron moderator section attached to its end to boost reactor output by displacing water when the control rod section had been fully withdrawn from the reactor. That is, when a control rod was at maximum extraction, a neutron-moderating graphite extension was centered in the core with 1.25 metres (4.1 ft) columns of water above and below it.
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3854:, the Soviet Union spent 18 billion Rbls ($ 5.9 billion in today's dollars) on containment and decontamination, virtually bankrupting itself. In 2005, the total cost over 30 years for Belarus was estimated at US$ 235 billion. Gorbachev later wrote that "the nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl...was perhaps the real cause of the collapse of the Soviet Union."
800:, but they took 60–75 seconds to reach full load and generate the 5.5 MW needed to run one main pump. Special counterweights on each pump provided coolant via inertia to bridge the gap to generator startup. However, a potential safety risk existed in the event that a station blackout occurred simultaneously with the rupture of a coolant pipe. In this scenario the
2946:. Reports from Soviet and Western scientists indicate that the Belarusian SSR received about 60% of the contamination that fell on the former Soviet Union. However, the 2006 TORCH report stated that up to half of the volatile particles had actually landed outside the former USSR area currently making up Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. An unconnected large area in
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evacuation of the area. At first it was assumed that the roof collapsed because of the weight of snow, however the amount of snow was not exceptional, and the report of a
Ukrainian fact-finding panel concluded that the collapse was the result of sloppy repair work and aging of the structure. Experts warned the sarcophagus itself was on the verge of collapse.
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1686:, which determined that the radiation had originated elsewhere. That day, the Swedish government contacted the Soviet government to inquire about whether there had been a nuclear accident in the Soviet Union. The Soviets initially denied it. It was only after the Swedish government suggested they were about to file an official alert with the
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75% of the land was under cultivation, even though only a third of the evacuated villages were resettled. Defence forces must have done much of the work. Yet this land was of marginal agricultural value. According to David
Marples, the administration wished to forestall panic regarding nuclear energy, and even to restart the power station.
3759:. More than 4,000 cases of childhood thyroid cancer were reported, but there was no evidence of increased solid cancers or leukemia. The WHO's Radiation Program reported nine deaths out of the 4,000 thyroid cancer cases. By 2005, UNSCEAR reported an excess of over 6,000 thyroid cancer cases among those exposed as children or adolescents.
1092:(emergency shutdown) of the reactor was initiated as the experiment was wrapping-up. The scram was started when the AZ-5 button of the reactor emergency protection system was pressed: this engaged the drive mechanism on all control rods to fully insert them, including the manual control rods that had been withdrawn earlier.
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only 18 of Norway's municipalities, a decrease from the 35 municipalities in 2011 and the 117 municipalities affected during 1986. The after-effects of
Chernobyl on the mountain lamb industry in Norway were expected to be seen for a further 100 years, although the severity of the effects would decline over that period.
3343:-rich clay soils, many marshy areas of Ukraine had the highest soil to dairy-milk transfer coefficients, of soil activity in ~ 200 kBq/m to dairy milk activity in Bq/L, that had ever been reported, with the transfer, from initial land activity into milk activity, ranging from 0.3 to 20 times that which was on the soil.
1331:. They were not told how dangerously radioactive the smoke and the debris were, and may not even have known that the accident was anything more than a regular electrical fire: "We didn't know it was the reactor. No one had told us." Grigorii Khmel, the driver of one of the fire engines, later described what happened:
4243:"No one believed the first newspaper reports, which patently understated the scale of the catastrophe and often contradicted one another. The confidence of readers was re-established only after the press was allowed to examine the events in detail without the original censorship restrictions. The policy of openness (
4136:(2015) is a documentary about three women who decided to return to the exclusion zone after the disaster. In the documentary, the Babushkas show the polluted water, their food from radioactive gardens, and explain how they manage to survive in this exclusion zone despite the radioactive levels. The documentary
3323:, a species of fungus that has thrived in the Chernobyl contaminated area, has been investigated for the purpose of using the fungus' particular melanin to protect against high-radiation environments, such as space travel. The disaster has been described by lawyers, academics and journalists as an example of
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from units 1 and 2 were damaged and required special handling. Moving fuel to ISF-1 was thus carried out in three stages: fuel from unit 3 was moved first, then all undamaged fuel from units 1 and 2, and finally the damaged fuel from units 1 and 2. Fuel transfers to ISF-1 were completed in June 2016.
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object began after mid-May 1986. The State
Commission decided on the long-term conservation of the fourth unit of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in order to prevent the release of radionuclides into the environment and to reduce the influence of penetrating radiation at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power
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Well-differentiated thyroid cancers are generally treatable, with a five-year survival rate of 96% and 92% after 30 years. By 2011, UNSCEAR reported 15 deaths from thyroid cancer. The IAEA states that there has been no increase in birth defects, solid cancers, or other abnormalities, corroborating UN
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The mutation rates among animals in the
Chernobyl zone have been a topic of ongoing scientific debate, notably regarding the research conducted by Anders Moller and Timothy Mousseau. Their research, which suggests higher mutation rates among wildlife in the Chernobyl zone, has been met with criticism
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Soon after the accident, the reactor building was quickly encased by a mammoth concrete sarcophagus. Crane operators worked blindly from inside lead-lined cabins taking instructions from distant radio observers, while gargantuan-sized pieces of concrete were moved to the site on custom-made vehicles.
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The surveying and detection of isolated fallout hotspots outside this zone over the following year eventually resulted in 135,000 long-term evacuees in total. The years between 1986 and 2000 saw the near tripling in the total number of permanently resettled persons from the most severely contaminated
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Because of the inaccurate low readings, the reactor crew chief Aleksandr Akimov assumed that the reactor was intact. The evidence of pieces of graphite and reactor fuel lying around the building was ignored, and the readings of another dosimeter brought in by 04:30 were dismissed under the assumption
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released after the accident led Sergei A. Pakhomov and Yuri V. Dubasov in 2009 to theorize that the second explosion could have been an extremely fast nuclear power transient resulting from core material melting in the absence of its water coolant and moderator. Pakhomov and Dubasov argued that there
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appears to have been the next event. There is a general understanding that it was explosive steam pressure from the damaged fuel channels escaping into the reactor's exterior cooling structure that caused the explosion that destroyed the reactor casing, tearing off and blasting the upper plate called
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in 1983 induced a power spike. Procedural countermeasures were not implemented in response to Ignalina. The IAEA investigative report INSAG-7 later stated, "Apparently, there was a widespread view that the conditions under which the positive scram effect would be important would never occur. However,
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The personnel had intended to shut down using the AZ-5 button in preparation for scheduled maintenance and the scram preceded the sharp increase in power. However, the reason why the button was pressed when it was is not certain, as only the deceased Akimov and Toptunov made that decision, though the
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At 01:23:04, the test began. Four of the eight main circulating pumps (MCP) were to be powered by voltage from the coasting turbine, while the remaining four pumps received electrical power from the grid as normal. The steam to the turbines was shut off, beginning a run-down of the turbine generator.
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that was generated inside the uranium fuel (heat that would normally be extracted by back-up coolant pumps, in an undamaged reactor) was instead responsible for making the fuel itself and any graphite in contact with it, glow red-hot. This is contrary to the often-cited interpretation, which is that
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website: "It is often incorrectly assumed that the combustion behavior of graphite is similar to that of charcoal and coal. Numerous tests and calculations have shown that it is virtually impossible to burn high-purity, nuclear-grade graphites." On Chernobyl, the same source states: "Graphite played
4140:(2006) shows rare original footage a day before the disaster in the city of Pripyat, then through different methods goes in depth on the chronological events that led to the explosion of the reactor No. 4 and the disaster response. The critically acclaimed 2019 historical drama television miniseries
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that by now Chernobyl may have caused about 1000 cases of thyroid cancer and 4000 cases of other cancers in Europe, representing about 0.01% of all incident cancers since the accident. Models predict that by 2065 about 16,000 cases of thyroid cancer and 25,000 cases of other cancers may be expected
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Iodine tends to become concentrated in thyroid and milk glands, leading, among other things, to increased incidence of thyroid cancers. The total ingested dose was largely from iodine and, unlike the other fission products, rapidly found its way from dairy farms to human ingestion. Similarly in dose
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fell across parts of Northern Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and northern England. In the immediate aftermath of the disaster, the movement of a total of 4,225,000 sheep was restricted across a total of 9,700 farms, to prevent contaminated meat entering the human food chain. The number of sheep and farms
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in Belarus and the Bryansk region of Russia, concentrations in a number of fish species varied from 100 to 60,000 Bq/kg during 1990–1992. The contamination of fish caused short-term concern in parts of the UK and Germany and in the long term in the affected areas of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia
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and construction began in 2010. It is a metal arch 105 metres (344 ft) high and spanning 257 metres (843 ft) built on rails adjacent to the reactor No. 4 building so that it could be slid over the top of the existing sarcophagus. The New Safe Confinement was completed in 2016 and slid
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The solution chosen was to enclose the wrecked reactor by the construction of a huge composite steel and concrete shelter, which became known as the "Sarcophagus". It had to be erected quickly and within the constraints of high levels of ambient gamma radiation. The design started on 20 May 1986, 24
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from the military, wearing protective gear (dubbed "bio-robots"). These soldiers could only spend a maximum of 40–90 seconds working on the rooftops of the surrounding buildings because of the extremely high radiation levels. Only 10% of the debris cleared from the roof was performed by robots;
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phoned her at work at 09:00 to report current affairs; only at the end of the conversation did he add that there had been a fire at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, but it was extinguished and everything was fine. When Shevchenko asked "How are the people?", he replied that there was nothing to be
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The immediate priority was to extinguish fires on the roof of the station and the area around the building containing Reactor No. 4 to protect No. 3. The fires were extinguished by 5:00, but many firefighters received high doses of radiation. The fire inside Reactor No. 4 continued to
1005:
When a power level of 200 MW was reattained, preparation for the experiment continued, although the power level was much lower than the prescribed 700 MW. As part of the test, two additional main circulating pumps were activated at 01:05. The increased coolant flow lowered the overall core
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At 23:04, the Kiev grid controller allowed the reactor shutdown to resume. The day shift had long since departed, the evening shift was also preparing to leave, and the night shift would not take over until midnight, well into the job. According to plan, the test should have been finished during the
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voltage of the turbine-generator was insufficient. The electrical system was modified, and the test was repeated in 1984 but again proved unsuccessful. In 1985, the test was conducted a third time but also yielded no results due to a problem with the recording equipment. The test procedure was to be
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Fred Mettler, a radiation expert, estimated 9,000 Chernobyl-related cancer deaths worldwide, noting that while small relative to normal cancer risks, the numbers are large in absolute terms. The report highlighted the risks to mental health from exaggerated radiation fears, noting that labeling the
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The Chernobyl nuclear power plant is located next to the Pripyat River, which feeds into the Dnieper reservoir system, one of the largest surface water systems in Europe, which at the time supplied water to Kiev's 2.4 million residents, and was still in spring flood when the accident occurred.
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In Western Europe, precautionary measures taken in response to the radiation included banning the importation of certain foods. A 2006 study found contamination was "relatively limited, diminishing from west to east", such that a hunter consuming 40 kilograms of contaminated wild boar in 1997 would
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In April 2020, forest fires spread through 20,000 hectares (49,000 acres) of the exclusion zone, causing increased radiation from the release of caesium-137 and strontium-90 from the ground and biomass. The increase in radioactivity was detectable by the monitoring network but did not pose a threat
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solution was used to quench neutrons to slow the fission. Even after completion of the building, fission reactions may be increasing; scientists are working to understand the cause and risks. While neutron activity has declined across most of the destroyed fuel, from 2017 until late 2020 a doubling
2012:
Helicopters regularly sprayed large areas of contaminated land with "Barda", a sticky polymerizing fluid, designed to entrap radioactive dust. Although a number of radioactive emergency vehicles were buried in trenches, many of the vehicles used by the liquidators still remained, as of 2018, parked
2008:
The official contaminated zones saw a massive clean-up effort lasting seven months. The official reason for such early, and dangerous, decontamination efforts, rather than allowing time for natural decay, was that the land must be repopulated and brought back into cultivation. Within fifteen months
1957:
During the construction of the sarcophagus, a scientific team, as part of an investigation dubbed "Complex Expedition", re-entered the reactor to locate and contain nuclear fuel to prevent another explosion. These scientists manually collected cold fuel rods, but great heat was still emanating from
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The graphite cooling plate and the prior nitrogen injection proposal, were not used following the drop in aerial temperatures and indicative reports that the fuel melt had stopped. It was later determined that the fuel had flowed three floors, with a few cubic meters coming to rest at ground level.
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Two floors of bubbler pools beneath the reactor served as a large water reservoir for the emergency cooling pumps and as a pressure suppression system capable of condensing steam in case of a small broken steam pipe; the third floor above them, below the reactor, served as a steam tunnel. The steam
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and arrived at the power plant in the evening of 26 April. By that time two people had already died and 52 were hospitalized. The delegation soon had ample evidence that the reactor was destroyed and extremely high levels of radiation had caused a number of cases of radiation exposure. In the early
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The nearby city of Pripyat was not immediately evacuated and the townspeople were not alerted during the night to what had just happened. However, within a few hours, dozens of people fell ill. Later, they reported severe headaches and metallic tastes in their mouths, along with uncontrollable fits
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Pakhomov and Dubasov's nuclear fizzle hypothesis was examined in 2017 by Lars-Erik De Geer, Christer Persson and Henning Rodhe, who put the hypothesized fizzle event as the more probable cause of the first explosion. Both analyses argue that the nuclear fizzle event, whether producing the second or
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The combined effect of these various actions was an extremely unstable reactor configuration. Nearly all of the 211 control rods had been extracted, and excessively high coolant flow rates meant that the water had less time to cool between trips through the core, therefore entering the reactor very
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could be used to generate the required electrical power to operate the ECCS via the feedwater pumps. The turbine's speed would run down as energy was taken from it, but analysis indicated that there might be sufficient energy to provide electrical power to run the coolant pumps for 45 seconds. This
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The substance proved too hard for a drill mounted on a motorized trolley, ... Finally, a police marksman arrived and shot a fragment of the surface away with a rifle. The sample revealed that the Elephant's Foot was a solidified mass of silicon dioxide, titanium, zirconium, magnesium, and uranium
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The bulk of work that had been implemented in order to eliminate the consequences of the accident and minimalize the escape of radionuclides into the environment was to construct a protective shell over the destroyed reactor at Chernobyl. work on the construction of a protective shell was the most
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predicts an eventual death toll of up to 4,000 among those exposed to the highest radiation levels (200,000 emergency workers, 116,000 evacuees, and 270,000 residents of the most contaminated areas), including around 50 emergency workers who died shortly after the accident, 15 children who died of
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have passed, is less than 1% of its initial magnitude, and it continues to reduce beyond 0.78% after 7 half-lives to 0.10% remaining after 10 half-lives have passed and so on. Some radionuclides have decay products that are likewise radioactive, which is not accounted for here. The release of
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increased the site popularity and tour operators estimated that 40,000 tourists visited the site between 2007 and 2017. Between 2017 and 2022, over 350,000 tourists visited the site, hitting the maximum peak of almost 125,000 visitors in 2019, coinciding with the release of HBO's mini-series about
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from the wrecked reactor is only 10 kg (22 lb) per year; this low rate of uranium leaching suggests that the lava is resisting its environment. The paper also states that when the shelter is improved, the leaching rate of the lava will decrease. As of 2021, some fuel had already degraded
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Used fuel from units 1–3 was stored in the units' cooling ponds, and in an interim spent fuel storage facility pond, ISF-1, which now holds most of the spent fuel from units 1–3, allowing those reactors to be decommissioned under less restrictive conditions. Approximately 50 of the fuel assemblies
2025:
Questions arose about the future of the plant and its fate. All work on the unfinished reactors No. 5 and No. 6 was halted three years later. The damaged reactor was sealed off and 200 cubic meters (260 cu yd) of concrete was placed between the disaster site and the operational
1932:
With the extinguishing of the open air reactor fire, the next step was to prevent the spread of contamination due to wind or birds which could land within the wreckage and then carry contamination elsewhere. In addition, rainwater could wash contamination into the sub-surface water table, where it
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For the attention of the residents of Pripyat! The City Council informs you that due to the accident at Chernobyl Power Station in the city of Pripyat the radioactive conditions in the vicinity are deteriorating. The Communist Party, its officials and the armed forces are taking necessary steps to
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capable of measuring up to 1,000 R/s was buried in the rubble of a collapsed part of the building, and another one failed when turned on. Most remaining dosimeters had limits of 0.001 R/s and therefore read "off scale". The reactor crew could ascertain only that the radiation levels were
1335:
We arrived there at 10 or 15 minutes to two in the morning ... We saw graphite scattered about. Misha asked: "Is that graphite?" I kicked it away. But one of the fighters on the other truck picked it up. "It's hot," he said. The pieces of graphite were of different sizes, some big, some small
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According to observers outside Unit 4, burning lumps of material and sparks shot into the air above the reactor. Some of them fell onto the roof of the machine hall and started a fire. About 25% of the red-hot graphite blocks and overheated material from the fuel channels was ejected. Parts of the
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The reactor was now producing only 5% of the minimum initial power level prescribed for the test. This low reactivity inhibited the burn-off of xenon-135 within the reactor core and hindered the rise of reactor power. To increase power, control-room personnel removed numerous control rods from the
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When the reactor power had decreased to approximately 500 MW, the reactor power control was switched from local automatic regulator to the automatic regulators, to manually maintain the required power level. AR-1 then activated, removing all four of AR-1's control rods automatically, but AR-2
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per kilogram deemed suitable for human consumption. This contamination was due to residual radioactivity from Chernobyl in the mountain plants they graze on in the wild during the summer. 1,914 sheep required uncontaminated feed for a time before slaughter during 2012, with these sheep located in
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that consume these "deer truffles" are contaminated at higher levels than their environment's soil. Given that nuclear weapons release a higher C/C ratio than nuclear reactors, the high C content in these boars suggests that their radiological contamination can be largely attributed to the Soviet
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glands were destroyed by radiation doses of 150–200 Sv. Some cattle on the same island died and those that survived were stunted. The next generation appeared to be normal. The mutation rates for plants and animals have increased by a factor of 20 because of the release of radionuclides from
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celebrations in Kiev. On 30 April a meeting of the Political bureau of the Central Committee of the CPSU took place to discuss the plan for the celebration. Scientists were reporting that the radiological background level in Kiev was normal. It was decided to shorten celebrations from the regular
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A test procedure had been written, but the authors were not aware of the unusual RBMK-1000 reactor behaviour under the planned operating conditions. It was regarded as purely an electrical test of the generator, even though it involved critical unit systems. According to the existing regulations,
705:(ARS); 28 of them died within three months. Over the next decade, 14 more workers (nine of whom had ARS) died of various causes mostly unrelated to radiation exposure. It is the only instance in commercial nuclear power history where radiation-related fatalities occurred. As of 2011, 15 childhood
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No significant evidence of changes in the prevalence of congenital anomalies linked to the accident has been found in Belarus or Ukraine. In Sweden and Finland, studies found no association between radioactivity and congenital malformations. Larger studies, such as the EUROCAT database, assessed
2067:
The concrete sarcophagus was never intended to last very long, with a lifespan of only 30 years. On 12 February 2013, a 600 m (6,500 sq ft) section of the roof of the turbine-building collapsed, adjacent to the sarcophagus, causing a new release of radioactivity and temporary
1641:
To expedite the evacuation, residents were told to bring only what was necessary, and that they would remain evacuated for approximately three days. As a result, most personal belongings were left behind, and residents were only allowed to recover certain items after months had passed. By 15:00,
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A significant impact was the removal of 784,320 ha (1,938,100 acres) of agricultural land and 694,200 ha (1,715,000 acres) of forest from production. While much has been returned to use, agricultural costs have risen due to the need for special cultivation techniques. Politically, the
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are a perennial concern in areas contaminated by radioactive material. Dry conditions and build-up of debris make the forests a ripe breeding ground for wildfires. Depending on prevailing atmospheric conditions, smoke from wildfires could potentially spread more radioactive material outside the
1944:
The construction workers had to be protected from radiation, and techniques such as crane drivers working from lead-lined control cabins were employed. The construction work included erecting walls around the perimeter, clearing and surface concreting the surrounding ground to remove sources of
1881:
In the months after the explosion, attention turned to removing the radioactive debris from the roof. While the worst of the radioactive debris had remained inside what was left of the reactor, an estimated 100 tons of debris on that roof had to be removed to enable the safe construction of the
1859:
were deployed to excavate a tunnel below the reactor to make room for a cooling system. The final makeshift design for the cooling system was to incorporate a coiled formation of pipes cooled with water and covered on top with a thin thermally conductive graphite layer. The graphite layer would
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Furitsu, Katsumi; Ryo, Haruko; Yeliseeva, Klaudiya G.; Thuy, Le Thi Thanh; Kawabata, Hiroaki; Krupnova, Evelina V.; Trusova, Valentina D.; Rzheutsky, Valery A.; Nakajima, Hiroo; Kartel, Nikolai; Nomura, Taisei (2005). "Microsatellite mutations show no increases in the children of the Chernobyl
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stated that between five and seven percent of government spending in Ukraine is still related to Chernobyl, while in Belarus, over $ 13 billion was spent between 1991 and 2003. In 2018, Ukraine spent five to seven percent of its national budget on recovery activities. The economic loss is
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By 2000, the number of Ukrainians claiming radiation-related "sufferer" status reached 3.5 million, or 5% of the population, many of whom were resettled from contaminated zones or former Chernobyl workers. Increased medical surveillance after the accident led to higher recorded rates of benign
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of other materials within them. The porous lava is brown lava that dropped into water and thus cooled rapidly. It is unclear how long the ceramic form will retard the release of radioactivity. From 1997 to 2002, a series of published papers suggested that the self-irradiation of the lava would
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The disaster occurred while running a test to simulate cooling the reactor during an accident in blackout conditions. The operators carried out the test despite an accidental drop in reactor power, and due to a design issue, attempting to shut down the reactor in those conditions resulted in a
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This explosion ruptured further fuel channels, as well as severing most of the coolant lines feeding the reactor chamber. As a result, the remaining coolant flashed to steam and escaped the reactor core. The total water loss combined with a high positive void coefficient further increased the
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continued, the reactor output jumped to around 30,000 MW thermal, 10 times its normal operational output, the indicated last reading on the control panel. Some estimate the power spike may have gone 10 times higher than that. It was not possible to reconstruct the precise sequence of the
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released its report about the disaster. Shevchenko was the first of the Ukrainian state top officials to arrive at the disaster site early on 28 April. She returned home near midnight, stopping at a radiological checkpoint in Vilcha, one of the first that were set up soon after the accident.
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Consequently, injecting a control rod downward into the reactor in a scram initially displaced neutron-absorbing water in the lower portion of the reactor with neutron-moderating graphite. Thus, an emergency scram could initially increase the reaction rate in the lower part of the core. This
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At first, the Soviets only conceded that a minor accident had occurred, but once they began evacuating more than 100,000 people, the full scale of the situation was realized by the global community. At 21:02 the evening of 28 April, a 20-second announcement was read in the TV news programme
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onto the burning reactor. It is now known that virtually none of these materials reached the core. Historians estimate that about 600 Soviet pilots risked dangerous levels of radiation to fly the thousands of flights needed to cover reactor No. 4 in this attempt to seal off radiation.
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was present to conduct the electrical test once the correct conditions were reached. As planned, a gradual reduction in the output of the power unit began at 01:06 on 25 April, and the power level had reached 50% of its nominal 3,200 MW thermal level by the beginning of the day shift.
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In October 1991, a fire occurred in the turbine building of reactor No. 2; the authorities subsequently declared the reactor damaged beyond repair, and it was taken offline. Reactor No. 1 was decommissioned in November 1996 as part of a deal between the Ukrainian government and
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examinations on inhabitants in otherwise comparatively lightly contaminated regions with good prospects for recovery. This was to determine the effect of banning local food and using only food imports on the internal body burden of radionuclides in inhabitants. Concurrent agricultural
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Soon, the day shift was replaced by the evening shift. Despite the delay, the emergency core cooling system was left disabled. This system had to be disconnected via a manual isolating slide valve, which in practice meant that two or three people spent the whole shift manually turning
1966:" for its wrinkled appearance. It was composed of melted sand, concrete, and a large amount of nuclear fuel that had escaped from the reactor. The concrete beneath the reactor was steaming hot, and was breached by now-solidified lava and spectacular unknown crystalline forms termed
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that the new dosimeter must have been defective. Akimov stayed in the reactor building until morning, sending members of his crew to try to pump water into the reactor. None of them wore any protective gear. Most, including Akimov, died from radiation exposure within three weeks.
1169:. This explosion compromised more of the reactor containment vessel and ejected hot lumps of graphite moderator. The ejected graphite and the demolished channels still in the remains of the reactor vessel caught fire on exposure to air, significantly contributing to the spread of
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Subsequent research on microorganisms, while limited, suggests that in the aftermath of the disaster, bacterial and viral specimens exposed to the radiation underwent rapid changes. Activations of soil micromycetes have been reported. A paper in 1998 reported the discovery of an
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radiation and to allow access for large construction machinery, constructing a thick radiation shielding wall to protect the workers in reactor No. 3, fabricating a high-rise buttress to strengthen parts of the old structure, constructing an overall roof, and provisioning a
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Of the 440,350 wild boar killed in the 2010 hunting season in Germany, approximately one thousand were contaminated with levels of radiation above the permitted limit of 600 becquerels of caesium per kilogram, of dry weight, due to residual radioactivity from Chernobyl. Because
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A study by Greenpeace estimated 10,000–200,000 additional deaths in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine from 1990 to 2004. The report was criticized for relying on non-peer-reviewed studies, while Gregory Härtl, a WHO spokesman, suggested its conclusions were ideologically motivated.
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ISF-2 is the world's largest nuclear fuel storage facility, expected to hold more than 21,000 fuel assemblies for at least 100 years. The project includes a processing facility able to cut the RBMK fuel assemblies and to place the material in canisters, to be filled with
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were used when cultivation did occur, to further reduce the soil to human transfer as much as possible. The expected highest body activity was in the first few years, where the unabated ingestion of local food resulted in the transfer of activity from soil to body. After the
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worldwide, and while most concern was focused on those of the same unusual design, hundreds of disparate nuclear reactor proposals, including those under construction at Chernobyl, reactors numbers 5 and 6, were eventually cancelled. With ballooning costs as a result of new
3512:, suggests no statistically significant increase in solid cancer incidence among rescue workers. However, childhood thyroid cancer increased, with about 4,000 new cases reported by 2002 in contaminated areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, largely due to high levels of
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than water. Unknown to the operators, the void coefficient was not counterbalanced by other reactivity effects in the given operating regime, meaning that any increase in boiling would produce more steam voids which further intensified the chain reaction, leading to a
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Following the accident, journalists encouraged public mistrust of medical professionals. This media-driven framing led to an increase in induced abortions across Europe out of fears of radiation. An estimated 150,000 elective abortions were performed worldwide due to
3559:. Radiation is most damaging to cells that are actively dividing. In adult mammals cell division is slow, except in hair follicles, skin, bone marrow and the gastrointestinal tract, which is why vomiting and hair loss are common symptoms of acute radiation sickness.
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released by a broken pipe was supposed to enter the steam tunnel and be led into the pools to bubble through a layer of water. After the disaster, the pools and the basement were flooded because of ruptured cooling water pipes and accumulated firefighting water.
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When the AZ-5 button was pressed, the insertion of control rods into the reactor core began. The control rod insertion mechanism moved the rods at 0.4 metres per second (1.3 ft/s), so that the rods took 18 to 20 seconds to travel the full height of the
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The Exclusion Zone was originally an area with a radius of 30 kilometres (19 mi) in all directions from the plant, but was subsequently greatly enlarged to include an area measuring approximately 2,600 km (1,000 sq mi), officially called the
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radiation. These funds were divided among Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia for investigation of health effects. As there was significant corruption in former Soviet countries, most foreign aid was given to Russia, and no results from the funding were demonstrated.
1723:. The mention of a commission also indicated to observers the seriousness of the incident, and subsequent state radio broadcasts were replaced with classical music, which was a common method of preparing the public for an announcement of a tragedy in the USSR.
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The government commission was concerned that the molten core would burn into the earth and contaminate groundwater. To reduce the likelihood of this, it was decided to freeze the earth beneath the reactor, which would also stabilize the foundations. Using oil
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prevent the concrete above from melting. This graphite cooling plate layer was to be encapsulated between two concrete layers, each 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) thick for stabilisation. This graphite-concrete "sandwich" would be similar in concept to later
1700:: "There has been an accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. One of the nuclear reactors was damaged. The effects of the accident are being remedied. Assistance has been provided for any affected people. An investigative commission has been set up."
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3360:, the now reduced scale initiative to monitor human body activity in these regions of Ukraine, recorded a small and gradual half-decade-long rise in internal committed dose before returning to the previous trend of observing lower body counts each year.
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population within the exclusion zone, in which the central conclusion was essentially that "The mutation rate in these animals is hundreds and probably thousands of times greater than normal". This claim occurred after they had done a comparison of the
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Barker, Robert J.; Van Den Bussche, Ronald A.; Wright, Amanda J.; Wiggins, Lara E.; Hamilton, Meredith J.; Reat, Erin P.; Smith, Micheal H.; Lomakin, Micheal D.; Chesser, Ronald K. (April 1996). "High levels of genetic change in rodents of Chernobyl".
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Journeau, Christophe; Boccaccio, Eric; Jégou, Claude; Piluso, Pascal; Cognet, Gérard (2001). "Flow and Solidification of Corium in the VULCANO Facility". Engineering case studies online. Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives.
3606:. The statistical data excludes Soviet–Ukraine–Belarus abortion rates, which are unavailable. However, in Denmark, about 400 additional abortions were recorded, and in Greece, an increase of 2,500 terminations occurred despite the low radiation dose.
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graphite blocks and fuel channels were out of the reactor building. As a result of the damage to the building, an airflow through the core was established by the core's high temperature. The air ignited the hot graphite and started a graphite fire.
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state, with a power output of 30 MW thermal or less. The exact circumstances that caused the power drop are unknown. Most reports attribute the power drop to Toptunov's error, but Dyatlov reported that it was due to a fault in the AR-2 system.
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reconstruction, for those evacuated at different times and from various towns, the inhalation dose was dominated by iodine (40%), along with airborne tellurium (20%) and oxides of rubidium (20%) both as equally secondary, appreciable contributors.
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In December 1986, after six months of investigation, the team discovered with the help of a remote camera that an intensely radioactive mass more than 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) wide had formed in the basement of Unit Four. The mass was called
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equipment, injection of liquid nitrogen began on 4 May. It was estimated that 25 tonnes (55 thousand pounds) of liquid nitrogen per day would be required to keep the soil frozen at −100 °C (−148 °F). This idea was quickly scrapped.
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sites in the 30 km (19 mi) exclusion zone around Chernobyl. Although there is a potential for transfer of radionuclides from these disposal sites off-site, the IAEA Chernobyl Report argues that this is not significant in comparison to
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Pröhl, Gerhard; Mück, Konrad; Likhtarev, Ilya; Kovgan, Lina; Golikov, Vladislav (February 2002). "Reconstruction of the ingestion doses received by the population evacuated from the settlements in the 30-km zone around the Chernobyl reactor".
3983:, which "paved the way for reforms leading to the Soviet collapse." Numerous structural and construction quality issues, as well as deviations from the original plant design, had been known to the KGB since at least 1973 and passed on to the
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989:. The control room received repeated emergency signals regarding the low levels in one half of the steam/water separator drums, with accompanying drum separator pressure warnings. In response, personnel triggered rapid influxes of feedwater.
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management at the site is to be fulfilled by a new facility designated ISF-2. This facility is to serve as dry storage for used fuel assemblies from units 1–3 and other operational wastes, as well as material from decommissioning units 1–3.
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The Norwegian Agricultural Authority reported that in 2009, a total of 18,000 livestock in Norway required uncontaminated feed for a period before slaughter, to ensure that their meat had an activity below the government permitted value of
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estimated that Chernobyl may have caused about 1,000 cases of thyroid cancer and 4,000 cases of other cancers in Europe by 2006. By 2065, models predict 16,000 cases of thyroid cancer and 25,000 cases of other cancers due to the accident.
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The purpose of the sarcophagus was to stop any further release of radioactive particles into the atmosphere, isolate the exposed core from the weather and provide safety for the continued operations of adjacent reactors one through three.
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shown as % of thermal power from time of sustained fission shutdown using two different correlations. Due to decay heat, solid fuel power reactors need high flows of coolant after a fission shutdown for a considerable time to prevent
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The only robust evidence of negative pregnancy outcomes linked to the accident were the elective abortion effects due to anxiety. In very high doses, radiation can cause pregnancy anomalies, but the malformation of organs appears to be a
6551:– A Danish nuclear research laboratory announces that an MCA (maximum credible accident) has occurred in the Chernobyl nuclear reactor. They mention a complete meltdown of one of the reactors and that all radioactivity has been released.
6932:[President Petro Poroshenko presented state awards to employees of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant and the liquidators of the consequences of the Chernobyl NPP accident.] (in Russian). Archived from the original on 14 May 2019
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Petrov, Yu. B.; Udalov, Yu. P.; Subrt, J.; Bakardjieva, S.; Sazavsky, P.; Kiselova, M.; Selucky, P.; Bezdicka, P.; Jorneau, C.; Piluso, P. (2009). "Behavior of melts in the UO2-SiO2 system in the liquid-liquid phase separation region".
6543:– Staff at the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant, Sweden, detect a dangerous surge in radioactivity. Initially picked up when a routine check reveals that the soles shoes worn by a radiological safety engineer at the plant were radioactive.
2016:
A unique "clean up" medal was given to the clean-up workers, known as "liquidators". Liquidators worked under deplorable conditions, poorly informed and with poor protection. Many, if not most of them, exceeded radiation safety limits.
2313:(CRDP) for the recovery of affected areas. The programme was initiated in February 2002 based on the recommendations in the report on Human Consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident. The main goal of the CRDP was supporting the
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Instruments did not register the subsequent course of events; it was reconstructed through mathematical simulation. The power spike would have caused an increase in fuel temperature and steam buildup, leading to a rapid increase in
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loop. Given this characteristic, reactor No. 4 was now at risk of a runaway increase in its core power with nothing to restrain it. The reactor was now very sensitive to the regenerative effect of steam voids on reactor power.
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Anatoli Zakharov, a fireman stationed in Chernobyl, offered a different description in 2008: "I remember joking to the others, 'There must be an incredible amount of radiation here. We'll be lucky if we're all still alive in the
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The test plan called for a gradual decrease in reactor power to a thermal level of 700–1000 MW, and an output of 720 MW was reached at 00:05 on 26 April. However, due to the reactor's production of a fission byproduct,
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estimates fewer than 100 deaths have resulted from the fallout. Predictions of the eventual total death toll vary; a 2006 World Health Organization study projected 9,000 cancer-related fatalities in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia.
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This momentary rise is hypothesized to be due to the cessation of the Soviet food imports together with many villagers returning to older dairy food cultivation practices and large increases in wild berry and mushroom foraging.
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A parallel "stalker" subculture of illegal visitors to the zone developed, who roam the area for prolonged periods and some hiking into the zone over 100 times but often without taking appropriate precautions against radiation.
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The test was to be conducted during the day-shift of 25 April 1986 as part of a scheduled reactor shutdown. The day shift had been instructed in advance on the reactor operating conditions to run the test, and a special team of
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Once the bubbler pool gates were opened, fire brigade pumps were then used to drain the basement. The operation was not completed until 8 May, after 20,000 tonnes (20,000 long tons; 22,000 short tons) of water were pumped out.
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In the most affected areas of Ukraine, levels of radioactivity in drinking water caused concern during the weeks and months after the accident. Guidelines for levels of radioiodine in drinking water were temporarily raised to
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illegally returned to their abandoned homes. Most people are retired and survive mainly from farming and packages delivered by visitors. As of 2016, 187 locals had returned to the zone and were living permanently there.
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sailboat-helm-sized valve wheels. The system had no influence on the disaster, but allowing the reactor to run for 11 hours outside of the test without emergency protection was indicative of a general lack of safety culture.
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are two well-known works. The Ukrainian artist Roman Gumanyuk created a series of artworks called "Pripyat Lights, or Chernobyl shadows" that includes 30 oil paintings about the Chernobyl accident, exhibited in 2012–2013.
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was established 36 hours after the accident, initially evacuating around 49,000 people. The exclusion zone was later expanded to 30 kilometres (19 mi), resulting in the evacuation of approximately 68,000 more people.
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in the Soviet nuclear power industry, slowing industry growth and forcing the Soviet government to become less secretive about its operating procedures. The government coverup of the Chernobyl disaster was a catalyst for
3740:(UCS), have publicized estimates suggesting an eventual 50,000 excess cancer cases, resulting in 25,000 cancer deaths worldwide, excluding thyroid cancer. These figures are based on a linear no-threshold model, which the
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Psychosomatic illness and post-traumatic stress, driven by widespread fear of radiological disease, have had a significant impact, often exacerbating health issues by fostering fatalistic attitudes and harmful behaviors.
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reactors, like those at Chernobyl, use water as a coolant, circulated by electrically driven pumps. Reactor No. 4 had 1,661 individual fuel channels, requiring over 12 million US gallons per hour for the entire reactor.
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failed to activate due to an imbalance in its ionization chambers. In response, Toptunov reduced power to stabilize the automatic regulators' ionization sensors. The result was a sudden power drop to an unintended near-
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Following the explosion, which killed two engineers and severely burned two others, an emergency operation began to put out the fires and stabilize the reactor. Of the 237 workers hospitalized, 134 showed symptoms of
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of the turbine generator decreased, so did the power it produced for the pumps. The water flow rate decreased, leading to increased formation of steam voids in the coolant flowing up through the fuel pressure tubes.
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International Atomic Energy Agency, Chernobyl's Legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts and Recommendations to the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine, The Chernobyl Forum:
3810:(LNT), which assumes that even low doses of radiation increase cancer risk proportionally. The Union of Concerned Scientists estimated approximately 27,000 excess cancer deaths worldwide, using the same LNT model.
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of radioactivity in fish resulted in concentrations significantly above guideline maximum levels for consumption. Guideline maximum levels for radiocaesium in fish vary but are approximately 1000 Bq/kg in the
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could migrate outside the site area. Rainwater falling on the wreckage could also accelerate corrosion of steelwork in the remaining reactor structure. A further challenge was to reduce the large amount of emitted
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the core. Rates of radiation in different parts of the building were monitored by drilling holes into the reactor and inserting long metal detector tubes. The scientists were exposed to high levels of radiation.
4013:. The German environmental minister was given the authority over reactor safety as well, a responsibility the current minister still holds today. The Chernobyl disaster is also credited with strengthening the
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11711:; Akiba, Suminori; Benichou, Jacques; Ferlay, Jacques; Gandini, Sara; Hill, Catherine; Howe, Geoffrey; Kesminiene, Ausrele; Moser, Mirjana; Sanchez, Marie; Storm, Hans; Voisin, Laurent; Boyle, Peter (2006).
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The International Project on the Health Effects of the Chernobyl Accident was created and received US$ 20 million, mainly from Japan, in the hope of discovering the main cause of health problems due to
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Bogdanova, Tetyana I.; Zurnadzhy, Ludmyla Y.; Greenebaum, Ellen; McConnell, Robert J.; Robbins, Jacob; Epstein, Ovsiy V.; Olijnyk, Valery A.; Hatch, Maureen; Zablotska, Lydia B.; Tronko, Mykola D. (2006).
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Radiation exposure to first responders at Chernobyl in comparison to a range of situations, from normal activities up to nuclear accident. Each step up the scale indicates a tenfold increase in radiation
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teacher at Georgetown's School of Medicine, recommends tourists to wear clothes and shoes they are comfortable with throwing away and to avoid plant life. Tourism has rebound after COVID in 2021, but the
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The reactor thermal power was to be reduced to between 700 MW and 1,000 MW (to allow for adequate cooling, as the turbine would be spun at operating speed while disconnected from the power grid)
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Chesser, Ronald K.; Baker, Robert J. (2006). "Growing Up with Chernobyl: Working in a radioactive zone, two scientists learn tough lessons about politics, bias and the challenges of doing good science".
3874:. Gorbachev stated that "More than anything else, (Chernobyl) opened the possibility of much greater freedom of expression, to the point that the (Soviet) system as we knew it could no longer continue."
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affected population as "victims" contributed to a sense of helplessness. Mettler also commented that 20 years later, the population remained unsure about radiation effects, leading to harmful behaviors.
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in Denver to finance the Shelter Implementation Plan (SIP). The plan called for transforming the site into an ecologically safe condition through stabilization of the sarcophagus and construction of the
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caused radioactive rainfall. The resulting patches of contamination were often highly localized, and localized water-flows contributed to large variations in radioactivity over small areas. Sweden and
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The smoldering graphite, fuel and other material, at more than 1,200 °C (2,190 °F), started to burn through the reactor floor and mixed with molten concrete from the reactor lining, creating
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Yeager, Meredith; Machiela, Mitchell J.; Kothiyal, Prachi; Dean, Michael; Bodelon, Clara; Suman, Shalabh; Wang, Mingyi; Mirabello, Lisa; Nelson, Chase W.; Zhou, Weiyin; Palmer, Cameron (14 May 2021).
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Mück, Konrad; Pröhl, Gerhard; Likhtarev, Ilya; Kovgan, Lina; Golikov, Vladislav; Zeger, Johann (February 2002). "Reconstruction of the inhalation dose in the 30-km zone after the Chernobyl accident".
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3375:", though it soon recovered. This photograph was taken years later, in March 2009, after the forest began to grow again, with the lack of foliage at the time of the photograph merely due to the local
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again. These informal estimates have ranged from approximately 300 years to multiples of 20,000 years, referring to the half-life of Plutonium-239 which contaminates the central portion of the Zone.
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into place over the sarcophagus on 29 November. Unlike the original sarcophagus, the New Safe Confinement is designed to allow the reactor to be safely dismantled using remotely operated equipment.
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Wagemaker, G.; Guskova, A. K.; Bebeshko, V. G.; Griffiths, N. M.; Krishenko, N. A. (1996). "Clinically Observed Effects in Individuals Exposed to Radiation as a Result of the Chernobyl Accident".
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and we aimed the water at the top. Then those boys who died went up to the roof—Vashchik, Kolya and others, and Volodya Pravik ... They went up the ladder ... and I never saw them again.
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2108:) for construction of ISF-2. In 2003, after a significant part of the storage structures had been built, technical deficiencies in the design concept became apparent. In 2007, Areva withdrew and
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of reactivity at typical fuel burnup levels. This meant that the formation of steam bubbles (voids) from boiling cooling water intensified the nuclear chain reaction owing to voids having lower
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2958:. Studies in surrounding countries indicate that more than one million people could have been affected by radiation. 2016 data from a long-term monitoring program showed a decrease in internal
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About 95% of the fuel in reactor No. 4 at the time of the accident. The radioactive material consists of core fragments, dust, and lava-like "fuel containing materials" (FCM)—also called "
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Chernobyl. There is evidence for elevated mortality rates and increased rates of reproductive failure in contaminated areas, consistent with the expected frequency of deaths due to mutations.
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standards and the legal and political costs in dealing with the increasingly hostile/anxious public opinion, there was a precipitous drop in the rate of new reactor construction after 1986.
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1646:. The next day, talks began for evacuating people from the 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) zone. Ten days after the accident, the evacuation area was expanded to 30 kilometres (19 mi). The
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tablets and told to continue working. At 05:00, Bagdasarov made his own decision to shut down the reactor, which was confirmed in writing by Dyatlov and Station Shift Supervisor Rogozhkin.
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Baker, Robert J.; Van Den Bussche, Ronald A.; Wright, Amanda J.; Wiggins, Lara E.; Hamilton, Meredith J.; Reat, Erin P.; Smith, Michael H.; Lomakin, Michael D.; Chesser, Ronald K. (1997).
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of Ukraine it is claimed that from 1986 to 1990 nearly 350 animals were born with gross deformities; in comparison, only three abnormal births had been registered in the five years prior.
3201:. Meanwhile, massive silt traps were constructed, along with a 30-metre (98 ft) deep underground barrier to prevent groundwater from the destroyed reactor entering the Pripyat River.
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was founded to design and build a more permanent cover for the unstable and short-lived sarcophagus. It received €864 million from international donors in 2011 and was managed by the
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Fleishman, David G.; Nikiforov, Vladimir A.; Saulus, Agnes A.; Komov, Victor T. (1994). "137Cs in fish of some lakes and rivers of the Bryansk region and north-west Russia in 1990–1992".
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In the 10 years following the accident, 14 more people who had been initially hospitalized died, mostly from causes unrelated to radiation exposure, with only two deaths resulting from
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atmosphere in the control room was calm, according to eyewitnesses. The RBMK designers claim the button had to have been pressed only after the reactor already began to self-destruct.
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The voltage provided by the coasting turbine would be measured, along with the voltage and revolutions per minute (RPMs) of the four main circulating pumps being powered by the turbine
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The turbine run-down energy capability still needed to be confirmed experimentally, and previous tests had ended unsuccessfully. An initial test carried out in 1982 indicated that the
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to fracture. Some have speculated that this also blocked the control rod columns, jamming them at one-third insertion. Within three seconds the reactor output rose above 530 MW.
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Shortly after the accident, firefighters arrived to try to extinguish the fires. First on the scene was a Chernobyl Power Station firefighter brigade under the command of Lieutenant
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in Moscow, said: "We learned that robots are not the great remedy for everything. Where there was very high radiation, the robot ceased to be a robot—the electronics quit working."
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the upper biological shield, to which the entire reactor assembly is fastened, through the roof of the reactor building. This is believed to be the first explosion that many heard.
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revealed in 2004 that thyroid cancer among children was one of the main health impacts of the Chernobyl accident, due to ingestion of contaminated dairy products and inhalation of
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From eyewitness accounts of the firefighters involved before they died, one described his experience of the radiation as "tasting like metal", and feeling a sensation similar to
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It was thought by some that the core fire was extinguished by a combined effort of helicopters dropping more than 5,000 tonnes (11 million pounds) of sand, lead, clay, and
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The only known causal deaths from the accident involved plant workers and firefighters. The reactor explosion killed two engineers, and 28 others died within three months from
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The precautionary underground channel with its active cooling was deemed redundant and the excavation was filled with concrete to strengthen the foundation below the reactor.
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When the correct conditions were achieved, the steam supply to the turbine generator would be closed, which would trigger an automatic reactor shutdown in ordinary conditions
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such a test did not require approval by either the chief design authority for the reactor (NIKIET) or the nuclear safety regulator. The test program called for disabling the
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3870:, and helped forge closer Soviet–US relations at the end of the Cold War. The disaster also became a key factor in the dissolution of the Soviet Union and shaped the 'new'
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3516:. The recovery rate is ~99%, with 15 terminal cases reported. No increase in mutation rates was found among children of liquidators or those living in contaminated areas.
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Evacuation began one and a half days before the accident was publicly acknowledged by the Soviet Union. In the morning of 28 April, radiation levels set off alarms at the
1220:. Another hypothesis, by Konstantin Checherov, published in 1998, was that the second explosion was a thermal explosion of the reactor due to the uncontrollable escape of
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After the disaster, four square kilometres (1.5 sq mi) of pine forest directly downwind of the reactor turned reddish-brown and died, earning the name of the "
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The Chernobyl tragedy has inspired many artists across the world to create works of art, animation, video games, theatre and cinema about the disaster. The HBO series
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Studies on regions of Ukraine and Belarus suggest that around 50 children exposed in utero during weeks 8 to 25 of gestation may have experienced an increased rate of
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The Chernobyl release was characterized by the physical and chemical properties of the radio-isotopes in the core. Particularly dangerous were the highly radioactive
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was contracted for a new design and construction of ISF-2. The new design was approved in 2010, work started in 2011, and construction was completed in August 2017.
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announced that the Chernobyl site would become an official tourist attraction. Zelenskyy said, "We must give this territory of Ukraine a new life." Dr. T. Steen, a
1361:" He also stated, "Of course we knew! If we'd followed regulations, we would never have gone near the reactor. But it was a moral obligation—our duty. We were like
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8956:
7888:
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nearly a million births and found no impacts from Chernobyl. Researchers concluded that the widespread fear about the effects on unborn fetuses was not justified.
3555:
Long term hazards such as caesium tends to accumulate in vital organs such as the heart, while strontium accumulates in bones and may be a risk to bone-marrow and
3211:
with short half-lives decayed away long before they could affect groundwater supplies, and longer-lived radionuclides such as radiocaesium and radiostrontium were
1581:
219:
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7592:
3425:. This resulted in localized concentrations of contaminants on distant areas; higher in Bq/m values to many lowland areas much closer to the source of the plume.
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destroyed the containment building, followed by a reactor core fire that spread radioactive contaminants across the USSR and Europe. A 10-kilometre (6.2 mi)
9197:
1336:
enough to pick them up We didn't know much about radiation. Even those who worked there had no idea. There was no water left in the trucks. Misha filled a
1204:
There were initially several hypotheses about the nature of the second, larger explosion. One view was that the second explosion was caused by the combustion of
11807:
9342:
Environmental consequences of the Chernobyl accident and their remediation: Twenty years of experience. Report of the Chernobyl Forum Expert Group 'Environment'
8894:
Environmental Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident and their Remediation: Twenty Years of Experience, Report of the Chernobyl Forum Expert Group 'Environment'
3492:, who supervised bone marrow transplant procedures, although these were unsuccessful. The fatalities were largely due to wearing dusty, soaked uniforms causing
2429:
Approximately 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 sq mi) of land was significantly contaminated, with the worst-affected areas in Belarus, Ukraine, and
1165:
A second, more powerful explosion occurred about two or three seconds after the first; this explosion dispersed the damaged core and effectively terminated the
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run again in 1986 and was scheduled to take place during a controlled power-down of reactor No. 4, which was preparatory to a planned maintenance outage.
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were responsible for the majority of the external dose. The remaining quantity of any radioisotope, and therefore the activity of that isotope, after 7 decay
13925:
13203:
9689:"Voice of America. "Scientists Study Chernobyl Fungus as Protection against Space Radiation." Online resource, last updated August 2020. Retrieved June 2021"
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6813:
6617:
Bogatov, S. A.; Borovoi, A. A.; Lagunenko, A. S.; Pazukhin, E. M.; Strizhov, V. F.; Khvoshchinskii, V. A. (2009). "Formation and spread of Chernobyl lavas".
4216:
Although most reports on the Chernobyl accident refer to a number of graphite fires, it is highly unlikely that the graphite itself burned. According to the
2907:
Contamination from the Chernobyl accident was scattered irregularly depending on weather conditions, much of it deposited on mountainous regions such as the
11760:
905:
electrical grid controller requested that the further reduction of Chernobyl's output be postponed, as power was needed to satisfy the peak evening demand.
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The diesel generators started and sequentially picked up loads; the generators were to have completely picked up the MCPs' power needs by 01:23:43. As the
812:
would not quite bridge the gap between an external power failure and the full availability of the emergency generators, but would alleviate the situation.
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7390:
7221:
5842:"Scientists might be wrong about cause of Chernobyl disaster, new study claims fresh evidence points to initial nuclear explosion rather than steam blast"
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in early 2022 meant the Chernobyl area saw active fighting and the exclusion zone closed to all visitors. It remains closed to tourism as of summer 2024.
2317:
in mitigating long-term social, economic, and ecological consequences of the Chernobyl catastrophe. CRDP works in the four most affected Ukrainian areas:
969:
could "burn it off". Xenon poisoning in this context made reactor control more difficult, but was a predictable phenomenon during such a power reduction.
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1514:
924:(ChNPP), was present to direct the test. He was one of the test's chief authors and he was the highest-ranking individual present. Unit Shift Supervisor
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7403:
Site polled in May 2008 reports shutdown for units 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively at 30 November 1996, 11 October 1991, 15 December 2000 and 26 April 1986.
1487:
of coughing and vomiting. As the plant was run by authorities in Moscow, the government of Ukraine did not receive prompt information on the accident.
1263:
The energy released by the second explosion, which produced the majority of the damage, was estimated by Pakhomov and Dubasov to be at 40 billion
1140:. This caused the fuel cladding to fail, releasing the fuel elements into the coolant and rupturing the channels in which these elements were located.
765:
1188:
After the larger explosion, several employees at the power station went outside to get a clearer view of the extent of the damage. One such survivor,
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11918:
11783:
The UCS analysis is based on radiological data provided by UNSCEAR, and is consistent with the findings of the Chernobyl Forum and other researchers.
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among children born in 1994. However, the risk of thyroid cancer associated with the Chernobyl accident remains high according to published studies.
985:
The operation of the reactor at the low power level was accompanied by unstable core temperatures and coolant flow, and, possibly, by instability of
11532:
3931:
Because of the distrust many had in the Soviet authorities, which engaged in a cover-up, a great deal of debate about the situation occurred in the
3485:(ARS). Some sources report a total initial fatality of 31, including one additional off-site death due to coronary thrombosis attributed to stress.
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9132:
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released in 2003, explore how radiation affected people living in the area and information about the long-term side effects of radiation exposure.
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were removed from the exclusion zone, but horses left on an island in the Pripyat River 6 km (4 mi) from the power plant died when their
2076:
262:
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9175:
6929:Президент Петр Порошенко вручил государственные награды работникам Чернобыльской атомной электростанции и ликвидаторам последствий аварии на ЧАЭС.
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1806:. The valves controlling it, however, were located in a flooded corridor in a subterranean annex adjacent to the reactor building. Volunteers in
12320:
10001:"Disproportionately High Contributions of 60 Year Old Weapons-137Cs Explain the Persistence of Radioactive Contamination in Bavarian Wild Boars"
5965:
4760:
14734:
11843:
8980:"Long-term monitoring of radiation exposure of the population in radioactively contaminated areas of Belarus – The Korma Report II (1998–2015)"
7126:
4047:
Chernobyl has been used as a case study in research concerning the root causes of such disasters, such as sleep deprivation and mismanagement.
1045:
Plan view of reactor No. 4 core. The number on each control rod indicates the insertion depth in centimeters one minute prior to the disaster.
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1192:, said that once he stepped out and looked up towards the reactor hall, he saw a "very beautiful" laser-like beam of blue light caused by the
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7244:
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134:
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5153:
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4322:
4316:"Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact, 2002 update; Chapter II – The release, dispersion and deposition of radionuclides"
1427:
in modern radiation units) over five hours. In some areas, unprotected workers received fatal doses in less than a minute. Unfortunately, a
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3790:(UNSCEAR) has produced assessments of the radiation effects. Possibly due to the Chernobyl disaster, an unusually high number of cases of
3661:"; doses were far higher among 530,000 recovery workers, who averaged an extra 50 years of typical natural background radiation exposure.
14764:
14719:
14047:
13992:
12028:"Clinical, genetic, and immunohistochemical characterization of 70 Ukrainian adult cases with post-Chornobyl papillary thyroid carcinoma"
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during the early days of the event. Journalists mistrusted many professionals, and they in turn encouraged the public to mistrust them.
2282:
The Chernobyl Trust Fund was created in 1991 by the United Nations to help victims of the Chernobyl accident. It is administered by the
737:
was constructed around the old sarcophagus to enable the removal of the reactor debris, with clean-up scheduled for completion by 2065.
199:
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external gamma dose rate for a person standing in the open. The exact dose to a person in the real world requires a personnel-specific
1445:
9276:
8117:"Wildfires in Chernobyl-contaminated forests and risks to the population and the environment: A new nuclear disaster about to happen?"
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Estimates of deaths resulting from the accident vary greatly due to differing methodologies and data. In 1994, thirty-one deaths were
3071:, contained within the reactor were released immediately into the atmosphere by the first steam explosion. The atmospheric release of
2159:
It has been reported that the degradation of the lava is likely to be a slow, gradual process. The same paper states that the loss of
850:
Four out of eight main circulating pumps were to be supplied with off-site power, while the other four would be powered by the turbine
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2219:". The area has largely reverted to forest and was overrun by wildlife due to the lack of human competition for space and resources.
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1915:
1830:. Numerous media reports falsely suggested that all three men died just days later. In fact, all three survived and were awarded the
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The day shift was scheduled to perform the test at 14:15. Preparations for the test were carried out, including the disabling of the
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957:. In steady-state operation, this is avoided because xenon-135 is "burned off" as quickly as it is created, becoming highly stable
859:
When the emergency generators supplied full electrical power, the turbine generator would be allowed to continue free-wheeling down
12290:
10635:'We will die and become science': the production of invisibility and public knowledge about Chernobyl radiation effects in Belarus
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5440:
2942:
to remove radioactive particles from clouds heading toward highly populated areas. Heavy, black-coloured rain fell on the city of
2124:, where the fuel containers will be enclosed for up to 100 years. Expected processing capacity is 2,500 fuel assemblies per year.
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14252:
13945:
13900:
12406:
11761:"Chernobyl Cancer Death Toll Estimate More Than Six Times Higher Than the 4000 Frequently Cited, According to a New UCS Analysis"
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6339:
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3000:. Iodine-131 was and caesium-137 remains the two most responsible for the radiation exposure received by the general population.
2418:. However, the Chernobyl disaster released only about one-hundredth to one-thousandth of the total radioactivity released during
13226:
11302:"Evaluation of the impact of Chernobyl on the prevalence of congenital anomalies in 16 regions of Europe. EUROCAT Working Group"
10966:
10058:
Deryabina, T. G.; Kuchmel, S. V.; Nagorskaya, L. L.; Hinton, T. G.; Beasley, J. C.; Lerebours, A.; Smith, J. T. (October 2015).
1283:
chain reaction that was limited to a small portion of the reactor core, since self-disassembly occurs rapidly in fizzle events.
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heat, which continues after the reactor shuts down. Continued coolant circulation is essential to prevent core overheating or a
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14749:
14359:
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11180:
9674:
Zavilgelsky GB, Abilev SK, Sukhodolets SS, Ahmad SI. Isolation and analysis of UV and radio-resistant bacteria from Chernobyl.
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assessments. UNSCEAR noted the possibility of long-term genetic defects, citing a doubling of radiation-induced minisatellite
1423:
per second (R/s), equivalent to more than 20,000 roentgens per hour. A lethal dose is around 500 roentgens (~5
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5070:[Work Program: Tests of the Turbogenerator No. 8 of the Chernobyl AESP in Run-Off Modes With the Load of Own Needs].
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before they could transfer to groundwater. However, significant transfers of radionuclides to groundwater have occurred from
2274:
to human health. The average radiation dose that Kyiv residents received as a result of the fires was estimated to be 1 nSv.
2248:
495:
411:
12593:
Members of the Ukrainian national movement regarded both Holodomor and Chernobyl as 'genocide against the Ukrainian people'.
12123:
10174:
8637:
https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2014/09/the-stalkers-inside-the-youth-subculture-that-explores-chernobyls-dead-zone.html
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5067:Рабочая Программа: Испытаний Турбогенератора № 8 Чернобыльской Аэс В Режимах Совместного Выбега С Нагрузкой Собственных Нужд
4491:
One Decade After Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences of the Accident, Proceedings of an International Conference, Vienna.
4255:
than before although, in fact, they had simply not been informed about them previously." Kagarlitsky 1989, pp. 333–334.
3637:. A 2021 study based on whole-genome sequencing of children of liquidators indicated no trans-generational genetic effects.
2306:
structure. While the original cost estimate for the SIP was US$ 768 million, the 2006 estimate was $ 1.2 billion.
14729:
14571:
14247:
14042:
13322:
11951:
10512:
One Decade After Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences of the Accident, Proceedings of an International Conference, Vienna
9470:
8486:
https://www.washingtonpost.com/travel/2019/07/12/ukraine-wants-chernobyl-be-tourist-trap-scientists-warn-dont-kick-up-dust/
8474:
8001:
7683:"Radiation damages and self-sputtering of high-radioactive dielectrics: spontaneous emission of submicronic dust particles"
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5571:
2287:
1887:
1704:
913:
day shift, and the night shift would only have had to maintain decay heat cooling systems in an otherwise shut-down plant.
234:
176:
9005:
8390:
7614:
4378:
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13544:
13336:
10809:"Effects of ionizing radiation on wildlife: What knowledge have we gained between the Chernobyl and Fukushima accidents?"
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7649:
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7004:
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4010:
3844:
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932:
was the Senior Reactor Control Engineer responsible for the reactor's operational regimen, including the movement of the
623:
595:
244:
107:
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12175:
Zatsepin, I.; Verger, P.; Robert-Gnansia, E.; Gagnière, B.; Tirmarche, M.; Khmel, R.; Babicheva, I.; Lazjuk, G. (2007).
8648:
https://www.new-east-archive.org/features/show/10946/into-the-zone-4-days-inside-chernobyls-secretive-stalker-subculture
8181:
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6364:
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nuclear detonation, it is estimated that Chernobyl released about 400 times more radioactive material than the combined
2156:
convert all 1,200 tonnes (1,200 long tons; 1,300 short tons) into a submicrometre and mobile powder within a few weeks.
14724:
14714:
14709:
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13709:
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suggests that 10,000 people have been affected by thyroid cancer as of 2006, with 50,000 cases expected in the future.
3646:
3251:
in Ukraine, concentrations in fish were in the range of 3000 Bq/kg during the early years after the accident. In small
1687:
1683:
1455:
535:
517:
17:
12509:
Shlyakhter, Alexander; Wilson, Richard (1992). "Chernobyl and Glasnost: The Effects of Secrecy on Health and Safety".
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significantly. The famous elephant's foot, which originally was so hard that it required the use of an armor piercing
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Zoriy, Pedro; Dederichs, Herbert; Pillath, Jürgen; Heuel-Fabianek, Burkhard; Hill, Peter; Lennartz, Reinhard (2016).
8658:
8625:
6276:
6227:
Sahota, M. (dir).; Smith, A. (nar).; Lanning, G. (prod).; Joyce, C. (ed). (17 August 2004). "Meltdown in Chernobyl".
3665:
2405:
2286:, which also manages strategy formulation, resource mobilization, and advocacy efforts. Beginning in 2002, under the
1490:
657:
212:
152:
11590:
11410:"Current Evidence for Developmental, Structural, and Functional Brain Defects following Prenatal Radiation Exposure"
11341:
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10410:
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1742:
Several buildings in Pripyat were kept open to be used by workers still involved with the plant. These included the
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14102:
13654:
13268:
10108:
9043:
Zamostian, P.; Moysich, K. B.; Mahoney, M. C.; McCarthy, P.; Bondar, A.; Noschenko, A. G.; Michalek, A. M. (2002).
8496:
7466:
6965:
4753:"Standard Review Plan for the Review of Safety Analysis Reports for Nuclear Power Plants: LWR Edition (NUREG-0800)"
4509:
4014:
490:
10727:"Do Animals in Chernobyl's Fallout Zone Glow? The scientific debate about Europe's unlikeliest wildlife sanctuary"
7088:
7027:
6803:
5143:"Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact, 2002 update; Chapter I – The site and accident sequence"
3889:
one. Soviet power plant administrators were reportedly not empowered to make crucial decisions during the crisis.
1407:
into the air. The residents of the surrounding area observed the radioactive cloud on the night of the explosion.
173:
15 terminal cases of thyroid cancer, with varying estimates of increased cancer mortality over subsequent decades
14789:
14004:
12448:
11770:
9901:"'Radiation-Eating' Fungi Finding Could Trigger Recalculation Of Earth's Energy Balance And Help Feed Astronauts"
5075:
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4103:
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4003:
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international organizations such as the IAEA to end operations at the plant. On 15 December 2000, then-President
8054:
5784:
5308:
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Some Ukrainians viewed the Chernobyl disaster as another attempt by Russians to destroy them, comparable to the
3732:
due to radiation from the accident, whereas several hundred million cancer cases are expected from other causes.
2927:
also received heavy fallout when the contaminated air collided with a cold front, bringing rain. There was also
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13783:
13329:
9137:
8443:
7382:
7211:
6399:
4632:"World Health Organization report explains the health impacts of the world's worst-ever civil nuclear accident"
4562:
3619:
3413:
In 2015, long-term empirical data showed no evidence of a negative influence of radiation on mammal abundance.
3160:%. This corresponds to the atmospheric emission of 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons) of fragmented fuel.
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2056:
2047:
1963:
1553:
1526:
734:
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239:
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The radioactive contamination of aquatic systems therefore became a major problem in the immediate aftermath.
14490:
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13935:
13486:
13248:
11765:
9574:
Weigelt, E.; Scherb, H. (2004). "Spaltgeburtenrate in Bayern vor und nach dem Reaktorunfall in Tschernobyl".
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4123:
have created documentaries that examine the aftermath of the disaster over the years. Documentaries like the
3944:
3921:
3737:
3031:
1735:
1682:, over 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the Chernobyl Plant. Workers at Forsmark reported the case to the
1544:, First Deputy Director of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, and included leading nuclear specialist
1479:
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dramatic power surge. The reactor components ruptured, lost coolants, and the resulting steam explosions and
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91:
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12234:
11554:
5510:
14464:
14096:
13910:
13472:
11910:
9621:
9387:
Kryshev, I. I. (1995). "Radioactive contamination of aquatic ecosystems following the Chernobyl accident".
8868:. Säteilyturvakeskus Stralsäkerhetscentralen (STUK, Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority). Archived from
4842:
4247:) and 'uncompromising criticism' of outmoded arrangements had been proclaimed at the 27th Congress (of the
4182:
2013:
in a field in the Chernobyl area. Scavengers have removed many functioning, but highly radioactive, parts.
1675:
1121:
352:
10341:
Guskova, A. K. (2012). "Medical consequences of the Chernobyl accident: Aftermath and unsolved problems".
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5723:
Development of ideas about reasons and processes of emergency on the 4th unit of Chernobyl NPP 26.04.1986
4159:
4018:
3998:. As a result, Italy began phasing out its nuclear power plants in 1988, a decision that was effectively
3320:
2384:
884:
vessels size comparison, a design classification of commercial reactors built until the end of the 1990s.
455:
13212:
13192:
13187:
10377:
9142:
5663:
4639:
3966:
After Chernobyl, nuclear debate became a topic in galleries and exhibitions. Artwork by French-American
1125:
they did appear in almost every detail in the course of the actions leading to the Chernobyl accident."
14779:
14108:
14036:
13597:
12819:
Mitler, M. M.; Carskadon, M. A.; Czeisler, C. A.; Dement, W. C.; Dinges, D. F.; Graeber, R. C. (1988).
11160:
9165:
8115:
Evangeliou, Nikolaos; Balkanski, Yves; Cozic, Anne; Hao, Wei Min; Møller, Anders Pape (December 2014).
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4022:
1946:
1708:
1432:
somewhere above 0.001 R/s (3.6 R/h), while the true levels were vastly higher in some areas.
974:
661:
443:
9999:
Stäger, Felix; Zok, Dorian; Schiller, Anna-Katharina; Feng, Bin; Steinhauser, Georg (30 August 2023).
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concerned about: "Some are celebrating a wedding, others are gardening, and others are fishing in the
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of vole and were genetically comparing two different vole species. They issued a retraction in 1997.
3011:
in the contaminated area of Pripyat, from soon after the accident to 27 years after the accident
1802:
Unaware of this, the government commission directed that the bubbler pools be drained by opening its
936:. 25-year-old Toptunov had worked independently as a senior engineer for approximately three months.
726:
681:
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released in 2012 is about six tourists that hire a tour guide to take them to the abandoned city of
14704:
14694:
14601:
14391:
14375:
13465:
13094:
11265:
Little, J. (1993). "The Chernobyl accident, congenital anomalies and other reproductive outcomes".
10760:"Cancer Mortality Among People Living in Areas With Various Levels of Natural Background Radiation"
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6435:
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the other 90% was removed by 3,828 men who absorbed, on average, an estimated dose of 25
1792:
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1727:
1128:
A few seconds into the scram, a power spike occurred, and the core overheated, causing some of the
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reiterated Italians' objections to nuclear power, thus abrogating the government's 2008 decision.
3311:
mutant that was hyper-resistant to a variety of DNA-damaging elements, including x-ray radiation,
1778:
Extremely high levels of radioactivity in the lava under the Chernobyl number four reactor in 1986
14606:
14287:
14277:
9908:
8678:
5142:
4315:
3907:
3626:
2419:
2263:
2038:
personally turned off reactor No. 3 in an official ceremony, shutting down the entire site.
1899:
1296:
730:
616:
12026:
Dinets, A.; Hulchiy, M.; Sofiadis, A.; Ghaderi, M.; Hoog, A.; Larsson, C.; Zedenius, J. (2012).
11408:
Verreet, Tine; Verslegers, Mieke; Quintens, Roel; Baatout, Sarah; Benotmane, Mohammed A (2016).
9741:
9340:
8886:
5178:
5024:
4951:
3410:
Union's nuclear weapons testing in Ukraine, which peaked during the late 1950s and early 1960s.
44:
Reactor 4 several months after the disaster. Reactor 3 can be seen behind the ventilation stack.
14591:
14586:
14282:
14083:
13735:
13684:
13583:
12239:"Projected Cancer Risks from Computed Tomographic Scans Performed in the United States in 2007"
11713:"Estimates of the cancer burden in Europe from radioactive fallout from the Chernobyl accident"
11108:
Trichopoulos, D.; Zavitsanos, X.; Koutis, C.; Drogari, P.; Proukakis, C.; Petridou, E. (1987).
8212:
7785:"'It's like the embers in a barbecue pit.' Nuclear reactions are smoldering again at Chernobyl"
6690:
5920:
5599:
4142:
4063:
3999:
3988:
2294:
2143:
Three different lavas are present in the basement of the reactor building: black, brown, and a
2072:
1510:
1166:
1120:
behaviour was discovered when the initial insertion of control rods in another RBMK reactor at
555:
512:
433:
13877:
11677:
11461:"Lack of transgenerational effects of ionizing radiation exposure from the Chernobyl accident"
10269:
8984:
Schriften des Forschungszentrums Jülich: Reihe Energie & Umwelt / Energy & Environment
8518:
6547:– Moscow TV news announce that an accident has occurred at the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant.
4021:
made by the 1998–2005 Schröder government. A temporary reversal of this policy ended with the
3823:
claimed 985,000 premature deaths, but was criticized for bias and using unverifiable sources.
1471:
14596:
13755:
13217:
13043:
12177:"Down syndrome time-clustering in January 1987 in Belarus: link with the Chernobyl accident?"
11707:
Cardis, Elisabeth; Krewski, Daniel; Boniol, Mathieu; Drozdovitch, Vladimir; Darby, Sarah C.;
11235:
10274:
9020:] (in French). Société française d'énergie nucléaire: 7. March–April 2006. Archived from
8706:
7822:
6727:
6228:
5332:
4379:
The Financial Costs of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Disaster: A Review of the Literature
4069:
3911:
3630:
3589:
of voles from outside the region. The authors discovered they had incorrectly classified the
3120:
3102:
2314:
2222:
Mass media sources have provided generalized estimates for when the Zone could be considered
2027:
1994:
1983:
1894:
1751:
1573:
1242:
881:
821:
665:
563:
12359:
8869:
3496:
over large areas of skin. Bacterial infection was a leading cause of death in ARS patients.
1540:
A commission was established later in the day to investigate the accident. It was headed by
953:, power continued to decrease in the absence of further operator action, a process known as
14581:
14500:
14272:
14134:
13718:
12518:
12188:
11472:
10866:
10820:
10476:
10071:
10014:
9633:
9532:
9396:
9265:
9056:
9045:"Influence of various factors on individual radiation exposure from the chernobyl disaster"
8718:
8508:
https://www.statista.com/statistics/1231428/number-of-tourists-in-chernobyl-exclusion-zone/
8128:
7697:
7682:
6519:
5756:
4155:
3903:
3671:
3658:
3615:
3264:
3123:, are the two primary elements preventing the Chernobyl exclusion zone being re-inhabited.
2109:
2080:
1109:
542:
12639:
11979:"A cohort study of thyroid cancer and other thyroid diseases after the Chornobyl accident"
11879:
9233:
8797:
3633:
fathered children without an increase in developmental anomalies or a significant rise in
2030:
allowed the three remaining reactors to continue operating because of an energy shortage.
1818:, entered the knee-deep radioactive water and opened the valves. These were the engineers
1252:, a city 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) northeast of Chernobyl, where physicists from the
8:
14257:
13604:
13590:
13537:
13207:
12393:"Review 'Chernobyl: Consequences of the Disaster for the Population and the Environment'"
10239:
9848:
9238:
7158:
6205:
6130:
4074:
3967:
3388:
3347:
3283:
forest directly downwind of the reactor turned reddish-brown and died, earning the name "
2371:
2152:
1747:
1419:
levels in the worst-hit areas of the reactor building have been estimated to be 5.6
1328:
1170:
1011:
890:
448:
438:
399:
14059:
12522:
12192:
12085:
11476:
10870:
10824:
10480:
10075:
10035:
10018:
10000:
9637:
9620:
Yablokov, Alexey V.; Nesterenko, Vassily B.; Nesterenko, Alexey V. (21 September 2009).
9536:
9400:
9060:
8722:
8475:
https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2005/oct/23/ukraine.darktourism.observerescapesection
8420:
8132:
7701:
6081:
6031:
5760:
1650:
has remained ever since, although its shape has changed and its size has been expanded.
1153:
processes that led to the destruction of the reactor and the power unit building, but a
1099:
14165:
14128:
13762:
13440:
13412:
12845:
12820:
12263:
12238:
12052:
12027:
12003:
11978:
11742:
11654:
11627:
11514:
11501:
11460:
11436:
11409:
11278:
11136:
11109:
11019:
10890:
10784:
10759:
10707:
10614:
10571:
10382:
10358:
9870:
9657:
9599:
9556:
8602:"Ukraine wants Chernobyl to be a tourist trap. But scientists warn: Don't kick up dust"
7976:
7762:
6670:
6634:
6584:
6498:
5905:
Shcherbak, Y. (1987). Medvedev, G. (ed.). "Chernobyl". Vol. 6. Yunost. p. 44.
5432:
4805:
4436:
3513:
3456:
3437:
The United Kingdom restricted the movement of sheep from upland areas when radioactive
2959:
2916:
2176:
1416:
1396:
1369:
burn until 10 May 1986; it is possible that well over half of the graphite burned out.
1344:
1301:
1238:
1019:
876:
769:
609:
568:
324:
304:
76:
12993:
10510:
Lee, T. R. (1996). "ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS REACTIONS FOLLOWING THE CHERNOBYL ACCIDENT".
9079:
9044:
6970:[Memoirs of the senior engineer-mechanic of reactor shop №2 Alexey Ananenko].
6835:
4416:
3916:
3576:
In 1996, geneticist Ronald Chesser and Robert Baker published a paper on the thriving
2336:
More than 18,000 Ukrainian children affected by the disaster have been treated in the
1703:
This was the first time the Soviet Union officially announced a nuclear accident. The
1521:
head of state, who said he anticipated a delegation of the state commission headed by
656:. It is one of only two nuclear energy accidents rated at the maximum severity on the
14386:
14267:
14230:
13620:
13433:
13384:
13156:
12850:
12777:"Chornobyl nuclear disaster was tragedy in the making, declassified KGB files show |"
12723:
12570:
12562:
National History and New Nationalism in the Twenty-First Century: A Global Comparison
12268:
12204:
12057:
12008:
11734:
11659:
11518:
11506:
11488:
11441:
11390:
11323:
11282:
11172:
11141:
11087:
11083:
11047:
11011:
10958:
10909:
10882:
10838:
10789:
10670:
10606:
10602:
10563:
10559:
10492:
10416:
10309:
10089:
10040:
9796:
9649:
9645:
9591:
9548:
9499:
9444:
9408:
9349:
9315:
9170:
9084:
8897:
8834:
8671:"Facts: The accident was by far the most devastating in the history of nuclear power"
8550:
8314:
8154:
8146:
7856:"30 years after Chernobyl disaster, wildlife is flourishing in radioactive wasteland"
7827:
7789:
7552:
7193:
7171:
7163:
6945:
6907:
6771:"The amazing true story behind the Chernobyl 'suicide squad' that helped save Europe"
6731:
6720:
6700:
6674:
6490:
6482:
6328:
6292:
6272:
6200:
6156:
6060:
6059:(Hardcover. First American edition published by Basic Books in 1991 ed.). VAAP.
5691:
5655:
5500:
5364:
5337:
5030:
4813:
4513:
4462:
4428:
4420:
4374:
4109:
3881:. Commentators have argued that the Chernobyl disaster was more likely to occur in a
3851:
3634:
3582:
3489:
3422:
3383:
In a 2007 paper, a robot sent into the No. 4 reactor returned with samples of black,
3225:
3171:
Effects of the Chernobyl disaster § Long-term effects on plant and animal health
3105:
3026:
for a person in the open near the disaster site. The dose that was calculated is the
3019:
2920:
2434:
2267:
2202:
2172:
2097:
1831:
1743:
1392:
1349:
1233:
1024:
994:
954:
901:. Meanwhile, another regional power station unexpectedly went offline. At 14:00, the
833:, a passive/active system of core cooling intended to provide water to the core in a
781:
460:
319:
284:
164:
13018:
11746:
11161:"Lessons of Chernobyl: SNM Members Try to Decontaminate World Threatened by Fallout"
10618:
10575:
10362:
9874:
9603:
7766:
7439:
object, was created in a very short period of time—six months. Construction of the
7435:
important, extremely dangerous and risky. The protective shell, which was named the
7300:
6638:
6502:
4669:
4440:
4042:
Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency
3794:
were reported in Belarus in January 1987, but there was no subsequent upward trend.
1734:
There was a notification from Moscow that there was no reason to postpone the 1 May
837:. Approval from the site chief engineer had been obtained according to regulations.
14809:
14153:
13725:
13426:
13419:
13391:
13377:
13363:
13213:
Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme (United Nations Development Programme)
12840:
12832:
12526:
12286:
12258:
12254:
12250:
12200:
12196:
12145:
12047:
12039:
11998:
11990:
11724:
11649:
11639:
11496:
11480:
11431:
11421:
11382:
11313:
11274:
11131:
11123:
11079:
11023:
11001:
10901:
10894:
10874:
10828:
10779:
10771:
10731:
10699:
10663:
10598:
10555:
10488:
10484:
10350:
10079:
10030:
10022:
9975:
9860:
9825:
9661:
9641:
9583:
9560:
9540:
9440:
9404:
9074:
9064:
8730:
8726:
8136:
7754:
7705:
7488:
7461:
7457:"Collapse of Chernobyl nuke plant building attributed to sloppy repair work, aging"
6840:
6775:
6662:
6626:
6474:
6265:
5764:
5611:
4598:
4412:
4403:
McCall, Chris (April 2016). "Chernobyl disaster 30 years on: lessons not learned".
3850:
It is difficult to establish the total economic cost of the disaster. According to
3308:
3239:
2981:
2939:
2326:
2171:
Prior to the completion of the New Safe Confinement building, rainwater acted as a
2121:
1690:
that the Soviet government admitted that an accident had taken place at Chernobyl.
1667:
1662:
1522:
1324:
1317:
1193:
1015:
950:
925:
916:
The night shift had very limited time to prepare for and carry out the experiment.
797:
689:
547:
314:
309:
289:
279:
269:
12943:"Series of artworks Pripyat Lights, or Chernobyl Shadows of artist Roman Gumanyuk"
12530:
8659:
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/exclusion-zone-chernobyl-ukraine
8626:
https://edition.cnn.com/travel/ukraine-kyiv-tourists-chernobyl-conflict/index.html
8347:
6293:"Table 2.2 Number of people affected by the Chernobyl accident (to December 2000)"
5616:
2365:
First limited guided tours were begun in 2002. The 2007 release of the video game
2239:
In 2011, Ukraine opened the sealed zone around the Chernobyl reactor to tourists.
2194:
13670:
13530:
13447:
13370:
13148:
12968:
12715:
12402:
10212:
9544:
8759:
8570:
8141:
8116:
7519:"Chernobyl | Chernobyl Accident | Chernobyl Disaster – World Nuclear Association"
6369:
5846:
5296:
4217:
4128:
3939:
3858:
3752:
3706:
3657:
from the accident equivalent to "21 additional days of world exposure to natural
3654:
3509:
3421:
On high ground, such as mountain ranges, there is increased precipitation due to
3406:
3402:
3300:
3288:
3027:
3023:
2322:
2290:, the fund shifted its focus from emergency assistance to long-term development.
1937:, which was a hazard to the workforce operating the adjacent reactor No. 3.
1823:
1819:
1712:
1545:
1498:
1420:
1404:
1373:
1217:
1154:
929:
917:
777:
641:
502:
404:
394:
329:
274:
115:
99:
12429:
11940:
9980:
9964:"Deer Truffles – The Dominant Source of Radiocaesium Contamination of Wild Boar"
9462:
8497:
https://thenational.shorthandstories.com/chernobyl-a-dark-tourist-attraction-v1/
7823:
Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World's Greatest Nuclear Disaster
7003:(Technical report). Vol. 35. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. p. 13. 1.
5563:
5333:
Midnight in Chernobyl: the untold story of the world's greatest nuclear disaster
2175:, triggering increased fission in the remaining materials, risking criticality.
680:
billion USD in 2019). It remains the worst nuclear disaster in history, and the
14292:
14159:
14118:
13627:
13398:
12434:
11070:
Knudsen, L. B. (1991). "Legally-induced abortions in Denmark after Chernobyl".
10409:
Gusev, Igor A.; Guskova, Angelina Konstantinovna; Mettler, Fred Albert (2001).
9849:"The Chernobyl nuclear disaster and subsequent creation of a wildlife preserve"
9021:
8382:
8086:"Reflections of a Chernobyl liquidator – the way it was and the way it will be"
6836:"Soviets Report Heroic Acts at Chernobyl Reactor With AM Chernobyl Nuclear Bjt"
6404:
4092:
3975:
3871:
3711:
3701:
of Chernobyl with the increase in recorded rates of thyroid cancer is disputed.
3675:
3488:
Most serious ARS cases were treated with the assistance of American specialist
3352:
3248:
3244:
3231:
3220:
2366:
2298:
2148:
1883:
1541:
1494:
1280:
1268:
1174:
1137:
706:
465:
294:
11127:
10354:
10331:
Mould (2000), p. 29. "The number of deaths in the first three months were 31."
10084:
10059:
9587:
7758:
6998:
6666:
6630:
6562:
6195:Валентина Шевченко: 'Провести демонстрацію 1 травня 1986–го наказали з Москви'
5769:
5744:
4726:. United States Department of Energy. January 1996. p. 61. Archived from
4459:
Nuclear Disasters & The Built Environment: A Report to the Royal Institute
3287:". Some animals in the worst-hit areas also died or stopped reproducing. Most
1978:
1497:
of the Ukrainian SSR, said that Ukraine's acting Minister of Internal Affairs
14678:
14652:
14638:
13405:
12946:
12836:
12774:
12640:"The Chernobyl Cover-Up: How Officials Botched Evacuating an Irradiated City"
11708:
11492:
10775:
9552:
9421:
EURATOM Council Regulations No. 3958/87, No. 994/89, No. 2218/89, No. 770/90.
8444:"Revolutionary care: Castro's doctors give hope to the children of Chernobyl"
8318:
8173:
8150:
7889:"Chernobyl will be unhabitable for at least 3,000 years, say nuclear experts"
7556:
7175:
7167:
6704:
6520:"Timeline: A chronology of events surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear disaster"
6486:
5695:
5659:
4424:
4124:
3791:
3586:
3467:
3134:
3052:
3048:
3008:
2985:
2935:
2410:
Although it is difficult to compare the Chernobyl accident with a deliberate
2035:
1848:
1827:
1503:
808:
796:
In case of a total power loss, each of Chernobyl's reactors had three backup
785:
673:
299:
39:
13193:
International Chernobyl Portal chernobyl.info, UN Inter-Agency Project ICRIN
12176:
11484:
10633:
10141:"Fortsatt nedforing etter radioaktivitet i dyr som har vært på utmarksbeite"
10026:
9622:"Chapter III. Consequences of the Chernobyl Catastrophe for the Environment"
9008:[A new look at Chernobyl: The impact on health and the environment]
8767:
8276:"IAEA Sees No Radiation-Related Risk from Fires in Chornobyl Exclusion Zone"
7418:
Chernobyl, Pripyat, the Chernobyl nuclear power plant and the exclusion zone
7413:
7058:"To Catch a Falling Core: Lessons of Chernobyl for Russian Nuclear Industry"
6967:Воспоминания старшего инженера-механика реакторного цеха №2 Алексея Ананенка
3806:
predicted 4,000 future cancer deaths in surrounding countries, based on the
3015:
14344:
14235:
14181:
14176:
13769:
13343:
13232:
Photographs from the City of Pripyat, and of those affected by the disaster
12272:
12208:
12061:
12012:
11738:
11663:
11510:
11445:
11426:
11394:
11327:
11318:
11301:
10990:"Retraction Note to: High levels of genetic change in rodents of Chernobyl"
10842:
10793:
10610:
10567:
10496:
10179:
10093:
10044:
9985:
9865:
9653:
9595:
9088:
8896:. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 2006. pp. 23–25.
8448:
8203:
8158:
6494:
5925:
5405:
4867:
4432:
4222:
3745:
3714:, and a predicted 3,935 deaths from radiation-induced cancer and leukemia.
3545:
3208:
3141:
2976:
Behavior of nuclear fuel during a reactor accident § Chernobyl release
2375:
2223:
2136:"—that flowed through the wrecked reactor building before hardening into a
1998:
1967:
1861:
1803:
1720:
1400:
1388:
1221:
990:
986:
966:
965:
were decaying into the neutron-absorbing xenon-135 faster than the reduced
755:
653:
573:
249:
111:
13879:
Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites
12854:
12743:
12237:; Mahesh, M; Kim, KP; Bhargavan, M; Lewis, R; Mettler, F; Land, C (2009).
11941:"Excerpt from UNSCEAR 2001 Report Annex – Hereditary effects of radiation"
11797:"Imputability of Health Effects to Low-Dose Radiation Exposure Situations"
11644:
11387:
10.1002/(sici)1096-9926(199908)60:2<100::aid-tera14>3.3.co;2-8
11373:
Castronovo, Frank P. (1999). "Teratogen update: Radiation and chernobyl".
11286:
11176:
11145:
11110:"The victims of Chernobyl in Greece: Induced abortions after the accident"
11091:
11015:
10913:
10886:
10758:
Dobrzyński, Ludwik; Fornalski, Krzysztof W; Feinendegen, Ludwig E (2015).
10320:
Reported thus far are 237 cases of acute radiation sickness and 31 deaths.
9767:"Ecocide – the genocide of the 21st century? Eastern European perspective"
9348:. Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency. 2006. p. 180.
9069:
5021:"Who exploded the Chernobyl NPP, Chronology of events before the accident"
4888:Для увеличения времени выбега на валу электродвигателя установлен маховик.
3802:
The potential deaths from the Chernobyl disaster are heavily debated. The
1941:
days after the disaster, and construction was from June to late November.
14307:
13567:
13227:
Photographs from inside the zone of alienation and City of Prypyat (2010)
12711:
12364:
12360:"Greenpeace vs. the United Nations: The Chernobyl Body Count Controversy"
10703:
10060:"Long-term census data reveal abundant wildlife populations at Chernobyl"
9006:"Nouveau regard sur Tchernobyl: L'impact sur la santé et l'environnement"
8763:
8240:"Fires in Ukraine in the exclusion zone around the Chernobyl power plant"
6112:"History of the International Atomic Energy Agency", IAEA, Vienna (1997).
5396:
4252:
3932:
3925:
3820:
Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment
3603:
3541:
3537:
3438:
3397:
3252:
3204:
3198:
3116:
3112:
3079:
3003:
2988:
rates that accumulate in the food chain, such as some of the isotopes of
2738:
2442:
2433:. Lower contamination levels were detected across Europe, except for the
2337:
1949:
extract system to capture any airborne contamination within the shelter.
1807:
1643:
1633:
1549:
1424:
1384:
1249:
961:. With the reactor power reduced, high quantities of previously produced
933:
421:
119:
103:
13120:
12233:
12043:
10711:
7710:
7545:"Chernobyl disaster site enclosed by shelter to prevent radiation leaks"
7188:
Ebel, Robert E.; Center for Strategic and International Studies (1994).
6975:
5725:(in Russian). Slavutich, Ukraine: International conference "Shelter-98".
4384:(Report). USC Institute on Inequalities in Global Health. pp. 14–15
4036:. The resulting treaty has bound members to provide notification of any
3094:), or about 0.4 kilograms (0.88 lb), was released, as a mixture of
2938:
over 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of Belarus by the
1770:, formed by fuel-containing mass, flowed into the basement of the plant.
1532:
1113:
14550:
14297:
13516:
13069:
12328:
11994:
9933:[25 years of Chernobyl: German wild boars still contaminated].
9266:"Chernobyl, Ten Years On: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact"
8383:"Chernobyl nuclear disaster-affected areas spring to life, 33 years on"
5598:
De Geer, Lars-Erik; Persson, Christer; Rodhe, Henning (November 2017).
5336:(First Simon & Schuster hardcover ed.). Simon & Schuster.
4226:
4120:
4028:
In direct response to the Chernobyl disaster, a conference to create a
3962:
3886:
3756:
3568:
over the reproducibility of their findings and the methodologies used.
3556:
3533:
3493:
3372:
3284:
3212:
3131:
equals 24 kilograms of caesium-137. Cs-137 has a half-life of 30 years.
2379:
2353:
1856:
1811:
1616:
1313:
1103:
Steam plumes continued to be generated days after the initial explosion
1041:
962:
760:
384:
80:
12710:
Kagarlitsky, Boris (1989). "Perestroika: The Dialectic of Change". In
12671:"Nuclear power beyond Chernobyl: A changing international perspective"
12150:
United Nations Scientific Committee of the Effects of Atomic Radiation
11844:"Chernobyl's Legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts"
11729:
11712:
11598:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
11562:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
7127:"Soviet Official Admits That Robots Couldn't Handle Chernobyl Cleanup"
7089:"After Chernobyl, Russia's Nuclear Industry Emphasizes Reactor Safety"
6478:
5065:
4626:
4624:
4353:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
3788:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
3651:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
1762:
1112:, about 7 metres (23 ft). A bigger problem was the design of the
711:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
14555:
14089:
13698:
13636:
13502:
13479:
13253:
12566:
11975:
10878:
10833:
10808:
10113:
8831:
Chernobyl Record: The Definitive History of the Chernobyl Catastrophe
6585:"1986: американський ТБ-сюжет про Чорнобиль. Порівняйте з радянським"
5300:
4231:
3994:
In Italy, the Chernobyl accident was reflected in the outcome of the
3882:
3878:
3698:
3697:
While widely regarded as having a cause-and-effect relationship, the
3340:
3194:
3180:
3083:
3072:
3060:
3043:
2997:
2453:
2411:
2330:
2259:
2117:
2105:
1934:
1920:
1893:
Consequently, the most highly radioactive materials were shoveled by
1815:
1428:
1257:
958:
946:
718:
522:
472:
374:
357:
12174:
9521:"Conservation consequences of Chernobyl and other nuclear accidents"
6867:
Zhukovsky, Vladimir; Itkin, Vladimir; Chernenko, Lev (16 May 1986).
4146:
revolves around the disaster and the cleanup efforts that followed.
3279:
After the disaster, four square kilometres (1.5 sq mi) of
3047:
radioisotopes from the nuclear fuel was largely controlled by their
2341:
2168:
round to remove a chunk, had softened to a texture similar to sand.
1557:
daylight hours of 27 April, they ordered the evacuation of Pripyat.
1387:
all over his face. This is consistent with the description given by
807:
It had been theorized that the rotational momentum of the reactor's
14528:
Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology neutron source facility
13960:
13792:
13560:
12805:
Hanneke Brooymans. France, Germany: A tale of two nuclear nations,
12748:
11107:
9935:
9931:"25 Jahre Tschernobyl: Deutsche Wildschweine immer noch verstrahlt"
8977:
4621:
4244:
3980:
3867:
3764:
2798:
2707:
2423:
2370:
the disaster. After its release in July 2019, Ukrainian president
2254:
2231:
1989:
1362:
1209:
1205:
1129:
1076:
847:
The steam-turbine generator was to be run at normal operating speed
590:
416:
13239:, showing details of the reactor hall, pumps, and the control room
12608:"The tragedy of Chernobyl sums up the cruel failures of communism"
11006:
10989:
10905:
10855:
10469:
Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis
6754:
Checherov, Konstantin (2006). "The Unpeaceful Atom of Chernobyl".
5600:"A Nuclear Jet at Chernobyl Around 21:23:45 UTC on April 25, 1986"
5540:
3476:
3463:
lies abandoned with the Chernobyl facility visible in the distance
3367:
2284:
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
13576:
13509:
13495:
12920:
11046:. Berlin, Germany: Springer Science and Media. pp. 160–162.
10987:
10175:"Britain's farmers still restricted by Chernobyl nuclear fallout"
5494:
5464:"Chernobyl – A Timeline of The Worst Nuclear Accident in History"
5243:"Chernobyl – A Timeline of The Worst Nuclear Accident in History"
4488:
4114:
3857:
Ongoing costs remain significant; in their 2003–2005 report, the
3590:
3460:
3452:
Effects of the Chernobyl disaster § Long-term health effects
3430:
3384:
3324:
3292:
3269:
3064:
3039:
2993:
2951:
2858:
2318:
2160:
2137:
1903:
1475:
1337:
1309:
733:
for the crews of the undamaged reactors. In 2016–2018, the
649:
428:
379:
369:
123:
95:
11407:
10240:"Post-Chernobyl disaster sheep controls lifted on last UK farms"
10057:
8862:
Environmental Radioactivity in Finland – 20 Years from Chernobyl
5745:"Estimation of Explosion Energy Yield at Chernobyl NPP Accident"
4834:
1970:. It was concluded that there was no further risk of explosion.
717:
Pripyat was abandoned and replaced by the purpose-built city of
13699:
State Institution for Radiation Monitoring and Radiation Safety
13523:
11628:"On the RET Rearrangements in Chernobyl-Related Thyroid Cancer"
10638:(PhD Thesis). University of California San Diego. p. 133.
9042:
8857:
Ympäristön Radioaktiivisuus Suomessa – 20 Vuotta Tshernobylista
8532:"Chernobyl to become official tourist attraction, Ukraine says"
7680:
6616:
6220:
5496:
Last shift Chernobyl. Ten years later. Inevitability or chance?
5363:(in Russian) (Hardcover ed.). Moscow, Russia: GUP NIKIET.
5358:
4721:"DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Nuclear physics and reactor theory"
3955:
3532:
The four most harmful radionuclides spread from Chernobyl were
3376:
2989:
2924:
2309:
In 2003, the United Nations Development Programme launched the
2144:
2052:
2002:
1696:
1679:
1213:
523:
State Institution for Radiation Monitoring and Radiation Safety
389:
13221:
12895:"Exploring how Chernobyl impacted Ukrainian cultural heritage"
12775:
Government Authorities or Not Fully Developed (12 June 2018).
12279:
11706:
10757:
7681:
Baryakhtar, V.; Gonchar, V.; Zhidkov, A.; Zhidkov, V. (2002).
7212:"Chernobyl's Hot Mess, 'the Elephant's Foot', Is Still Lethal"
3137:, half-life 78 hours, an estimated 1150 PBq was released.
2399:
1395:
physicist who died days after a fatal radiation overdose from
12818:
12080:
11044:
Communicating Risks to the Public: International Perspectives
9430:
4179: – Continuing list of books about the Chernobyl meltdown
3649:
examines the environmental consequences of the accident. The
3098:
3068:
2943:
2912:
2165:
2120:
and welded shut. The canisters are then to be transported to
1624:
A translated excerpt of the evacuation announcement follows:
1376:
1264:
1237:
was no delayed supercritical increase in power but a runaway
1149:
1089:
12025:
9619:
6687:
6651:
4009:
In Germany, the Chernobyl accident led to the creation of a
3744:(ICRP) advises against using for risk projections. The 2006
3075:, with a half-life of 5 days, is estimated at 5200 PBq.
640:
began on 26 April 1986 with the explosion of the No. 4
14146:
12511:
Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development
8519:
https://www.facebook.com/cotiz.org.ua/posts/236511471994731
8307:"Chernobyl Trust Fund Depleted as Problems of Victims Grow"
8114:
7156:
Edwards, Mike W. (May 1987). "Chernobyl – One Year After".
5785:"New theory rewrites opening moments of Chernobyl disaster"
4230:
the graphite was red-hot chiefly because it was chemically
3748:
estimated 30,000 to 60,000 excess cancer deaths worldwide.
3577:
3312:
3280:
3216:
2908:
2345:
1796:
1451:
902:
789:
13019:"Chernobyl Heart (2003) | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia"
12821:"Catastrophes, Sleep, and Public Policy: Consensus Report"
11458:
8768:"Torch: The Other Report On Chernobyl – executive summary"
5455:
4662:"Chernobyl nuclear power plant site to be cleared by 2065"
4040:
that occur that could affect other states, along with the
3772:
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War
3115:
was released, 85 PBq in all. Caesium was released in
2962:
of the inhabitants of a region in Belarus close to Gomel.
1952:
1000:
868:
13245:
from theDean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
12321:"The Chernobyl Catastrophe. Consequences on Human Health"
11872:
11346:
11207:
11114:
6465:
Baverstock, K. (26 April 2011). "Chernobyl 25 years on".
4563:"Chernobyl 25th anniversary – Frequently Asked Questions"
4452:
4450:
4167: – People involved in the Chernobyl nuclear accident
4088:
3007:
Contributions of the various isotopes to the atmospheric
1272:
1208:, which had been produced either by the overheated steam-
1178:
804:(ECCS) is needed to pump additional water into the core.
12869:"Challenger disaster compared to Bhopal, Chernobyl, TMI"
10588:
10544:
10208:"Scottish sheep farms finally free of Chernobyl fallout"
8934:
Fire In the Rain: The Dramatic Consequences of Chernobyl
8174:"Chernobyl's radioactive trees and the forest fire risk"
7353:"Information Notice No. 93–71: Fire At Chernobyl Unit 2"
6336:
The Human Consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident
6300:
The Human Consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident
6129:(4th ed.). Nuclear Energy Institute. Archived from
5958:"Special Report: 1997: Chernobyl: Containing Chernobyl?"
5811:"New Study Rewrites First Seconds of Chernobyl Accident"
4872:Справочник "Функционирование АЭС (на примере РБМК-1000)"
3527:
2229:
In the years following the disaster, residents known as
776:
In nuclear reactor operation, most heat is generated by
10465:
6866:
5357:
Adamov, E. O.; Cherkashov, Yu. M.; et al. (2006).
4195: – Effects of radiological fallout on an ecosystem
3416:
3207:
was not badly affected by the Chernobyl accident since
1227:
1224:
caused by the complete water loss in the reactor core.
1083:
939:
13218:
Footage and documentary films about Chernobyl disaster
12076:"20 years after Chernobyl, The ongoing health effects"
11555:"UNSCEAR 2008 Report to the General Assembly, Annex D"
10299:
10297:
7745:
Borovoi, A. A. (2006). "Nuclear fuel in the shelter".
7489:"Ukraine: Chernobyl nuclear roof collapse 'no danger'"
6258:
6256:
6254:
6252:
6250:
6248:
6246:
6244:
5026:
Chernobyl. Vengeance of the peaceful atom (in Russian)
4952:"INSAG-7: The Chernobyl Accident: Updating of INSAG-1"
4812:(First American ed.). W.W. Norton & Company.
4447:
4030:
Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident
3938:
The accident raised already heightened concerns about
3866:
accident was significant for the new Soviet policy of
3337:
radiocaesium binding less with humic acid, peaty soils
9998:
9496:
The International Chernobyl Project: Technical Report
8986:. Forschungszentrum Jülich, Zentralbibliothek, Verlag
8887:"3.1.5. Deposition of radionuclides on soil surfaces"
7301:"Medal for Service at the Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster"
6895:
6436:"Soviet Announces Nuclear Accident at Electric Plant"
4534:"Chernobyl Accident 1986 – World Nuclear Association"
3974:
The accident also raised concerns about the cavalier
3920:
Anti-nuclear protest after the Chernobyl disaster on
2954:
was also contaminated, as were parts of northwestern
1552:, radiologist Leonid Ilyin, and others. They flew to
1014:
designs, the RBMK design at that time had a positive
684:, with an estimated cost of $ 700 billion USD.
14577:
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
11838:
11836:
11834:
11832:
11830:
11828:
11042:
Kasperson, Roger E.; Stallen, Pieter Jan M. (1991).
10806:
10688:
10686:
8413:"CRDP: Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme"
8002:"Ukraine to Open Chernobyl Area to Tourists in 2011"
7341:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
6726:. W. W. Norton & Company Incorporated. pp.
6429:
6427:
5989:"Chernobyl Anniversary Recalls Helo Pilots' Bravery"
4985:
4983:
4188:
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
3346:
In 1987, Soviet medical teams conducted some 16,000
1719:
wrote was an example of the common Soviet tactic of
1399:. The explosion and fire threw hot particles of the
1199:
725:, completed in December 1986, reduced the spread of
652:
in northern Ukraine, near the Belarus border in the
11806:. Buenos Aires: XXI AIDN/INLA Congress. p. 5.
10408:
10294:
9203:
Central Institution for Meteorology and Geodynamics
8571:"Chernobyl to become 'official tourist attraction'"
8208:"Forests Around Chernobyl Aren't Decaying Properly"
7795:
American Association for the Advancement of Science
7190:
Chernobyl and its aftermath: a chronology of events
6241:
5597:
5593:
5591:
5589:
3742:
International Commission on Radiological Protection
1795:, a radioactive semi-liquid material comparable to
1739:three and a half to four hours to under two hours.
1515:
General Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine
1232:The force of the second explosion and the ratio of
840:The test procedure was intended to run as follows:
13177:Bibliography of Ukrainian history § Chernobyl
12606:
12427:
12358:Hawley, Charles; Schmitt, Stefan (18 April 2006).
10813:Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management
10807:Beresford, Nicholas A; Copplestone, David (2011).
10662:
10625:
10206:Rawlinson, Kevin; Hovenden, Rachel (7 July 2010).
9793:Ecocide in the USSR: health and nature under siege
9519:Møller, A. P.; Mousseau, T. A. (1 December 2011).
6719:
6514:
6512:
6264:
5681:
4456:
1909:
13237:English Russia Photos of a RBMK-based power plant
11825:
10683:
10205:
10168:
10166:
8700:
8698:
8696:
8032:"Tours of Chernobyl sealed zone officially begin"
7849:
7847:
7644:
7642:
7615:"Holtec clear to start testing ISF2 at Chernobyl"
7339:Life Exposed: Biological Citizens After Chernobyl
6424:
4980:
3668:, all among reactor staff and emergency workers.
3339:than the known binding "fixation" that occurs on
3055:present in the core was retained in the reactor.
3038:At different times after the accident, different
1928:; Reactor No. 3 is to the left of the smoke stack
1841:
1196:that appeared to be "flooding up into infinity".
750:
14676:
13222:Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive
12508:
12421:
11103:
11101:
11041:
11037:
11035:
11033:
10461:
10459:
10173:Macalister, Terry; Carter, Helen (12 May 2009).
10172:
9889:– via Natural Science Research Laboratory.
9790:
9615:
9613:
7406:
6400:"25 years after Chernobyl, how Sweden found out"
6338:. UNDP and UNICEF. 22 January 2002. p. 66.
6302:. UNDP and UNICEF. 22 January 2002. p. 32.
5952:
5950:
5948:
5586:
5356:
4199:Consequences of the Chernobyl disaster in France
4165:Individual involvement in the Chernobyl disaster
3678:incidence in children and adolescents in Belarus
2077:European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
1757:
12720:The New Detente: Rethinking East-West Relations
12559:May, Niels F.; Maissen, Thomas (17 June 2021).
12428:Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023).
12313:
11547:
10665:Wormwood Forest: A Natural History of Chernobyl
10199:
9198:"Unfall im japanischen Kernkraftwerk Fukushima"
7950:"What life is like in the shadows of Chernobyl"
7740:
7738:
7736:
7583:"Chernobyl units 1–3 now clear of damaged fuel"
6564:Video footage of Chernobyl disaster on 28 April
6509:
5742:
5738:
5736:
5734:
5732:
5499:(in Russian). Moscow, Russia: Energoatomizdat.
4599:"UNSCEAR assessments of the Chernobyl accident"
3477:Acute radiation effects and immediate aftermath
2969:
14125:Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll
13249:Map of residual radioactivity around Chernobyl
12291:"How Many Cancers Did Chernobyl Really Cause?"
12146:"UNSCEAR assessment of the Chernobyl accident"
10698:. Vol. 94, no. 6. pp. 542–549.
10654:
10232:
10163:
9961:
9518:
9310:Smith, Jim T.; Beresford, Nicholas A. (2005).
9309:
9305:
9303:
9301:
9299:
9297:
8693:
8046:
7844:
7639:
7028:"When the Fukushima Meltdown Hits Groundwater"
5743:Pakhomov, Sergey A.; Dubasov, Yuri V. (2009).
4503:
4091:in 2007, is a first-person shooter set in the
863:
14360:
13926:Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll
13921:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
13863:
13269:
12502:
12458:
12357:
11619:
11591:"UNSCEAR 2008 Report to the General Assembly"
11098:
11030:
10529:
10456:
9847:Baker, Robert J.; Chesser, Ronald K. (2000).
9610:
9573:
9456:
9454:
9382:
9380:
9227:
9225:
9166:"Mathematical half life decay rate equations"
8348:"History of the United Nations and Chernobyl"
7883:
7881:
7813:
7120:
7118:
7116:
7114:
6873:[Chernobyl: the address of courage].
6204:(in Ukrainian). 25 April 2011. Archived from
6188:
6186:
6184:
6182:
6180:
6178:
6176:
6174:
6172:
5945:
5833:
5137:
5135:
4800:
4798:
4506:Thermodynamics in Nuclear Power Plant Systems
4101:was released in 2008 following with a sequel
3797:
2104:A contract was signed in 1999 with Areva NP (
1173:. The explosion is estimated to have had the
928:was in charge of the Unit 4 night shift, and
617:
14374:
13678:Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme
13302:Comparison with other radioactivity releases
12744:"Chernobyl cover-up a catalyst for glasnost"
12703:
12473:(see 1996 interview with Mikhail Gorbachev).
11969:
11258:
11152:
10929:"Chernobyl's Voles Live But Mutations Surge"
10692:
10147:(in Norwegian). 30 June 2010. Archived from
9846:
9840:
9490:
9488:
9424:
8555:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
7819:
7733:
7332:
7330:
7328:
7326:
6145:
6073:
5918:
5729:
5690:. Vol. 183, no. 2461. p. 46.
5213:"Chernobyl: Timeline of a nuclear nightmare"
4796:
4794:
4792:
4790:
4788:
4786:
4784:
4782:
4780:
4778:
4457:Steadman, Philip; Hodgkinson, Simon (1990).
4310:
4308:
4306:
4304:
4302:
4300:
4298:
4296:
3862:estimated at $ 235 billion in Belarus.
2311:Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme
2127:
2041:
1711:and other American nuclear accidents, which
1648:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Exclusion Zone
709:deaths were attributed to the disaster. The
508:Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme
220:Comparison with other radioactivity releases
14048:1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident
13931:Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country
13243:Post-Soviet Pollution: Effects of Chernobyl
12709:
12105:
12103:
11911:"Experts find reduced effects of Chernobyl"
11678:"Chernobyl: the true scale of the accident"
11583:
11342:"Chernobyl's Hot Zone Holds Some Surprises"
11299:
11203:"Chernobyl's Hot Zone Holds Some Surprises"
11065:
11063:
10631:
9791:Feshbach, Murray; Friendly, Alfred (1992).
9294:
9038:
9036:
9034:
8936:. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins Press.
8061:. Vol. 3, no. 3. pp. 26–35.
6906:. London, England: Pan Books. p. 178.
6394:
6392:
6329:"Table 5.3: Evacuated and resettled people"
6267:The Social Impact of the Chernobyl Disaster
6155:. New York: Time Home Entertainment. 2012.
6123:"Chernobyl (Chornobyl) Nuclear Power Plant"
5914:
5912:
5014:
5012:
5010:
4757:United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission
4685:"Decay Heat Generation in Fission Reactors"
4173: – Chernobyl disaster related articles
4107:released in 2010. Finally, the horror film
2400:Release and spread of radioactive materials
1536:Ruins of abandoned house in Chernobyl, 2019
1456:International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group
14367:
14353:
13870:
13856:
13830:
13276:
13262:
12668:
12558:
12465:Johnson, Thomas (author/director) (2006).
12398:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
11372:
11366:
10402:
10303:
10100:
9626:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
9451:
9377:
9222:
9206:(in German). 24 March 2011. Archived from
8925:
8530:Guy, Lianne Kolirin, Jack (11 July 2019).
7878:
7162:. Vol. 171, no. 5. p. 645.
7111:
6801:
6464:
6169:
5654:. Muldersdrift, South Africa. p. 41.
5492:
5401:"Chernobyl nuclear disaster – in pictures"
5210:
5132:
4946:
4944:
4942:
4940:
4938:
4936:
4934:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4926:
4924:
4922:
4920:
4918:
4916:
4692:University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
4557:
4555:
4504:Zohuri, Bahman; McDaniel, Patrick (2019).
4177:List of books about the Chernobyl disaster
3571:
3259:
3184:Reactor and surrounding area in April 2009
1864:now part of many nuclear reactor designs.
1446:Investigations into the Chernobyl disaster
1060:short control rods from below reactor (32)
624:
610:
38:
14216:Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack
14193:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
14113:Three Mile Island accident health effects
13155:(in Russian). Nauchtechlitizdat, Moscow.
12844:
12669:Juhn, Poong-Eil; Kupitz, Juergen (1996).
12543:
12482:
12262:
12051:
12002:
11909:Rosenthal, Elisabeth (6 September 2005).
11908:
11728:
11653:
11643:
11500:
11435:
11425:
11317:
11233:
11135:
11005:
10832:
10783:
10525:
10523:
10521:
10412:Medical management of radiation accidents
10262:
10083:
10034:
9979:
9864:
9740:Krogh, Peter F. (Peter Frederic) (1994).
9485:
9258:
9078:
9068:
8754:
8752:
8304:
8140:
7709:
7323:
6753:
6694:
6433:
6046:
6020:"Louis Slotin And 'The Invisible Killer'"
5904:
5839:
5768:
5720:
5615:
4914:
4912:
4910:
4908:
4906:
4904:
4902:
4900:
4898:
4896:
4775:
4293:
4057:Cultural impact of the Chernobyl disaster
3562:
3508:. Scientific consensus, supported by the
3235:Radiation levels around Chernobyl in 1996
3144:material released to the environment was
2416:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1916:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus
1439:
1010:close to the boiling point. Unlike other
723:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus
27:1986 nuclear accident in the Soviet Union
14211:International Nuclear Event Scale (INES)
14054:Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident
13204:Chernobyl disaster facts and information
13095:"The best documentaries about Chernobyl"
12384:
12285:
12181:Reproductive Toxicology (Elmsford, N.Y.)
12138:
12100:
11794:
11670:
11060:
10669:. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press.
10109:"Record low number of radioactive sheep"
9962:Steiner, M.; Fielitz, U. (6 June 2009).
9678:, May 1998: vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 152–157.
9335:
9333:
9331:
9231:
9031:
8441:
7853:
7124:
6749:
6747:
6717:
6612:
6610:
6389:
6052:
6018:Zeilig, Martin (August–September 1995).
6011:
5909:
5787:. Taylor and Francis. 17 November 2017.
5721:Checherov, K. P. (25–27 November 1998).
5007:
4832:
4804:
4461:. Butterworth Architecture. p. 55.
4373:
4117:where they discover they are not alone.
3970:in 1986 dedicated to Chernobyl disaster.
3961:
3949:
3915:
3838:
3830:
3826:
3670:
3585:of the "Chernobyl voles" with that of a
3466:
3455:
3366:
3263:
3230:
3179:
3014:
3002:
2201:
2193:
2051:
1988:
1977:
1919:
1773:
1761:
1661:
1657:
1637:Abandoned objects in the evacuation zone
1632:
1531:
1470:
1343:
1295:
1098:
1040:
875:
867:
754:
14253:International Day against Nuclear Tests
13901:Crimes involving radioactive substances
13147:
12019:
11158:
11069:
10534:. Berlin, Germany: The European Greens.
10340:
9713:
9415:
9386:
9312:Chernobyl: Catastrophe and Consequences
8853:
8790:
8704:
8599:
8305:Crossette, Barbara (29 November 1995).
8077:
7977:"What is the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone?"
7744:
7336:
7155:
7025:
6904:Chernobyl: The End of the Nuclear Dream
6828:
6262:
5986:
5461:
5283:
5271:
5126:
5001:
4552:
4193:Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem
3164:
3108:. Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8 days.
2262:organization is tasked with overseeing
2242:
1953:Investigations of the reactor condition
1924:No. 4 reactor site in 2006 showing the
1855:As an alternative, subway builders and
1214:reaction of red-hot graphite with steam
1001:Reactor conditions priming the accident
14:
14805:Man-made disasters in the Soviet Union
14677:
14043:Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident
13283:
13044:"Review: 'The Babushkas of Chernobyl'"
12604:
12583:from the original on 12 September 2021
11625:
11533:"Assessing the Chernobyl Consequences"
11264:
10518:
10448:
10446:
10444:
10106:
10006:Environmental Science & Technology
9881:from the original on 30 September 2018
9853:Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
9460:
9433:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
9389:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
9103:"Rules of Thumb & Practical Hints"
9014:Extrait de la Revue Générale Nucléaire
8778:from the original on 10 September 2011
8749:
8377:
8375:
8373:
8342:
8340:
8083:
8008:. Associated Press. 13 December 2010.
7974:
7930:from the original on 17 September 2020
7778:
7776:
7627:from the original on 18 September 2019
7542:
7247:[Chernobyl – Watch of Death].
7149:
7125:Anderson, Christopher (January 2019).
7086:
6901:
6802:Samodelova, Svetlana (25 April 2011).
6768:
6762:
6556:
6017:
5777:
5561:
5395:
5029:. Dnepropetrovsk: IKK "Balance Club".
5018:
4989:
4893:
4878:from the original on 20 September 2021
4874:(in Russian). N/A. 19 September 2021.
4682:
4402:
4017:, which culminated in the decision to
2966:be exposed to about one millisievert.
2079:(EBRD). The new shelter was named the
1826:, accompanied by the shift supervisor
1509:Shevchenko then spoke by telephone to
1493:, then Chairwoman of the Presidium of
993:opened to relieve excess steam into a
14735:April 1986 events in the Soviet Union
14348:
13851:
13662:Children of Chernobyl Benefit Concert
13257:
12969:"S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl"
11688:from the original on 25 February 2018
11306:International Journal of Epidemiology
11267:Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology
11246:from the original on 17 December 2016
10969:from the original on 14 November 2017
10926:
10724:
10660:
10532:The Other Report on Chernobyl (TORCH)
10250:from the original on 20 December 2013
10220:from the original on 16 December 2013
10107:Orange, Richard (23 September 2013).
9815:
9739:
9716:"Establishing the crime of 'ecocide'"
9463:"Wildlife defies Chernobyl radiation"
9328:
9018:Excerpt of the General Nuclear Review
8959:from the original on 18 November 2009
8931:
8828:
8711:The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
8581:from the original on 12 December 2019
8202:
8171:
8052:
7782:
7563:from the original on 22 December 2016
7387:IAEA Power Reactor Information System
7311:from the original on 5 September 2013
7224:from the original on 15 November 2018
7007:from the original on 25 February 2022
6744:
6681:
6645:
6607:
5854:from the original on 21 November 2017
5642:
5636:
5513:from the original on 24 December 2009
5206:
5204:
5189:from the original on 27 February 2012
4839:Причины Чернобыльской аварии известны
4833:Dmitriev, Viktor (30 November 2013).
4050:
3640:
3528:Effects of main harmful radionuclides
2426:, due to varying isotope abundances.
2249:Polesie State Radioecological Reserve
1286:
496:Children of Chernobyl Benefit Concert
14572:History of the anti-nuclear movement
14248:History of the anti-nuclear movement
13198:Frequently Asked Chernobyl Questions
12917:"Paintings by artist Roman Gumanyuk"
12650:from the original on 19 October 2021
12619:from the original on 10 January 2022
12544:Gorbachev, Mikhail (21 April 2006).
12483:Gorbachev, Mikhail (21 April 2006).
11813:from the original on 16 October 2016
11354:from the original on 8 November 2018
11215:from the original on 8 November 2018
10939:from the original on 8 November 2018
10530:Fairlie, Ian; Sumner, David (2006).
10282:from the original on 3 November 2013
10187:from the original on 2 November 2013
10121:from the original on 3 November 2013
9576:Mund-, Kiefer- und Gesichtschirurgie
9473:from the original on 5 November 2017
9246:from the original on 30 October 2013
8946:
8417:United Nations Development Programme
8184:from the original on 17 October 2018
7721:from the original on 1 November 2013
7499:from the original on 12 January 2016
7393:from the original on 8 November 2018
7363:from the original on 12 January 2012
7281:from the original on 5 November 2018
7209:
6996:
6883:from the original on 8 November 2018
6795:
6412:from the original on 9 November 2018
6345:from the original on 1 February 2017
6309:from the original on 1 February 2017
6079:
5919:Higginbotham, Adam (26 March 2006).
5679:
5673:
5574:from the original on 8 November 2018
5413:from the original on 8 November 2018
5265:
5078:from the original on 5 November 2018
4968:from the original on 20 October 2018
4484:
4482:
4480:
4478:
4084:S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadows of Chernobyl
3417:Precipitation on distant high ground
3228:of surface-deposited radioactivity.
3034:analysis and whole body count exams.
2394:
2288:United Nations Development Programme
2277:
1888:Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy
1754:for recreation during the clean-up.
1705:Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union
1642:53,000 people were evacuated to the
1461:
1228:Fizzled nuclear explosion hypothesis
1084:Reactor shutdown and power excursion
1070:pressure tubes with fuel rods (1661)
940:Unexpected drop of the reactor power
740:
13906:Criticality accidents and incidents
13118:
12752:. Associated Press. 24 April 2006.
12722:. United Nations University Press.
12390:
12109:
10509:
10503:
10441:
10429:from the original on 29 August 2021
10375:
10325:
9943:from the original on 31 August 2011
9178:from the original on 4 October 2013
9141:. 20 September 1999. Archived from
9107:Society for Radiological Protection
8766:PhD and David Sumner (April 2006).
8705:Marples, David R. (May–June 1996).
8677:. 21 September 1997. Archived from
8529:
8370:
8337:
8220:from the original on 2 January 2019
7773:
7242:
7087:Kramer, Andrew E. (22 March 2011).
6902:Hawkes, Nigel; et al. (1986).
6816:from the original on 9 October 2016
6783:from the original on 9 October 2016
5987:McKenna, James T. (26 April 2016).
5933:from the original on 30 August 2013
5645:"Chernobyl: what happened and why?"
5564:"The Chernobyl nightmare revisited"
5295:
5183:Physicians of Chernobyl Association
4845:from the original on 3 October 2021
4073:by the Ukrainian-Belarusian writer
3845:Ukrainian National Chernobyl Museum
3666:directly attributed to the accident
3499:
3330:
3274:Ukrainian National Chernobyl Museum
2087:
2020:
1410:
1291:
872:Process flow diagram of the reactor
682:costliest disaster in human history
24:
14765:Environmental disasters in Ukraine
14720:1986 disasters in the Soviet Union
14523:NASU Institute of Nuclear Research
14010:Nuclear power accidents by country
13170:
12637:
12372:from the original on 19 March 2011
12339:from the original on 22 March 2011
12301:from the original on 21 April 2011
11957:from the original on 7 August 2011
11571:from the original on 4 August 2011
11537:International Atomic Energy Agency
11279:10.1111/j.1365-3016.1993.tb00388.x
11234:Cedervall, Bjorn (10 March 2010).
8810:from the original on 30 April 2006
8737:from the original on 27 April 2017
8675:International Atomic Energy Agency
8393:from the original on 28 April 2019
8325:from the original on 28 April 2019
8256:from the original on 19 April 2020
8084:Digges, Charles (4 October 2006).
7899:from the original on 26 April 2020
7866:from the original on 27 April 2016
7854:Oliphant, Roland (24 April 2016).
7662:from the original on 20 April 2015
7543:Walker, Shaun (29 November 2016).
7137:from the original on 10 April 2019
6848:from the original on 29 April 2014
6530:from the original on 18 March 2015
6446:from the original on 27 April 2014
6434:Schmemann, Serge (29 April 1986).
6377:from the original on 23 April 2019
5968:from the original on 19 March 2011
5702:from the original on 5 August 2021
5377:from the original on 2 August 2009
5360:Channel Nuclear Power Reactor RBMK
5201:
5090:
4579:from the original on 17 April 2012
4171:List of Chernobyl-related articles
4034:International Atomic Energy Agency
3777:
3647:International Atomic Energy Agency
3391:that grow on the reactor's walls.
2441:Areas of Europe contaminated with
1982:Soviet badge and medal awarded to
1688:International Atomic Energy Agency
1684:Swedish Radiation Safety Authority
1666:Picture taken by French satellite
1562:
1256:measured anomalous high levels of
664:. The response involved more than
25:
14831:
14815:Radiation accidents and incidents
14760:Environmental disasters in Europe
14397:List of power stations in Ukraine
14242:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
13719:2022 Russian capture of Chernobyl
13181:
12787:from the original on 18 June 2019
12756:from the original on 21 June 2015
12032:European Journal of Endocrinology
11921:from the original on 17 June 2013
11183:from the original on 5 March 2022
11072:Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy
10739:from the original on 31 July 2017
10642:from the original on 15 July 2015
9695:from the original on 5 March 2022
9664:– via Wiley Online Library.
9461:Mulvey, Stephen (20 April 2006).
9365:from the original on 9 April 2011
9282:from the original on 22 June 2015
9232:Wessells, Colin (20 March 2012).
8913:from the original on 9 April 2011
8456:from the original on 26 June 2019
8358:from the original on 19 July 2017
8096:from the original on 20 June 2018
8065:from the original on 15 June 2018
8012:from the original on 8 March 2012
7595:from the original on 30 June 2019
7424:from the original on 22 July 2011
7099:from the original on 29 June 2019
7068:from the original on 29 June 2019
5821:from the original on 12 June 2018
5791:from the original on 10 July 2019
5624:from the original on 21 July 2018
5562:Mulvey, Stephen (18 April 2006).
5474:from the original on 26 June 2019
5329:
5253:from the original on 26 June 2019
5223:from the original on 26 June 2019
5211:Hjelmgaard, Kim (17 April 2016).
5159:from the original on 22 June 2015
4763:from the original on 19 June 2010
4475:
4328:from the original on 22 June 2015
4225:state." That is, all the nuclear-
3897:
3736:Anti-nuclear groups, such as the
2406:Effects of the Chernobyl disaster
2183:
1926:sarcophagus containment structure
1876:
1200:Possible causes of the explosions
1036:
949:, which is a reaction-inhibiting
658:International Nuclear Event Scale
543:2022 Russian capture of Chernobyl
144:Reactor design and operator error
14745:Civilian nuclear power accidents
14618:
14617:
14331:
14330:
14320:
14103:Kramatorsk radiological accident
13829:
13816:
13815:
13655:Chernobyl Children International
13112:
13087:
13062:
13036:
13011:
12986:
12961:
12945:. 23 August 2018. Archived from
12935:
12909:
12887:
12861:
12812:
12799:
12768:
12736:
12662:
12631:
12598:
12552:
12537:
12476:
12471:. Play Film / Discovery Channel.
12351:
12227:
12215:from the original on 15 May 2023
12168:
12156:from the original on 13 May 2011
12068:
11933:
11902:
11890:from the original on 13 May 2011
11788:
11753:
11700:
11525:
11452:
11401:
11334:
11293:
11227:
11195:
10981:
10951:
10920:
10849:
10800:
10751:
10718:
10603:10.1097/00004032-200202000-00003
10582:
10560:10.1097/00004032-200202000-00004
10538:
10390:from the original on 2 July 2019
10369:
10334:
10133:
10051:
9992:
9955:
9923:
9893:
9809:
9784:
9759:
9742:"Ecocide : a Soviet legacy"
9733:
9714:Rybacki, Josef (February 2021).
9707:
9681:
9668:
9646:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04830.x
9567:
9512:
9190:
9163:
9157:
9125:
9095:
8998:
8971:
8949:"How we made the Chernobyl rain"
8940:
8879:
8847:
8822:
8663:
8652:
8641:
8630:
8619:
8593:
8563:
8523:
8512:
8501:
8490:
8479:
8468:
8442:Schipani, Andres (2 July 2009).
8435:
8405:
8352:The United Nations and Chernobyl
8298:
8268:
8232:
8196:
8165:
8108:
8024:
7994:
7968:
7942:
7911:
7801:from the original on 10 May 2021
7674:
7607:
7575:
7536:
7511:
7481:
7449:
7038:from the original on 11 May 2012
6094:from the original on 5 July 2019
5999:from the original on 5 July 2018
5882:. 10 August 2011. Archived from
5680:Bond, Michael (21 August 2004).
5443:from the original on 17 May 2006
5311:from the original on 16 May 2006
4668:. 3 January 2010. Archived from
4609:from the original on 13 May 2011
4237:
4015:anti-nuclear movement in Germany
3835:Abandoned buildings in Chernobyl
3689: Adolescents, ages 15 to 18
3082:in the reactor, about 1760
2258:exclusion zone. In Belarus, the
2147:ceramic. The lava materials are
1782:
1654:areas to approximately 350,000.
1615:Problems playing this file? See
1578:
1527:Council of Ministers of the USSR
1308:Contrary to safety regulations,
1279:first explosion, consisted of a
1241:, similar to the explosion of a
491:Chernobyl Children International
198:
14785:Industrial fires and explosions
14755:Environment of the Soviet Union
14005:List of orphan source incidents
13692:Friends of Chernobyl's Children
12919:. 5 August 2018. Archived from
12875:from the original on 7 May 2019
12691:from the original on 8 May 2015
12449:Gross Domestic Product deflator
11769:. 22 April 2011. Archived from
11717:International Journal of Cancer
11607:from the original on 3 May 2012
10725:Mycio, Mary (21 January 2013).
10304:Hallenbeck, William H. (1994).
9498:. Vienna, Austria: IAEA. 1991.
8947:Gray, Richard (22 April 2007).
8829:Mould, Richard Francis (2000).
8600:Mettler, Katie (12 July 2019).
8286:from the original on 1 May 2020
8038:. 18 March 2011. Archived from
7975:Turner, Ben (3 February 2022).
7465:. 25 April 2013. Archived from
7375:
7345:
7293:
7271:"Chernobyl's silent graveyards"
7263:
7236:
7203:
7182:
7080:
7050:
7019:
6990:
6958:
6920:
6860:
6769:Kramer, Sarah (26 April 2016).
6711:
6595:from the original on 2 May 2011
6591:(in Ukrainian). 25 April 2011.
6577:
6458:
6357:
6321:
6285:
6271:. New York: St Martin's Press.
6115:
6106:
5980:
5898:
5874:"Meltdown in Chernobyl (Video)"
5866:
5803:
5714:
5555:
5525:
5486:
5462:Wendorf, Marcia (11 May 2019).
5425:
5389:
5350:
5323:
5289:
5277:
5235:
5171:
5120:
5058:
4995:
4860:
4826:
4745:
4713:
4676:
4654:
4638:. 26 April 2006. Archived from
4591:
4249:Communist Party of Soviet Union
4210:
4104:S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat
4038:nuclear and radiation accidents
3892:
3720:International Journal of Cancer
3445:
3358:dissolution of the Soviet Union
3175:
2297:was established in 1997 at the
2096:A need for larger, longer-term
1973:
1910:Construction of the sarcophagus
1886:, first deputy director of the
1871:
920:, deputy chief-engineer of the
768:, or in the worst case, a full
518:Friends of Chernobyl's Children
13141:
12255:10.1001/archinternmed.2009.440
12201:10.1016/j.reprotox.2007.06.003
11300:Dolk, H.; Nichols, R. (1999).
10489:10.1016/j.mrgentox.2004.11.002
10270:"Welsh sheep controls revoked"
9138:University of Colorado Boulder
8731:10.1080/00963402.1996.11456623
8172:Evans, Patrick (7 July 2012).
7210:Hill, Kyle (4 December 2013).
7026:Burnett, Tom (28 March 2011).
6153:Disasters that Shook the World
5993:Rotor & Wing International
4526:
4497:
4396:
4377:; Seo, Joann (21 April 2016).
4367:
4340:
4268:
3119:form; caesium-137, along with
2057:Chernobyl New Safe Confinement
2048:Chernobyl New Safe Confinement
1842:Foundation protection measures
1554:Boryspil International Airport
815:
751:Reactor cooling after shutdown
735:Chernobyl New Safe Confinement
135:Nuclear and Radiation accident
13:
1:
14800:Man-made disasters in Ukraine
14795:Man-made disasters in Belarus
14750:Disasters in the Soviet Union
14327:Nuclear technology portal
12531:10.1080/00139157.1992.9931445
12430:"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?"
12295:Union of Concerned Scientists
12243:Archives of Internal Medicine
11766:Union of Concerned Scientists
11236:"Chernobyl-related abortions"
9907:. 23 May 2007. Archived from
9314:. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
9234:"Cesium-137: A Deadly Hazard"
7826:. Random House. p. 340.
7783:Stone, Richard (5 May 2021).
7357:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
5617:10.1080/00295450.2017.1384269
5305:Chernobyl. How did it happen?
5098:"What Happened at Chernobyl?"
4417:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)30304-x
4261:
3945:nuclear reactor safety system
3738:Union of Concerned Scientists
3695: Children, ages up to 14
3152:%; this was later revised to
3032:radiation dose reconstruction
1758:Core meltdown risk mitigation
1607:Russian language announcement
1525:, the deputy chairman of the
1480:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
1466:
1327:, who died on 11 May 1986 of
1254:V.G. Khlopin Radium Institute
1143:
922:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
899:emergency core cooling system
831:emergency core cooling system
802:emergency core cooling system
745:
646:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
92:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
14097:Andreev Bay nuclear accident
14084:Chazhma Bay nuclear accident
13153:Chernobyl. How did it happen
12546:"Turning point at Chernobyl"
12485:"Turning point at Chernobyl"
12084:. April 2006. Archived from
11084:10.1016/0753-3322(91)90022-L
10927:Grady, Denise (7 May 1996).
10145:Statens landbruksforvaltning
9939:(in German). 18 March 2011.
9545:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.08.009
9445:10.1016/0265-931X(94)90050-7
9409:10.1016/0265-931X(94)00042-U
8806:(in French). 24 April 2006.
8142:10.1016/j.envint.2014.08.012
6974:(in Russian). Archived from
6972:Exposing the Chornobyl Myths
4683:Ragheb, M. (22 March 2011).
4183:List of industrial disasters
4019:end the use of nuclear power
4011:federal environment ministry
3770:The German affiliate of the
3729:The risk projections suggest
3596:
3140:An early estimate for total
3024:external relative gamma dose
2970:Relative isotopic abundances
1676:Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant
1574:Pripyat evacuation broadcast
1348:Video still image showing a
1122:Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant
7:
14730:April 1986 events in Europe
14031:Nyonoksa radiation accident
12605:Marlow, Max (9 June 2019).
12235:Berrington De González, Amy
11632:Journal of Thyroid Research
11165:Journal of Nuclear Medicine
10959:"Publications on Chornobyl"
7820:Higginbotham, Adam (2019).
6655:Glass Physics and Chemistry
6235:National Geographic Channel
6082:"The Truth About Chernobyl"
5879:National Geographic Channel
5749:Pure and Applied Geophysics
5643:Meyer, C. M. (March 2007).
5330:Higginbotham, Adam (2019).
4160:Russian invasion of Ukraine
4149:
3987:, which took no action and
3683: Adults, ages 19 to 34
3405:radiocaesium, boars of the
3321:Cladosporium sphaerospermum
2465:> 1,480 kBq/m
2385:Russian invasion of Ukraine
2198:A map of the Exclusion Zone
2071:In 1997, the international
1352:block ejected from the core
1304:being decorated for bravery
1216:that produced hydrogen and
1065:automatic control rods (12)
1031:
864:Test delay and shift change
660:, the other being the 2011
10:
14836:
14303:Russell–Einstein Manifesto
14226:Films about nuclear issues
14221:Books about nuclear issues
14109:Three Mile Island accident
14037:Fukushima nuclear accident
13916:Military nuclear accidents
13911:Nuclear meltdown accidents
13188:Official UN Chernobyl site
13174:
13074:The Babushkas of Chernobyl
11880:"Chernobyl health effects"
11795:González, Abel J. (2014).
11626:Jargin, Sergei V. (2012).
11159:Ketchum, Linda E. (1987).
10632:Kuchinskaya, Olga (2007).
10376:Lax, Eric (13 July 1986).
9816:Suess, Timm (March 2009).
8854:Ikäheimonen, T. K. (ed.).
8798:"Tchernobyl, 20 ans après"
7920:"Chornobyl by the numbers"
7245:"Чернобыль – вахта смерти"
6263:Marples, David R. (1988).
6053:Medvedev, Grigori (1989).
6030:(4): 20–27. Archived from
5493:Davletbaev, R. I. (1995).
5247:interestingengineering.com
4134:The Babushkas of Chernobyl
4054:
4032:was called in 1986 by the
4023:Fukushima nuclear disaster
3901:
3798:Long-term radiation deaths
3449:
3168:
3051:, and the majority of the
2973:
2403:
2360:
2246:
2187:
2045:
1913:
1736:International Workers' Day
1709:Three Mile Island accident
1707:(TASS) then discussed the
1443:
662:Fukushima nuclear accident
177:Deaths due to the disaster
14725:1986 disasters in Ukraine
14715:1986 disasters in Belarus
14710:1986 industrial disasters
14615:
14564:
14543:
14515:
14483:
14452:
14414:
14405:
14382:
14316:
14263:Nuclear-Free Future Award
14201:
14172:Totskoye nuclear exercise
14018:
14000:Sunken nuclear submarines
13885:
13809:
13800:National Chernobyl Museum
13747:Chernobyl: The Lost Tapes
13708:
13646:
13614:Energetik cultural palace
13457:
13353:
13337:Groundwater contamination
13309:Comparison with Fukushima
13291:
13122:La bataille de Tchernobyl
11682:World Health Organization
11128:10.1136/bmj.295.6606.1100
10415:. CRC Press. p. 77.
10355:10.1007/s10512-012-9607-5
10308:. CRC Press. p. 15.
10085:10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.017
9981:10.1051/radiopro/20095108
9795:. New York: Basic Books.
9588:10.1007/s10006-004-0524-1
8833:. CRC Press. p. 48.
8121:Environment International
8055:"Greetings from Isotopia"
7893:Christian Science Monitor
7759:10.1007/s10512-006-0079-3
7655:World Nuclear Association
7650:"Chernobyl Accident 1986"
7337:Petryna, Adriana (2002).
6950:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
6870:Чернобыль: адрес мужества
6667:10.1134/S1087659609020126
6631:10.1134/S1066362208050131
6365:"LIVING WITH CATASTROPHE"
6056:The Truth About Chernobyl
5770:10.1007/s00024-009-0029-9
4636:World Health Organization
4570:World Health Organization
4098:S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Clear Sky
3954:Nuclear power protest in
3808:Linear no-threshold model
3804:World Health Organization
3629:and lower verbal IQ. The
2929:groundwater contamination
2900:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2451:
2448:
2128:Fuel-containing materials
2042:No. 4 reactor confinement
1248:Their evidence came from
1162:reactor's thermal power.
780:, but over 6% comes from
727:radioactive contamination
596:National Chernobyl Museum
456:Energetik cultural palace
245:Groundwater contamination
225:Comparison with Fukushima
159:
148:
140:
130:
87:
71:
53:
49:
37:
14700:1986 in the Soviet Union
14602:List of nuclear reactors
14392:Nuclear power in Ukraine
14376:Nuclear power in Ukraine
13473:Chernihiv–Ovruch railway
10776:10.1177/1559325815592391
7690:Condensed Matter Physics
6966:
6928:
6869:
6804:
6194:
5066:
4868:"Main Circulating Pumps"
4835:"Turbogenerator Rundown"
4348:"The Chornobyl Accident"
4204:
3524:conditions and cancers.
3506:myelodysplastic syndrome
3483:acute radiation syndrome
3317:4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide
3256:as well as Scandinavia.
2190:Chernobyl Exclusion Zone
1329:acute radiation sickness
835:loss-of-coolant accident
703:acute radiation syndrome
668:and cost an estimated 18
353:Chernihiv–Ovruch railway
169:acute radiation sickness
155:Level 7 (major accident)
14607:Nuclear power phase-out
14278:Nuclear power phase-out
12468:The battle of Chernobyl
11804:Nuclear Law in Progress
11485:10.1126/science.abg2365
10027:10.1021/acs.est.3c03565
9676:J Photochem Photobiol B
9525:Biological Conservation
8707:"The Decade of Despair"
8053:Boyle, Rebecca (2017).
6722:The Legacy of Chernobyl
6541:28 April – Monday 09:30
6233:. Season 1. Episode 7.
5921:"Chernobyl 20 years on"
5468:Interesting Engineering
4810:The Legacy of Chernobyl
4138:The Battle of Chernobyl
3908:nuclear power phase-out
3627:intellectual disability
3572:Withdrawn investigation
3260:Flora, fauna, and funga
3101:, solid particles, and
2420:nuclear weapons testing
2253:During the dry season,
731:radiological protection
175:(for more details, see
14790:INES Level 7 accidents
14592:Environmental movement
14587:Nuclear weapons debate
14283:Nuclear weapons debate
13685:Chernobyl Shelter Fund
12837:10.1093/sleep/11.1.100
12615:. The Telegraph (UK).
11853:. IAEA. Archived from
10770:(3): 155932581559239.
10378:"The Chernobyl Doctor"
9866:10.1002/etc.5620190501
7000:The Chernobyl Accident
5019:Karpan, N. V. (2006).
3971:
3959:
3928:
3847:
3836:
3734:
3702:
3563:Disputed investigation
3473:
3464:
3380:
3276:
3236:
3185:
3111:20 to 40% of all core
3078:50 to 60% of all core
3035:
3012:
2934:Rain was deliberately
2295:Chernobyl Shelter Fund
2211:
2199:
2073:Chernobyl Shelter Fund
2060:
2005:
1993:Portraits of deceased
1986:
1929:
1779:
1771:
1726:Around the same time,
1671:
1638:
1631:
1567:
1548:, hydro-meteorologist
1537:
1511:Volodymyr Shcherbytsky
1483:
1440:Accident investigation
1397:a criticality accident
1353:
1342:
1305:
1243:fizzled nuclear weapon
1167:nuclear chain reaction
1104:
1071:
1050:neutron detectors (12)
885:
873:
773:
513:Chernobyl Shelter Fund
59:; 38 years ago
14690:1986 health disasters
14653:51.38972°N 30.09917°E
14597:Anti-nuclear protests
14141:K-19 nuclear accident
13936:Nuclear weapons tests
13756:Chernobyl liquidators
13175:Further information:
10963:Texas Tech University
10900:(Retracted, see
10275:Food Standards Agency
9070:10.1186/1476-069X-1-4
8932:Gould, Peter (1990).
7359:. 13 September 1993.
7305:CollectingHistory.net
7251:(in Russian). Rosatom
7064:. 18 September 2012.
6810:Московский комсомолец
6805:Белые пятна Чернобыля
6718:Medvedev, Z. (1990).
6524:The Chernobyl Gallery
6230:Seconds From Disaster
5433:"Chernobyl as it was"
4070:Voices from Chernobyl
3965:
3953:
3919:
3912:anti-nuclear movement
3842:
3834:
3827:Socio-economic impact
3726:
3674:
3631:Chernobyl liquidators
3470:
3459:
3370:
3267:
3234:
3183:
3121:isotopes of strontium
3018:
3006:
2462:555–1,480 kBq/m
2422:at the height of the
2315:Government of Ukraine
2205:
2197:
2188:Further information:
2055:
2046:Further information:
1995:Chernobyl liquidators
1992:
1984:Chernobyl liquidators
1981:
1923:
1906:) of radiation each.
1895:Chernobyl liquidators
1777:
1765:
1752:Chernobyl liquidators
1665:
1658:Official announcement
1636:
1626:
1566:
1535:
1474:
1347:
1333:
1299:
1102:
1044:
882:Generation II reactor
879:
871:
758:
564:Chernobyl liquidators
165:(including 1 missing)
14582:Nuclear power debate
14273:Nuclear power debate
14135:Cuban Missile Crisis
13986:in the United States
13784:New Safe Confinement
13125:. Passé sous silence
12973:www.stalker-game.com
12807:The Edmonton Journal
12112:"Chernobyl's Legacy"
11684:. 5 September 2005.
11427:10.1155/2016/1243527
11319:10.1093/ije/28.5.941
10704:10.1511/2006.62.1011
10661:Mycio, Mary (2005).
10306:Radiation Protection
10278:. 29 November 2012.
9828:on 17 September 2018
9746:Great Decisions 1994
9049:Environmental Health
9027:on 28 December 2010.
7495:. 13 February 2013.
6997:Sich, A. R. (1994).
6526:. 15 February 2013.
6373:. 10 December 1995.
5964:. 21 November 1997.
5840:Embury-Dennis, Tom.
5817:. 21 November 2017.
5683:"Cheating Chernobyl"
5669:on 11 December 2013.
4411:(10029): 1707–1708.
4156:Capture of Chernobyl
3904:Nuclear power debate
3717:A 2006 paper in the
3659:background radiation
3616:deterministic effect
3165:Environmental impact
2304:New Safe Confinement
2243:Forest fire concerns
2206:The entrance to the
2110:Holtec International
2081:New Safe Confinement
2028:Ukrainian government
1814:, and equipped with
1766:Chernobyl lava-like
1491:Valentyna Shevchenko
1271:of about 10 tons of
1177:of 225 tons of
891:electrical engineers
766:fuel cladding damage
584:New Safe Confinement
14648: /
14258:Nuclear close calls
13591:Azure swimming pool
13208:National Geographic
12994:"Chernobyl Diaries"
12523:1992ESPSD..34e..25S
12451:figures follow the
12193:2007RepTx..24..289Z
12122:(2). Archived from
12044:10.1530/EJE-12-0144
11860:on 15 February 2010
11645:10.1155/2012/373879
11477:2021Sci...372..725Y
10871:1996Natur.380..707B
10825:2011IEAM....7..371B
10481:2005MRGTE.581...69F
10076:2015CBio...25.R824D
10019:2023EnST...5713601S
10013:(36): 13601–13611.
9818:"Chernobyl journal"
9638:2009NYASA1181..221Y
9537:2011BCons.144.2787M
9401:1995JEnvR..27..207K
9239:Stanford University
9061:2002EnvHe...1....4Z
8955:. London, England.
8953:The Daily Telegraph
8772:Chernobylreport.org
8723:1996BuAtS..52c..20M
8606:The Washington Post
8133:2014EnInt..73..346E
7860:The Daily Telegraph
7711:10.5488/cmp.5.3.449
7702:2002CMPh....5..449B
7159:National Geographic
6080:Medvedev, Grigori.
5929:. London, England.
5761:2010PApGe.167..575P
4992:, pp. 312–313.
4841:(in Russian). N/A.
4806:Medvedev, Zhores A.
4158:– part of the 2022
4095:. A prequel called
4075:Svetlana Alexievich
3653:estimated a global
2459:185–555 kBq/m
2445:
2372:Volodymyr Zelenskyy
2268:forestry management
1964:the elephant's foot
1748:Azure Swimming Pool
1403:and more dangerous
1234:xenon radioisotopes
1212:reaction or by the
1190:Alexander Yuvchenko
1171:radioactive fallout
1012:light-water reactor
439:Azure swimming pool
204:The reactor in 2013
163:2 killed by debris
34:
14770:Explosions in 1986
14740:Chernobyl, Ukraine
14685:Chernobyl disaster
14664:Chernobyl disaster
14658:51.38972; 30.09917
14166:Operation Plumbbob
14129:Operation Fishbowl
14066:Chernobyl disaster
13763:Chernobyl necklace
13441:Leonid Telyatnikov
13413:Vassili Nesterenko
13285:Chernobyl disaster
12714:; Holden, Gerald;
12409:on 19 January 2012
11995:10.1002/cncr.22321
11915:The New York Times
11543:on 30 August 2013.
10933:The New York Times
10696:American Scientist
10383:The New York Times
10151:on 3 November 2013
9911:on 8 November 2018
8762:and UK scientists
8311:The New York Times
7696:(3{31}): 449–471.
7620:World Nuclear News
7588:World Nuclear News
7414:""Shelter" object"
7192:(1994 ed.). CSIS.
7093:The New York Times
7032:Hawai'i News Daily
6978:on 8 November 2018
6473:(apr26 1): d2443.
6440:The New York Times
5604:Nuclear Technology
5102:Nuclear Fissionary
4672:on 5 October 2012.
4375:Samet, Jonathan M.
4321:. OECD-NEA. 2002.
4276:"Accident of 1986"
4051:In popular culture
3972:
3960:
3929:
3885:country than in a
3848:
3837:
3703:
3641:Cancer assessments
3635:germline mutations
3514:radioactive iodine
3474:
3465:
3389:radiotrophic fungi
3381:
3277:
3272:on exhibit at the
3237:
3186:
3092:10 becquerels
3036:
3020:Logarithmic scaled
3013:
2984:, those with high
2960:radiation exposure
2917:Scottish Highlands
2915:mountains and the
2440:
2217:zone of alienation
2212:
2208:zone of alienation
2200:
2177:Gadolinium nitrate
2122:dry storage vaults
2061:
2006:
1987:
1930:
1780:
1772:
1717:The New York Times
1672:
1639:
1568:
1538:
1484:
1417:ionizing radiation
1354:
1350:graphite moderator
1306:
1302:Leonid Telyatnikov
1287:Immediate response
1239:prompt criticality
1105:
1072:
1055:control rods (167)
1020:neutron absorption
886:
874:
774:
638:Chernobyl disaster
569:Chernobyl necklace
325:Leonid Telyatnikov
305:Vassili Nesterenko
190:Chernobyl disaster
167:and 28 killed by
57:26 April 1986
33:Chernobyl disaster
32:
18:Chernobyl Disaster
14780:Health in Ukraine
14631:
14630:
14511:
14510:
14387:Energy in Ukraine
14342:
14341:
14268:Nuclear-free zone
14231:Anti-war movement
14187:Rocky Flats Plant
13845:
13844:
13739:(2019 miniseries)
13434:Nikolai Tarakanov
13385:Valery Khodemchuk
13162:978-5-93728-006-0
13119:Johnson, Thomas.
12949:on 23 August 2018
12897:. 13 October 2021
12729:978-0-86091-962-9
12289:(17 April 2011).
12287:Gronlund, Lisbeth
12249:(22): 2071–2077.
11989:(11): 2559–2566.
11730:10.1002/ijc.22037
11709:Gilbert, Ethel S.
11471:(6543): 725–729.
11414:Neural Plasticity
11350:. 16 March 2011.
11211:. 16 March 2011.
11053:978-0-7923-0601-6
10865:(6576): 707–708.
10676:978-0-30910-309-1
10422:978-0-8493-7004-5
10315:978-0-87371-996-4
10070:(19): R824–R826.
9802:978-0-465-01664-8
9691:. 2 August 2020.
9531:(12): 2787–2798.
9505:978-9-20129-191-2
9355:978-92-0-114705-9
9321:978-3-540-23866-9
9210:on 19 August 2011
9171:Purdue University
9145:on 30 August 2013
8903:978-92-0-114705-9
8875:on 8 August 2007.
8840:978-0-7503-0670-6
8389:. 26 April 2019.
8282:. 24 April 2020.
8206:(14 March 2014).
8042:on 30 April 2013.
7895:. 24 April 2016.
7833:978-1-4735-4082-8
7623:. 4 August 2017.
7523:world-nuclear.org
7307:. 26 April 1986.
7277:. 20 April 2006.
7198:978-0-89206-302-4
6913:978-0-330-29743-1
6737:978-0-393-30814-3
6479:10.1136/bmj.d2443
6408:. 22 April 2011.
6201:Istorychna Pravda
6162:978-1-60320-247-3
6066:978-2-226-04031-2
5506:978-5-283-03618-2
5399:(26 April 2011).
5370:978-5-98706-018-6
5343:978-1-5011-3464-7
5036:978-966-8135-21-7
4819:978-0-393-30814-3
4572:. 23 April 2011.
4538:world-nuclear.org
4519:978-3-319-93918-6
4468:978-0-40850-061-6
4110:Chernobyl Diaries
3991:the information.
3985:Central Committee
3852:Mikhail Gorbachev
3583:mitochondrial DNA
3490:Robert Peter Gale
3423:adiabatic cooling
2921:adiabatic cooling
2905:
2904:
2435:Iberian Peninsula
2395:Long-term effects
2278:Recovery projects
2173:neutron moderator
2098:radioactive waste
2001:power protest in
1832:Order For Courage
1602:
1462:Crisis management
1393:Manhattan Project
1374:neutron-absorbing
1114:RBMK control rods
1025:positive feedback
995:turbine condenser
955:reactor poisoning
798:diesel generators
782:radioactive decay
741:Accident sequence
666:500,000 personnel
648:near the city of
634:
633:
559:(2019 miniseries)
320:Nikolai Tarakanov
285:Valery Khodemchuk
183:
182:
16:(Redirected from
14827:
14820:Soviet cover-ups
14775:Fires in Ukraine
14672:
14671:
14669:
14668:
14667:
14665:
14660:
14659:
14654:
14649:
14646:
14645:
14644:
14641:
14621:
14620:
14536:
14412:
14411:
14369:
14362:
14355:
14346:
14345:
14334:
14333:
14325:
14324:
14323:
14154:Kyshtym disaster
14149:nuclear meltdown
14076:Related articles
14060:Goiânia accident
13872:
13865:
13858:
13849:
13848:
13838:
13833:
13832:
13824:
13819:
13818:
13802:
13795:
13786:
13779:
13772:
13765:
13758:
13751:
13741:
13731:
13727:Chernobyl: Abyss
13721:
13701:
13694:
13687:
13680:
13673:
13664:
13657:
13639:
13630:
13623:
13616:
13607:
13600:
13598:Avanhard stadium
13593:
13586:
13579:
13570:
13563:
13556:
13547:
13540:
13533:
13526:
13519:
13512:
13505:
13498:
13489:
13482:
13475:
13468:
13450:
13443:
13436:
13429:
13427:Volodymyr Pravyk
13422:
13420:Vladimir Pikalov
13415:
13408:
13401:
13394:
13392:Boris Shcherbina
13387:
13380:
13378:Vasily Ignatenko
13373:
13366:
13364:Aleksandr Akimov
13346:
13339:
13332:
13325:
13318:
13311:
13304:
13278:
13271:
13264:
13255:
13254:
13166:
13149:Dyatlov, Anatoly
13135:
13134:
13132:
13130:
13116:
13110:
13109:
13107:
13105:
13091:
13085:
13084:
13082:
13080:
13066:
13060:
13059:
13057:
13055:
13040:
13034:
13033:
13031:
13029:
13015:
13009:
13008:
13006:
13004:
12990:
12984:
12983:
12981:
12979:
12965:
12959:
12958:
12956:
12954:
12939:
12933:
12932:
12930:
12928:
12923:on 5 August 2018
12913:
12907:
12906:
12904:
12902:
12891:
12885:
12884:
12882:
12880:
12865:
12859:
12858:
12848:
12816:
12810:
12803:
12797:
12796:
12794:
12792:
12781:Euromaidan Press
12772:
12766:
12765:
12763:
12761:
12740:
12734:
12733:
12716:Falk, Richard A.
12707:
12701:
12700:
12698:
12696:
12690:
12675:
12666:
12660:
12659:
12657:
12655:
12638:Plokhy, Serhii.
12635:
12629:
12628:
12626:
12624:
12610:
12602:
12596:
12595:
12590:
12588:
12556:
12550:
12549:
12541:
12535:
12534:
12506:
12500:
12499:
12497:
12495:
12480:
12474:
12472:
12462:
12456:
12446:
12444:
12442:
12425:
12419:
12418:
12416:
12414:
12405:. Archived from
12388:
12382:
12381:
12379:
12377:
12355:
12349:
12348:
12346:
12344:
12338:
12325:
12317:
12311:
12310:
12308:
12306:
12283:
12277:
12276:
12266:
12231:
12225:
12224:
12222:
12220:
12187:(3–4): 289–295.
12172:
12166:
12165:
12163:
12161:
12142:
12136:
12135:
12133:
12131:
12126:on 5 August 2011
12107:
12098:
12097:
12095:
12093:
12072:
12066:
12065:
12055:
12038:(6): 1049–1060.
12023:
12017:
12016:
12006:
11973:
11967:
11966:
11964:
11962:
11956:
11945:
11937:
11931:
11930:
11928:
11926:
11906:
11900:
11899:
11897:
11895:
11876:
11870:
11869:
11867:
11865:
11859:
11848:
11840:
11823:
11822:
11820:
11818:
11812:
11801:
11792:
11786:
11785:
11780:
11778:
11757:
11751:
11750:
11732:
11723:(6): 1224–1235.
11704:
11698:
11697:
11695:
11693:
11674:
11668:
11667:
11657:
11647:
11623:
11617:
11616:
11614:
11612:
11606:
11595:
11587:
11581:
11580:
11578:
11576:
11570:
11559:
11551:
11545:
11544:
11539:. Archived from
11529:
11523:
11522:
11504:
11456:
11450:
11449:
11439:
11429:
11405:
11399:
11398:
11370:
11364:
11363:
11361:
11359:
11338:
11332:
11331:
11321:
11297:
11291:
11290:
11262:
11256:
11255:
11253:
11251:
11231:
11225:
11224:
11222:
11220:
11199:
11193:
11192:
11190:
11188:
11156:
11150:
11149:
11139:
11105:
11096:
11095:
11067:
11058:
11057:
11039:
11028:
11027:
11009:
10985:
10979:
10978:
10976:
10974:
10955:
10949:
10948:
10946:
10944:
10924:
10918:
10917:
10898:
10879:10.1038/380707a0
10853:
10847:
10846:
10836:
10834:10.1002/ieam.238
10804:
10798:
10797:
10787:
10755:
10749:
10748:
10746:
10744:
10722:
10716:
10715:
10690:
10681:
10680:
10668:
10658:
10652:
10651:
10649:
10647:
10629:
10623:
10622:
10586:
10580:
10579:
10542:
10536:
10535:
10527:
10516:
10515:
10507:
10501:
10500:
10463:
10454:
10450:
10439:
10438:
10436:
10434:
10406:
10400:
10399:
10397:
10395:
10373:
10367:
10366:
10338:
10332:
10329:
10323:
10322:
10301:
10292:
10291:
10289:
10287:
10266:
10260:
10259:
10257:
10255:
10236:
10230:
10229:
10227:
10225:
10203:
10197:
10196:
10194:
10192:
10170:
10161:
10160:
10158:
10156:
10137:
10131:
10130:
10128:
10126:
10104:
10098:
10097:
10087:
10055:
10049:
10048:
10038:
9996:
9990:
9989:
9983:
9959:
9953:
9952:
9950:
9948:
9927:
9921:
9920:
9918:
9916:
9897:
9891:
9890:
9888:
9886:
9868:
9859:(5): 1231–1232.
9844:
9838:
9837:
9835:
9833:
9824:. Archived from
9813:
9807:
9806:
9788:
9782:
9781:
9779:
9777:
9763:
9757:
9756:
9754:
9752:
9737:
9731:
9730:
9728:
9726:
9711:
9705:
9704:
9702:
9700:
9685:
9679:
9672:
9666:
9665:
9617:
9608:
9607:
9571:
9565:
9564:
9516:
9510:
9509:
9492:
9483:
9482:
9480:
9478:
9458:
9449:
9448:
9428:
9422:
9419:
9413:
9412:
9384:
9375:
9374:
9372:
9370:
9364:
9347:
9337:
9326:
9325:
9307:
9292:
9291:
9289:
9287:
9281:
9270:
9262:
9256:
9255:
9253:
9251:
9229:
9220:
9219:
9217:
9215:
9194:
9188:
9187:
9185:
9183:
9161:
9155:
9154:
9152:
9150:
9129:
9123:
9122:
9120:
9118:
9109:. Archived from
9099:
9093:
9092:
9082:
9072:
9040:
9029:
9028:
9026:
9011:
9002:
8996:
8995:
8993:
8991:
8975:
8969:
8968:
8966:
8964:
8944:
8938:
8937:
8929:
8923:
8922:
8920:
8918:
8912:
8891:
8883:
8877:
8876:
8874:
8867:
8851:
8845:
8844:
8826:
8820:
8819:
8817:
8815:
8794:
8788:
8787:
8785:
8783:
8756:
8747:
8746:
8744:
8742:
8702:
8691:
8690:
8688:
8686:
8681:on 5 August 2011
8667:
8661:
8656:
8650:
8645:
8639:
8634:
8628:
8623:
8617:
8616:
8614:
8612:
8597:
8591:
8590:
8588:
8586:
8577:. 10 July 2019.
8567:
8561:
8560:
8554:
8546:
8544:
8542:
8527:
8521:
8516:
8510:
8505:
8499:
8494:
8488:
8483:
8477:
8472:
8466:
8465:
8463:
8461:
8439:
8433:
8432:
8430:
8428:
8419:. Archived from
8409:
8403:
8402:
8400:
8398:
8379:
8368:
8367:
8365:
8363:
8344:
8335:
8334:
8332:
8330:
8302:
8296:
8295:
8293:
8291:
8272:
8266:
8265:
8263:
8261:
8255:
8244:
8236:
8230:
8229:
8227:
8225:
8200:
8194:
8193:
8191:
8189:
8169:
8163:
8162:
8144:
8112:
8106:
8105:
8103:
8101:
8081:
8075:
8074:
8072:
8070:
8050:
8044:
8043:
8028:
8022:
8021:
8019:
8017:
7998:
7992:
7991:
7989:
7987:
7972:
7966:
7965:
7963:
7961:
7946:
7940:
7939:
7937:
7935:
7915:
7909:
7908:
7906:
7904:
7885:
7876:
7875:
7873:
7871:
7851:
7842:
7841:
7817:
7811:
7810:
7808:
7806:
7780:
7771:
7770:
7742:
7731:
7730:
7728:
7726:
7720:
7713:
7687:
7678:
7672:
7671:
7669:
7667:
7646:
7637:
7636:
7634:
7632:
7611:
7605:
7604:
7602:
7600:
7579:
7573:
7572:
7570:
7568:
7540:
7534:
7533:
7531:
7529:
7515:
7509:
7508:
7506:
7504:
7485:
7479:
7478:
7476:
7474:
7469:on 29 April 2013
7462:Mainichi Shimbun
7453:
7447:
7446:
7431:
7429:
7410:
7404:
7402:
7400:
7398:
7379:
7373:
7372:
7370:
7368:
7349:
7343:
7342:
7334:
7321:
7320:
7318:
7316:
7297:
7291:
7290:
7288:
7286:
7267:
7261:
7260:
7258:
7256:
7240:
7234:
7233:
7231:
7229:
7207:
7201:
7186:
7180:
7179:
7153:
7147:
7146:
7144:
7142:
7122:
7109:
7108:
7106:
7104:
7084:
7078:
7077:
7075:
7073:
7054:
7048:
7047:
7045:
7043:
7023:
7017:
7016:
7014:
7012:
6994:
6988:
6987:
6985:
6983:
6962:
6956:
6955:
6949:
6941:
6939:
6937:
6924:
6918:
6917:
6899:
6893:
6892:
6890:
6888:
6864:
6858:
6857:
6855:
6853:
6841:Associated Press
6832:
6826:
6825:
6823:
6821:
6799:
6793:
6792:
6790:
6788:
6776:Business Insider
6766:
6760:
6759:
6751:
6742:
6741:
6725:
6715:
6709:
6708:
6698:
6685:
6679:
6678:
6649:
6643:
6642:
6614:
6605:
6604:
6602:
6600:
6589:Історична правда
6581:
6575:
6573:
6565:
6560:
6554:
6553:
6537:
6535:
6516:
6507:
6506:
6462:
6456:
6455:
6453:
6451:
6431:
6422:
6421:
6419:
6417:
6396:
6387:
6386:
6384:
6382:
6361:
6355:
6354:
6352:
6350:
6344:
6333:
6325:
6319:
6318:
6316:
6314:
6308:
6297:
6289:
6283:
6282:
6270:
6260:
6239:
6238:
6224:
6218:
6217:
6215:
6213:
6208:on 26 April 2016
6190:
6167:
6166:
6149:
6143:
6142:
6140:
6138:
6119:
6113:
6110:
6104:
6103:
6101:
6099:
6093:
6086:
6077:
6071:
6070:
6050:
6044:
6043:
6041:
6039:
6015:
6009:
6008:
6006:
6004:
5984:
5978:
5977:
5975:
5973:
5954:
5943:
5942:
5940:
5938:
5916:
5907:
5906:
5902:
5896:
5895:
5893:
5891:
5870:
5864:
5863:
5861:
5859:
5837:
5831:
5830:
5828:
5826:
5807:
5801:
5800:
5798:
5796:
5781:
5775:
5774:
5772:
5740:
5727:
5726:
5718:
5712:
5711:
5709:
5707:
5685:
5677:
5671:
5670:
5668:
5662:. Archived from
5649:
5640:
5634:
5633:
5631:
5629:
5619:
5595:
5584:
5583:
5581:
5579:
5559:
5553:
5552:
5550:
5548:
5539:. Archived from
5529:
5523:
5522:
5520:
5518:
5490:
5484:
5483:
5481:
5479:
5459:
5453:
5452:
5450:
5448:
5429:
5423:
5422:
5420:
5418:
5393:
5387:
5386:
5384:
5382:
5354:
5348:
5347:
5327:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5316:
5297:Dyatlov, Anatoly
5293:
5287:
5281:
5275:
5269:
5263:
5262:
5260:
5258:
5239:
5233:
5232:
5230:
5228:
5208:
5199:
5198:
5196:
5194:
5175:
5169:
5168:
5166:
5164:
5158:
5147:
5139:
5130:
5124:
5118:
5117:
5115:
5113:
5104:. Archived from
5094:
5088:
5087:
5085:
5083:
5062:
5056:
5055:
5053:
5051:
5045:
5039:. Archived from
5016:
5005:
4999:
4993:
4987:
4978:
4977:
4975:
4973:
4967:
4956:
4948:
4891:
4890:
4885:
4883:
4864:
4858:
4857:
4852:
4850:
4830:
4824:
4823:
4802:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4768:
4749:
4743:
4742:
4740:
4738:
4733:on 19 March 2014
4732:
4725:
4717:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4706:
4700:
4694:. Archived from
4689:
4680:
4674:
4673:
4658:
4652:
4651:
4649:
4647:
4628:
4619:
4618:
4616:
4614:
4595:
4589:
4588:
4586:
4584:
4578:
4567:
4559:
4550:
4549:
4547:
4545:
4530:
4524:
4523:
4508:(2nd ed.).
4501:
4495:
4494:
4486:
4473:
4472:
4454:
4445:
4444:
4400:
4394:
4393:
4391:
4389:
4383:
4371:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4360:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4327:
4320:
4312:
4291:
4290:
4288:
4286:
4272:
4256:
4241:
4235:
4214:
4000:reversed in 2008
3940:fission reactors
3817:The publication
3694:
3688:
3682:
3645:A report by the
3500:Long-term impact
3348:whole-body count
3331:Human food chain
3309:Escherichia coli
3289:domestic animals
3240:Bio-accumulation
3159:
3157:
3151:
3149:
3130:
3128:
3093:
3091:
2982:fission products
2940:Soviet Air Force
2892:162,160 km
2499:
2491:
2483:
2475:
2446:
2439:
2264:food cultivation
2210:around Chernobyl
2149:silicate glasses
2088:Waste management
2021:Site remediation
1820:Oleksiy Ananenko
1604:
1603:
1565:
1523:Boris Shcherbina
1454:had created the
1411:Radiation levels
1405:fission products
1385:pins and needles
1360:
1325:Volodymyr Pravyk
1318:potassium iodide
1292:Fire containment
1194:ionized-air glow
1175:power equivalent
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1016:void coefficient
951:neutron absorber
926:Aleksandr Akimov
679:
671:
626:
619:
612:
549:Chernobyl: Abyss
444:Avanhard stadium
315:Volodymyr Pravyk
310:Vladimir Pikalov
290:Boris Shcherbina
280:Vasily Ignatenko
270:Aleksandr Akimov
202:
192:
185:
184:
67:
65:
60:
42:
35:
31:
21:
14835:
14834:
14830:
14829:
14828:
14826:
14825:
14824:
14705:1986 in Ukraine
14695:1986 in Belarus
14675:
14674:
14663:
14661:
14657:
14655:
14651:
14650:
14647:
14642:
14639:
14637:
14635:
14634:
14632:
14627:
14611:
14560:
14539:
14530:
14507:
14479:
14448:
14407:
14401:
14378:
14373:
14343:
14338:
14321:
14319:
14312:
14288:Peace activists
14203:
14197:
14022:
14020:
14014:
13892:
13890:
13888:
13881:
13876:
13846:
13841:
13827:
13813:
13805:
13798:
13791:
13782:
13775:
13768:
13761:
13754:
13744:
13734:
13724:
13717:
13704:
13697:
13690:
13683:
13676:
13671:Chernobyl Forum
13669:
13660:
13653:
13642:
13635:
13626:
13621:Jupiter factory
13619:
13612:
13603:
13596:
13589:
13582:
13575:
13566:
13559:
13554:Polesie Reserve
13552:
13543:
13536:
13531:Velyki Klishchi
13529:
13522:
13515:
13508:
13501:
13494:
13485:
13478:
13471:
13464:
13453:
13448:Leonid Toptunov
13446:
13439:
13432:
13425:
13418:
13411:
13404:
13397:
13390:
13383:
13376:
13371:Anatoly Dyatlov
13369:
13362:
13349:
13342:
13335:
13330:Elephant's Foot
13328:
13321:
13316:Cultural impact
13314:
13307:
13300:
13287:
13282:
13184:
13179:
13173:
13171:Further reading
13163:
13144:
13139:
13138:
13128:
13126:
13117:
13113:
13103:
13101:
13093:
13092:
13088:
13078:
13076:
13068:
13067:
13063:
13053:
13051:
13042:
13041:
13037:
13027:
13025:
13017:
13016:
13012:
13002:
13000:
12998:Box Office Mojo
12992:
12991:
12987:
12977:
12975:
12967:
12966:
12962:
12952:
12950:
12941:
12940:
12936:
12926:
12924:
12915:
12914:
12910:
12900:
12898:
12893:
12892:
12888:
12878:
12876:
12867:
12866:
12862:
12817:
12813:
12804:
12800:
12790:
12788:
12773:
12769:
12759:
12757:
12742:
12741:
12737:
12730:
12708:
12704:
12694:
12692:
12688:
12673:
12667:
12663:
12653:
12651:
12636:
12632:
12622:
12620:
12603:
12599:
12586:
12584:
12577:
12557:
12553:
12542:
12538:
12507:
12503:
12493:
12491:
12489:The Japan Times
12481:
12477:
12464:
12463:
12459:
12440:
12438:
12426:
12422:
12412:
12410:
12403:Wiley-Blackwell
12391:Balonov, M. I.
12389:
12385:
12375:
12373:
12356:
12352:
12342:
12340:
12336:
12323:
12319:
12318:
12314:
12304:
12302:
12284:
12280:
12232:
12228:
12218:
12216:
12173:
12169:
12159:
12157:
12144:
12143:
12139:
12129:
12127:
12110:Mettler, Fred.
12108:
12101:
12091:
12089:
12088:on 29 June 2012
12074:
12073:
12069:
12024:
12020:
11974:
11970:
11960:
11958:
11954:
11943:
11939:
11938:
11934:
11924:
11922:
11907:
11903:
11893:
11891:
11878:
11877:
11873:
11863:
11861:
11857:
11851:Chernobyl Forum
11846:
11842:
11841:
11826:
11816:
11814:
11810:
11799:
11793:
11789:
11776:
11774:
11759:
11758:
11754:
11705:
11701:
11691:
11689:
11676:
11675:
11671:
11624:
11620:
11610:
11608:
11604:
11593:
11589:
11588:
11584:
11574:
11572:
11568:
11557:
11553:
11552:
11548:
11531:
11530:
11526:
11457:
11453:
11406:
11402:
11371:
11367:
11357:
11355:
11340:
11339:
11335:
11298:
11294:
11263:
11259:
11249:
11247:
11232:
11228:
11218:
11216:
11201:
11200:
11196:
11186:
11184:
11157:
11153:
11106:
11099:
11068:
11061:
11054:
11040:
11031:
10986:
10982:
10972:
10970:
10957:
10956:
10952:
10942:
10940:
10925:
10921:
10899:
10854:
10850:
10805:
10801:
10756:
10752:
10742:
10740:
10723:
10719:
10691:
10684:
10677:
10659:
10655:
10645:
10643:
10630:
10626:
10587:
10583:
10543:
10539:
10528:
10519:
10508:
10504:
10464:
10457:
10451:
10442:
10432:
10430:
10423:
10407:
10403:
10393:
10391:
10374:
10370:
10339:
10335:
10330:
10326:
10316:
10302:
10295:
10285:
10283:
10268:
10267:
10263:
10253:
10251:
10246:. 1 June 2012.
10238:
10237:
10233:
10223:
10221:
10213:The Independent
10204:
10200:
10190:
10188:
10171:
10164:
10154:
10152:
10139:
10138:
10134:
10124:
10122:
10105:
10101:
10064:Current Biology
10056:
10052:
9997:
9993:
9968:Radioprotection
9960:
9956:
9946:
9944:
9929:
9928:
9924:
9914:
9912:
9899:
9898:
9894:
9884:
9882:
9845:
9841:
9831:
9829:
9814:
9810:
9803:
9789:
9785:
9775:
9773:
9765:
9764:
9760:
9750:
9748:
9738:
9734:
9724:
9722:
9712:
9708:
9698:
9696:
9687:
9686:
9682:
9673:
9669:
9618:
9611:
9572:
9568:
9517:
9513:
9506:
9494:
9493:
9486:
9476:
9474:
9459:
9452:
9429:
9425:
9420:
9416:
9385:
9378:
9368:
9366:
9362:
9356:
9345:
9339:
9338:
9329:
9322:
9308:
9295:
9285:
9283:
9279:
9268:
9264:
9263:
9259:
9249:
9247:
9230:
9223:
9213:
9211:
9196:
9195:
9191:
9181:
9179:
9162:
9158:
9148:
9146:
9131:
9130:
9126:
9116:
9114:
9113:on 28 June 2011
9101:
9100:
9096:
9041:
9032:
9024:
9009:
9004:
9003:
8999:
8989:
8987:
8976:
8972:
8962:
8960:
8945:
8941:
8930:
8926:
8916:
8914:
8910:
8904:
8889:
8885:
8884:
8880:
8872:
8865:
8852:
8848:
8841:
8827:
8823:
8813:
8811:
8796:
8795:
8791:
8781:
8779:
8760:European Greens
8757:
8750:
8740:
8738:
8703:
8694:
8684:
8682:
8669:
8668:
8664:
8657:
8653:
8646:
8642:
8635:
8631:
8624:
8620:
8610:
8608:
8598:
8594:
8584:
8582:
8569:
8568:
8564:
8548:
8547:
8540:
8538:
8528:
8524:
8517:
8513:
8506:
8502:
8495:
8491:
8484:
8480:
8473:
8469:
8459:
8457:
8440:
8436:
8426:
8424:
8411:
8410:
8406:
8396:
8394:
8381:
8380:
8371:
8361:
8359:
8346:
8345:
8338:
8328:
8326:
8303:
8299:
8289:
8287:
8274:
8273:
8269:
8259:
8257:
8253:
8242:
8238:
8237:
8233:
8223:
8221:
8201:
8197:
8187:
8185:
8170:
8166:
8113:
8109:
8099:
8097:
8082:
8078:
8068:
8066:
8051:
8047:
8030:
8029:
8025:
8015:
8013:
8000:
7999:
7995:
7985:
7983:
7981:livescience.com
7973:
7969:
7959:
7957:
7956:. 23 April 2016
7948:
7947:
7943:
7933:
7931:
7918:
7916:
7912:
7902:
7900:
7887:
7886:
7879:
7869:
7867:
7852:
7845:
7834:
7818:
7814:
7804:
7802:
7781:
7774:
7743:
7734:
7724:
7722:
7718:
7685:
7679:
7675:
7665:
7663:
7648:
7647:
7640:
7630:
7628:
7613:
7612:
7608:
7598:
7596:
7591:. 7 June 2016.
7581:
7580:
7576:
7566:
7564:
7541:
7537:
7527:
7525:
7517:
7516:
7512:
7502:
7500:
7487:
7486:
7482:
7472:
7470:
7455:
7454:
7450:
7427:
7425:
7412:
7411:
7407:
7396:
7394:
7381:
7380:
7376:
7366:
7364:
7351:
7350:
7346:
7335:
7324:
7314:
7312:
7299:
7298:
7294:
7284:
7282:
7269:
7268:
7264:
7254:
7252:
7241:
7237:
7227:
7225:
7208:
7204:
7187:
7183:
7154:
7150:
7140:
7138:
7123:
7112:
7102:
7100:
7085:
7081:
7071:
7069:
7062:Pulitzer Center
7056:
7055:
7051:
7041:
7039:
7024:
7020:
7010:
7008:
6995:
6991:
6981:
6979:
6968:
6964:
6963:
6959:
6943:
6942:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6926:
6925:
6921:
6914:
6900:
6896:
6886:
6884:
6871:
6865:
6861:
6851:
6849:
6844:. 15 May 1986.
6834:
6833:
6829:
6819:
6817:
6806:
6800:
6796:
6786:
6784:
6767:
6763:
6752:
6745:
6738:
6716:
6712:
6686:
6682:
6650:
6646:
6615:
6608:
6598:
6596:
6583:
6582:
6578:
6571:
6563:
6561:
6557:
6533:
6531:
6518:
6517:
6510:
6463:
6459:
6449:
6447:
6432:
6425:
6415:
6413:
6398:
6397:
6390:
6380:
6378:
6370:The Independent
6363:
6362:
6358:
6348:
6346:
6342:
6331:
6327:
6326:
6322:
6312:
6310:
6306:
6295:
6291:
6290:
6286:
6279:
6261:
6242:
6226:
6225:
6221:
6211:
6209:
6196:
6192:
6191:
6170:
6163:
6151:
6150:
6146:
6136:
6134:
6127:NEI Source Book
6121:
6120:
6116:
6111:
6107:
6097:
6095:
6091:
6084:
6078:
6074:
6067:
6051:
6047:
6037:
6035:
6016:
6012:
6002:
6000:
5985:
5981:
5971:
5969:
5956:
5955:
5946:
5936:
5934:
5917:
5910:
5903:
5899:
5889:
5887:
5886:on 21 June 2015
5872:
5871:
5867:
5857:
5855:
5847:The Independent
5838:
5834:
5824:
5822:
5809:
5808:
5804:
5794:
5792:
5783:
5782:
5778:
5741:
5730:
5719:
5715:
5705:
5703:
5678:
5674:
5666:
5647:
5641:
5637:
5627:
5625:
5596:
5587:
5577:
5575:
5560:
5556:
5546:
5544:
5543:on 17 July 2012
5537:General Atomics
5531:
5530:
5526:
5516:
5514:
5507:
5491:
5487:
5477:
5475:
5460:
5456:
5446:
5444:
5431:
5430:
5426:
5416:
5414:
5394:
5390:
5380:
5378:
5371:
5355:
5351:
5344:
5328:
5324:
5314:
5312:
5294:
5290:
5282:
5278:
5270:
5266:
5256:
5254:
5249:. 11 May 2019.
5241:
5240:
5236:
5226:
5224:
5209:
5202:
5192:
5190:
5177:
5176:
5172:
5162:
5160:
5156:
5145:
5141:
5140:
5133:
5125:
5121:
5111:
5109:
5108:on 14 July 2011
5096:
5095:
5091:
5081:
5079:
5068:
5064:
5063:
5059:
5049:
5047:
5046:on 1 April 2020
5043:
5037:
5017:
5008:
5000:
4996:
4988:
4981:
4971:
4969:
4965:
4954:
4950:
4949:
4894:
4881:
4879:
4866:
4865:
4861:
4848:
4846:
4831:
4827:
4820:
4803:
4776:
4766:
4764:
4751:
4750:
4746:
4736:
4734:
4730:
4723:
4719:
4718:
4714:
4704:
4702:
4698:
4687:
4681:
4677:
4660:
4659:
4655:
4645:
4643:
4642:on 4 April 2011
4630:
4629:
4622:
4612:
4610:
4597:
4596:
4592:
4582:
4580:
4576:
4565:
4561:
4560:
4553:
4543:
4541:
4540:. 26 April 2024
4532:
4531:
4527:
4520:
4512:. p. 597.
4502:
4498:
4487:
4476:
4469:
4455:
4448:
4401:
4397:
4387:
4385:
4381:
4372:
4368:
4358:
4356:
4346:
4345:
4341:
4331:
4329:
4325:
4318:
4314:
4313:
4294:
4284:
4282:
4274:
4273:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4242:
4238:
4218:General Atomics
4215:
4211:
4207:
4152:
4129:Chernobyl Heart
4081:The video game
4059:
4053:
4004:2011 referendum
3996:1987 referendum
3914:
3902:Main articles:
3900:
3895:
3859:Chernobyl Forum
3829:
3800:
3780:
3778:Other disorders
3753:Chernobyl Forum
3707:Chernobyl Forum
3696:
3692:
3690:
3686:
3684:
3680:
3655:collective dose
3643:
3599:
3574:
3565:
3530:
3510:Chernobyl Forum
3502:
3479:
3454:
3448:
3419:
3407:Bavarian Forest
3401:fungal species
3353:countermeasures
3333:
3301:Narodychi Raion
3262:
3178:
3173:
3167:
3155:
3153:
3147:
3145:
3126:
3124:
3089:
3087:
2978:
2972:
2895:19,100 km
2497:
2489:
2481:
2473:
2408:
2402:
2397:
2363:
2280:
2251:
2245:
2192:
2186:
2130:
2090:
2050:
2044:
2026:buildings. The
2023:
1976:
1955:
1935:gamma radiation
1918:
1912:
1879:
1874:
1844:
1824:Valeri Bezpalov
1785:
1760:
1744:Jupiter factory
1713:Serge Schmemann
1660:
1622:
1621:
1613:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1605:
1579:
1576:
1569:
1563:
1546:Evgeny Velikhov
1499:Vasyl Durdynets
1482:in the distance
1469:
1464:
1448:
1442:
1413:
1358:
1294:
1289:
1230:
1218:carbon monoxide
1202:
1155:steam explosion
1146:
1088:At 01:23:40, a
1086:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1039:
1034:
1003:
942:
930:Leonid Toptunov
918:Anatoly Dyatlov
866:
818:
778:nuclear fission
753:
748:
743:
677:
669:
630:
601:
600:
538:
528:
527:
503:Chernobyl Forum
486:
478:
477:
461:Jupiter factory
412:Polesie Reserve
395:Velyki Klishchi
343:
335:
334:
330:Leonid Toptunov
275:Anatoly Dyatlov
265:
255:
254:
240:Elephant's Foot
230:Cultural impact
215:
205:
191:
189:
174:
172:
116:Vyshhorod Raion
100:Chernobyl Raion
63:
61:
58:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
14833:
14823:
14822:
14817:
14812:
14807:
14802:
14797:
14792:
14787:
14782:
14777:
14772:
14767:
14762:
14757:
14752:
14747:
14742:
14737:
14732:
14727:
14722:
14717:
14712:
14707:
14702:
14697:
14692:
14687:
14629:
14628:
14616:
14613:
14612:
14610:
14609:
14604:
14599:
14594:
14589:
14584:
14579:
14574:
14568:
14566:
14565:Related topics
14562:
14561:
14559:
14558:
14553:
14547:
14545:
14541:
14540:
14538:
14537:
14525:
14519:
14517:
14516:Other reactors
14513:
14512:
14509:
14508:
14506:
14505:
14504:
14503:
14498:
14487:
14485:
14481:
14480:
14478:
14477:
14472:
14467:
14462:
14456:
14454:
14450:
14449:
14447:
14446:
14445:
14444:
14434:
14429:
14424:
14418:
14416:
14409:
14408:Power Stations
14403:
14402:
14400:
14399:
14394:
14389:
14383:
14380:
14379:
14372:
14371:
14364:
14357:
14349:
14340:
14339:
14317:
14314:
14313:
14311:
14310:
14305:
14300:
14295:
14293:Peace movement
14290:
14285:
14280:
14275:
14270:
14265:
14260:
14255:
14250:
14245:
14238:
14233:
14228:
14223:
14218:
14213:
14207:
14205:
14199:
14198:
14196:
14195:
14189:
14184:
14179:
14174:
14168:
14162:
14160:Windscale fire
14156:
14150:
14143:
14137:
14131:
14121:
14119:Lucens reactor
14115:
14105:
14099:
14093:
14086:
14080:
14079:
14078:
14073:
14062:
14056:
14050:
14045:
14039:
14033:
14026:
14024:
14016:
14015:
14013:
14012:
14007:
14002:
13997:
13996:
13995:
13990:
13989:
13988:
13983:
13976:United Kingdom
13973:
13968:
13963:
13958:
13953:
13948:
13943:
13933:
13928:
13923:
13918:
13913:
13908:
13903:
13897:
13895:
13883:
13882:
13875:
13874:
13867:
13860:
13852:
13843:
13842:
13840:
13839:
13825:
13810:
13807:
13806:
13804:
13803:
13796:
13789:
13788:
13787:
13773:
13766:
13759:
13752:
13742:
13732:
13722:
13714:
13712:
13710:Related topics
13706:
13705:
13703:
13702:
13695:
13688:
13681:
13674:
13667:
13666:
13665:
13650:
13648:
13644:
13643:
13641:
13640:
13633:
13632:
13631:
13628:Polissya hotel
13624:
13617:
13610:
13609:
13608:
13594:
13587:
13584:amusement park
13573:
13572:
13571:
13564:
13550:
13549:
13548:
13541:
13534:
13527:
13520:
13513:
13506:
13499:
13492:
13491:
13490:
13476:
13466:Exclusion zone
13461:
13459:
13455:
13454:
13452:
13451:
13444:
13437:
13430:
13423:
13416:
13409:
13402:
13399:Valery Legasov
13395:
13388:
13381:
13374:
13367:
13359:
13357:
13351:
13350:
13348:
13347:
13340:
13333:
13326:
13319:
13312:
13305:
13297:
13295:
13289:
13288:
13281:
13280:
13273:
13266:
13258:
13252:
13251:
13246:
13240:
13234:
13229:
13224:
13215:
13210:
13201:
13195:
13190:
13183:
13182:External links
13180:
13172:
13169:
13168:
13167:
13161:
13143:
13140:
13137:
13136:
13111:
13086:
13061:
13050:. 14 June 2017
13035:
13023:embryo.asu.edu
13010:
12985:
12960:
12934:
12908:
12886:
12860:
12831:(1): 100–109.
12811:
12809:, 25 May 2009.
12798:
12767:
12735:
12728:
12702:
12661:
12630:
12597:
12575:
12551:
12536:
12501:
12475:
12457:
12453:MeasuringWorth
12447:United States
12435:MeasuringWorth
12420:
12383:
12350:
12312:
12278:
12226:
12167:
12137:
12099:
12067:
12018:
11968:
11932:
11901:
11871:
11824:
11787:
11773:on 2 June 2011
11752:
11699:
11669:
11618:
11582:
11546:
11524:
11451:
11400:
11381:(2): 100–106.
11365:
11333:
11312:(5): 941–948.
11292:
11273:(2): 121–151.
11257:
11226:
11194:
11171:(6): 933–942.
11151:
11122:(6606): 1100.
11097:
11078:(6): 229–231.
11059:
11052:
11029:
10980:
10950:
10919:
10848:
10819:(3): 371–373.
10799:
10750:
10717:
10682:
10675:
10653:
10624:
10597:(2): 157–172.
10591:Health Physics
10581:
10554:(2): 173–181.
10548:Health Physics
10537:
10517:
10502:
10475:(1–2): 69–82.
10467:liquidators".
10455:
10440:
10421:
10401:
10386:. p. 22.
10368:
10349:(2): 135–142.
10333:
10324:
10314:
10293:
10261:
10231:
10198:
10162:
10132:
10099:
10050:
9991:
9974:(5): 585–588.
9954:
9922:
9892:
9839:
9808:
9801:
9783:
9758:
9732:
9706:
9680:
9667:
9632:(1): 221–286.
9609:
9582:(2): 106–110.
9566:
9511:
9504:
9484:
9450:
9439:(2): 145–158.
9423:
9414:
9395:(3): 207–219.
9376:
9354:
9327:
9320:
9293:
9257:
9221:
9189:
9156:
9124:
9094:
9030:
8997:
8970:
8939:
8924:
8902:
8878:
8846:
8839:
8821:
8789:
8748:
8692:
8662:
8651:
8640:
8629:
8618:
8592:
8562:
8522:
8511:
8500:
8489:
8478:
8467:
8434:
8423:on 4 July 2007
8404:
8369:
8336:
8297:
8267:
8231:
8195:
8164:
8107:
8076:
8045:
8023:
7993:
7967:
7941:
7910:
7877:
7843:
7832:
7812:
7772:
7732:
7673:
7658:. April 2015.
7638:
7606:
7574:
7535:
7510:
7480:
7448:
7405:
7374:
7344:
7322:
7292:
7262:
7235:
7202:
7181:
7148:
7110:
7079:
7049:
7018:
6989:
6957:
6919:
6912:
6894:
6879:(in Russian).
6859:
6827:
6812:(in Russian).
6794:
6761:
6743:
6736:
6710:
6696:10.1.1.689.108
6680:
6661:(2): 199–204.
6644:
6625:(6): 650–654.
6619:Radiochemistry
6606:
6576:
6555:
6508:
6457:
6442:. p. A1.
6423:
6405:Sveriges Radio
6388:
6356:
6320:
6284:
6277:
6240:
6219:
6168:
6161:
6144:
6133:on 2 July 2016
6114:
6105:
6072:
6065:
6045:
6034:on 16 May 2008
6010:
5979:
5944:
5908:
5897:
5865:
5832:
5802:
5776:
5728:
5713:
5672:
5635:
5585:
5554:
5524:
5505:
5485:
5454:
5439:(in Russian).
5424:
5388:
5369:
5349:
5342:
5322:
5307:(in Russian).
5288:
5276:
5264:
5234:
5200:
5185:(in Russian).
5179:"N. V. Karpan"
5170:
5131:
5119:
5089:
5074:(in Russian).
5057:
5035:
5006:
4994:
4979:
4892:
4859:
4825:
4818:
4774:
4744:
4712:
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4093:Exclusion zone
4055:Main article:
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3976:safety culture
3899:
3898:Nuclear debate
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3872:Eastern Europe
3843:Exposition at
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3712:thyroid cancer
3691:
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3676:Thyroid cancer
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3620:threshold dose
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3253:"closed" lakes
3249:Kiev Reservoir
3245:European Union
3221:waste disposal
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3138:
3132:
3109:
3103:organic iodine
3076:
3049:boiling points
2974:Main article:
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2901:3,100 km
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1542:Valery Legasov
1495:Verkhovna Rada
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13993:United States
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13406:Mykola Melnyk
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12678:IAEA Bulletin
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12613:The Telegraph
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12116:IAEA Bulletin
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11007:10.1038/36384
11003:
11000:(6655): 100.
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10764:Dose-Response
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10343:Atomic Energy
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9905:Science Daily
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9822:timmsuess.com
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9659:
9655:
9651:
9647:
9643:
9639:
9635:
9631:
9627:
9623:
9616:
9614:
9605:
9601:
9597:
9593:
9589:
9585:
9581:
9577:
9570:
9562:
9558:
9554:
9550:
9546:
9542:
9538:
9534:
9530:
9526:
9522:
9515:
9507:
9501:
9497:
9491:
9489:
9472:
9468:
9464:
9457:
9455:
9446:
9442:
9438:
9434:
9427:
9418:
9410:
9406:
9402:
9398:
9394:
9390:
9383:
9381:
9361:
9357:
9351:
9344:
9343:
9336:
9334:
9332:
9323:
9317:
9313:
9306:
9304:
9302:
9300:
9298:
9278:
9274:
9267:
9261:
9245:
9241:
9240:
9235:
9228:
9226:
9209:
9205:
9204:
9199:
9193:
9177:
9173:
9172:
9167:
9160:
9144:
9140:
9139:
9134:
9128:
9112:
9108:
9104:
9098:
9090:
9086:
9081:
9076:
9071:
9066:
9062:
9058:
9054:
9050:
9046:
9039:
9037:
9035:
9023:
9019:
9015:
9007:
9001:
8985:
8981:
8974:
8958:
8954:
8950:
8943:
8935:
8928:
8909:
8905:
8899:
8895:
8888:
8882:
8871:
8863:
8859:
8858:
8850:
8842:
8836:
8832:
8825:
8809:
8805:
8804:
8799:
8793:
8777:
8773:
8769:
8765:
8761:
8755:
8753:
8736:
8732:
8728:
8724:
8720:
8716:
8712:
8708:
8701:
8699:
8697:
8680:
8676:
8672:
8666:
8660:
8655:
8649:
8644:
8638:
8633:
8627:
8622:
8607:
8603:
8596:
8580:
8576:
8572:
8566:
8558:
8552:
8537:
8533:
8526:
8520:
8515:
8509:
8504:
8498:
8493:
8487:
8482:
8476:
8471:
8455:
8451:
8450:
8445:
8438:
8422:
8418:
8414:
8408:
8392:
8388:
8384:
8378:
8376:
8374:
8357:
8353:
8349:
8343:
8341:
8324:
8320:
8316:
8312:
8308:
8301:
8285:
8281:
8277:
8271:
8252:
8248:
8241:
8235:
8219:
8215:
8214:
8209:
8205:
8204:Nuwer, Rachel
8199:
8183:
8179:
8175:
8168:
8160:
8156:
8152:
8148:
8143:
8138:
8134:
8130:
8126:
8122:
8118:
8111:
8095:
8091:
8087:
8080:
8064:
8060:
8059:Distillations
8056:
8049:
8041:
8037:
8033:
8027:
8011:
8007:
8003:
7997:
7982:
7978:
7971:
7955:
7951:
7945:
7929:
7925:
7921:
7914:
7898:
7894:
7890:
7884:
7882:
7865:
7861:
7857:
7850:
7848:
7840:
7835:
7829:
7825:
7824:
7816:
7800:
7796:
7792:
7791:
7786:
7779:
7777:
7768:
7764:
7760:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7747:Atomic Energy
7741:
7739:
7737:
7717:
7712:
7707:
7703:
7699:
7695:
7691:
7684:
7677:
7661:
7657:
7656:
7651:
7645:
7643:
7626:
7622:
7621:
7616:
7610:
7594:
7590:
7589:
7584:
7578:
7562:
7558:
7554:
7550:
7546:
7539:
7524:
7520:
7514:
7498:
7494:
7490:
7484:
7468:
7464:
7463:
7458:
7452:
7445:
7442:
7438:
7423:
7419:
7415:
7409:
7392:
7388:
7384:
7383:"Chernobyl-3"
7378:
7362:
7358:
7354:
7348:
7340:
7333:
7331:
7329:
7327:
7310:
7306:
7302:
7296:
7280:
7276:
7272:
7266:
7250:
7246:
7239:
7223:
7219:
7218:
7213:
7206:
7199:
7195:
7191:
7185:
7177:
7173:
7169:
7165:
7161:
7160:
7152:
7136:
7132:
7131:The Scientist
7128:
7121:
7119:
7117:
7115:
7098:
7094:
7090:
7083:
7067:
7063:
7059:
7053:
7037:
7033:
7029:
7022:
7006:
7002:
7001:
6993:
6977:
6973:
6969:
6961:
6953:
6947:
6931:
6923:
6915:
6909:
6905:
6898:
6882:
6878:
6877:
6872:
6863:
6847:
6843:
6842:
6837:
6831:
6815:
6811:
6807:
6798:
6782:
6778:
6777:
6772:
6765:
6757:
6750:
6748:
6739:
6733:
6729:
6724:
6723:
6714:
6706:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6684:
6676:
6672:
6668:
6664:
6660:
6656:
6648:
6640:
6636:
6632:
6628:
6624:
6620:
6613:
6611:
6594:
6590:
6586:
6580:
6570:
6566:
6559:
6552:
6550:
6546:
6542:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6515:
6513:
6504:
6500:
6496:
6492:
6488:
6484:
6480:
6476:
6472:
6468:
6461:
6445:
6441:
6437:
6430:
6428:
6411:
6407:
6406:
6401:
6395:
6393:
6376:
6372:
6371:
6366:
6360:
6341:
6337:
6330:
6324:
6305:
6301:
6294:
6288:
6280:
6278:9780312024321
6274:
6269:
6268:
6259:
6257:
6255:
6253:
6251:
6249:
6247:
6245:
6236:
6232:
6231:
6223:
6207:
6203:
6202:
6197:
6189:
6187:
6185:
6183:
6181:
6179:
6177:
6175:
6173:
6164:
6158:
6154:
6148:
6132:
6128:
6124:
6118:
6109:
6090:
6083:
6076:
6068:
6062:
6058:
6057:
6049:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6014:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5983:
5967:
5963:
5959:
5953:
5951:
5949:
5932:
5928:
5927:
5922:
5915:
5913:
5901:
5885:
5881:
5880:
5875:
5869:
5853:
5849:
5848:
5843:
5836:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5806:
5790:
5786:
5780:
5771:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5739:
5737:
5735:
5733:
5724:
5717:
5701:
5697:
5693:
5689:
5688:New Scientist
5684:
5676:
5665:
5661:
5657:
5653:
5646:
5639:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5609:
5605:
5601:
5594:
5592:
5590:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5558:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5528:
5512:
5508:
5502:
5498:
5497:
5489:
5473:
5469:
5465:
5458:
5442:
5438:
5434:
5428:
5412:
5408:
5407:
5402:
5398:
5392:
5376:
5372:
5366:
5362:
5361:
5353:
5345:
5339:
5335:
5334:
5326:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5298:
5292:
5285:
5280:
5273:
5268:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5238:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5207:
5205:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5174:
5155:
5151:
5144:
5138:
5136:
5128:
5123:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5093:
5077:
5073:
5072:rrc2.narod.ru
5069:
5061:
5042:
5038:
5032:
5028:
5027:
5022:
5015:
5013:
5011:
5004:, p. 30.
5003:
4998:
4991:
4986:
4984:
4964:
4960:
4953:
4947:
4945:
4943:
4941:
4939:
4937:
4935:
4933:
4931:
4929:
4927:
4925:
4923:
4921:
4919:
4917:
4915:
4913:
4911:
4909:
4907:
4905:
4903:
4901:
4899:
4897:
4889:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4863:
4856:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4829:
4821:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4801:
4799:
4797:
4795:
4793:
4791:
4789:
4787:
4785:
4783:
4781:
4779:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4748:
4729:
4722:
4716:
4697:
4693:
4686:
4679:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4657:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4627:
4625:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4594:
4575:
4571:
4564:
4558:
4556:
4539:
4535:
4529:
4521:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4500:
4492:
4485:
4483:
4481:
4479:
4470:
4464:
4460:
4453:
4451:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4399:
4380:
4376:
4370:
4355:
4354:
4349:
4343:
4324:
4317:
4311:
4309:
4307:
4305:
4303:
4301:
4299:
4297:
4281:
4280:Chornobyl NPP
4277:
4271:
4267:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4240:
4234:with the air.
4233:
4228:
4224:
4219:
4213:
4209:
4200:
4197:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4178:
4175:
4172:
4169:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4147:
4145:
4144:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4130:
4126:
4125:Oscar-winning
4122:
4118:
4116:
4112:
4111:
4106:
4105:
4100:
4099:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4085:
4079:
4076:
4072:
4071:
4067:and the book
4066:
4065:
4058:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4026:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3992:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3977:
3969:
3964:
3957:
3952:
3948:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3934:
3927:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3890:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3875:
3873:
3869:
3863:
3860:
3855:
3853:
3846:
3841:
3833:
3824:
3822:
3821:
3815:
3811:
3809:
3805:
3795:
3793:
3792:Down syndrome
3789:
3784:
3775:
3773:
3768:
3766:
3760:
3758:
3754:
3749:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3733:
3730:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3715:
3713:
3708:
3700:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3667:
3662:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3638:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3623:
3621:
3617:
3611:
3607:
3605:
3594:
3592:
3588:
3587:control group
3584:
3579:
3569:
3560:
3558:
3553:
3549:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3497:
3495:
3491:
3486:
3484:
3469:
3462:
3458:
3453:
3443:
3440:
3435:
3432:
3426:
3424:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3404:
3403:bioaccumulate
3400:
3399:
3392:
3390:
3386:
3378:
3374:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3328:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3304:
3302:
3297:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3275:
3271:
3266:
3257:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3241:
3233:
3229:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3209:radionuclides
3206:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3190:
3182:
3172:
3143:
3139:
3136:
3135:Tellurium-132
3133:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3107:
3104:
3100:
3097:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3053:radioactivity
3050:
3045:
3041:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3022:graph of the
3021:
3017:
3010:
3009:absorbed dose
3005:
3001:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2986:nuclear decay
2983:
2977:
2967:
2963:
2961:
2957:
2956:Ukrainian SSR
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2932:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2888:
2887:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2874:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2852:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2808:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2760:
2757:
2754:
2751:
2748:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2723:
2720:
2717:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2701:
2698:
2695:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2672:
2669:
2666:
2663:
2660:
2657:
2654:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2628:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2599:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2576:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2488:
2485:
2480:
2477:
2472:
2469:
2468:
2455:
2447:
2444:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2407:
2392:
2388:
2386:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2358:
2355:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2334:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2305:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2275:
2271:
2270:in the area.
2269:
2265:
2261:
2256:
2250:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2227:
2225:
2220:
2218:
2209:
2204:
2196:
2191:
2181:
2178:
2174:
2169:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2099:
2094:
2085:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2039:
2037:
2036:Leonid Kuchma
2031:
2029:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1991:
1985:
1980:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1959:
1950:
1948:
1942:
1938:
1936:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1889:
1885:
1869:
1865:
1863:
1862:core catchers
1858:
1853:
1850:
1849:well drilling
1839:
1835:
1834:in May 2018.
1833:
1829:
1828:Boris Baranov
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1783:Bubbler pools
1776:
1769:
1764:
1755:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1737:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1699:
1698:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1670:on 1 May 1986
1669:
1664:
1655:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1618:
1575:
1558:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1534:
1530:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1507:
1505:
1504:Pripyat River
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1447:
1437:
1433:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1364:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1303:
1298:
1284:
1282:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1225:
1223:
1222:fast neutrons
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
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991:Relief valves
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809:steam turbine
805:
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787:
786:core meltdown
783:
779:
771:
770:core meltdown
767:
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738:
736:
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729:and provided
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485:Organisations
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56:
52:
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36:
30:
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14633:
14622:
14495:
14437:Zaporizhzhia
14422:Khmelnytskyi
14318:
14240:
14236:Bikini Atoll
14182:Hanford Site
14177:Bikini Atoll
14065:
13981:in Australia
13971:Soviet Union
13966:South Africa
13828:
13814:
13770:Chernobylite
13745:
13736:
13726:
13344:TORCH report
13284:
13152:
13127:. Retrieved
13121:
13114:
13102:. Retrieved
13098:
13089:
13077:. Retrieved
13073:
13064:
13052:. Retrieved
13048:POV Magazine
13047:
13038:
13026:. Retrieved
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13001:. Retrieved
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12988:
12976:. Retrieved
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12963:
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12789:. Retrieved
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12758:. Retrieved
12747:
12738:
12719:
12712:Kaldor, Mary
12705:
12693:. Retrieved
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10201:
10189:. Retrieved
10180:The Guardian
10178:
10153:. Retrieved
10149:the original
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10135:
10123:. Retrieved
10112:
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9994:
9986:EDP Sciences
9984:– via
9971:
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9957:
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9201:
9192:
9182:12 September
9180:. Retrieved
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9159:
9149:12 September
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9127:
9117:12 September
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8917:12 September
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8812:. Retrieved
8801:
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8771:
8739:. Retrieved
8717:(3): 20–31.
8714:
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8449:The Guardian
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8288:. Retrieved
8280:www.iaea.org
8279:
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8036:TravelSnitch
8035:
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7549:The Guardian
7548:
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7248:
7243:Belyaev, I.
7238:
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5926:The Observer
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5755:(4–5): 575.
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5628:20 September
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5415:. Retrieved
5406:The Guardian
5404:
5397:Kostin, Igor
5391:
5381:14 September
5379:. Retrieved
5359:
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5325:
5313:. Retrieved
5304:
5291:
5284:Dyatlov 2003
5279:
5272:Dyatlov 2003
5267:
5255:. Retrieved
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5191:. Retrieved
5182:
5173:
5161:. Retrieved
5149:
5129:, p. 31
5127:Dyatlov 2003
5122:
5110:. Retrieved
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5101:
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5080:. Retrieved
5071:
5060:
5048:. Retrieved
5041:the original
5025:
5002:Dyatlov 2003
4997:
4970:. Retrieved
4958:
4887:
4882:19 September
4880:. Retrieved
4871:
4862:
4854:
4849:19 September
4847:. Retrieved
4838:
4828:
4809:
4765:. Retrieved
4759:. May 2010.
4756:
4747:
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4728:the original
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4696:the original
4691:
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4613:13 September
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4369:
4359:19 September
4357:. Retrieved
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4279:
4270:
4239:
4223:incandescent
4212:
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4119:
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4096:
4087:released by
4083:
4080:
4068:
4062:
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4046:
4027:
4008:
3993:
3973:
3937:
3930:
3893:Significance
3876:
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3856:
3849:
3818:
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3812:
3801:
3785:
3781:
3769:
3761:
3750:
3746:TORCH report
3735:
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3644:
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3608:
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3566:
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3546:strontium-90
3531:
3522:
3518:
3503:
3487:
3480:
3446:Human impact
3436:
3427:
3420:
3412:
3396:
3393:
3382:
3379:at the time.
3362:
3345:
3334:
3305:
3299:On farms in
3298:
3278:
3268:Piglet with
3238:
3203:
3191:
3187:
3176:Water bodies
3142:nuclear fuel
3063:, including
3037:
2979:
2964:
2948:Russian SFSR
2933:
2906:
2498:% of country
2490:% of country
2482:% of country
2474:% of country
2452:37–185
2428:
2409:
2389:
2376:microbiology
2364:
2350:
2335:
2327:Chernihivska
2308:
2292:
2281:
2272:
2255:forest fires
2252:
2238:
2230:
2228:
2221:
2213:
2170:
2158:
2142:
2131:
2114:
2103:
2095:
2091:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2032:
2024:
2015:
2011:
2007:
1999:anti-nuclear
1997:used for an
1974:Area cleanup
1968:chernobylite
1960:
1956:
1943:
1939:
1931:
1892:
1880:
1872:Site cleanup
1866:
1854:
1845:
1836:
1808:diving suits
1804:sluice gates
1801:
1790:
1786:
1741:
1733:
1725:
1721:whataboutism
1716:
1702:
1695:
1692:
1673:
1652:
1640:
1627:
1623:
1614:
1539:
1518:
1508:
1489:
1485:
1449:
1434:
1414:
1401:nuclear fuel
1389:Louis Slotin
1382:
1371:
1367:
1355:
1334:
1322:
1307:
1300:Firefighter
1277:
1262:
1247:
1231:
1203:
1187:
1183:
1164:
1160:
1147:
1134:
1127:
1118:
1106:
1094:
1087:
1073:
1008:
1004:
987:neutron flux
984:
980:
971:
967:neutron flux
943:
934:control rods
915:
911:
907:
896:
887:
880:Comparative
839:
827:
819:
806:
795:
775:
716:
699:
686:
654:Soviet Union
637:
635:
574:Chernobylite
556:
548:
250:TORCH report
188:
112:Soviet Union
29:
14656: /
14531: [
14406:Reactors of
14308:Smiling Sun
14019:Individual
13956:North Korea
13777:Sarcophagus
13729:(2021 film)
13605:FC Stroitel
13568:Dzernavichy
13487:power plant
13355:Individuals
13142:Works cited
13099:Guidedoc.tv
12644:History.com
12441:30 November
12365:Der Spiegel
11925:14 February
11884:UNSCEAR.org
9720:Law Gazette
9250:13 February
9164:Lyle, Ken.
8990:21 December
8963:27 November
8764:Ian Fairlie
8585:16 December
8213:Smithsonian
8127:: 346–358.
7567:23 December
7503:23 December
7444:Plant site.
7011:25 February
5858:21 November
5533:"Graphites"
5517:30 November
5193:3 September
4990:Karpan 2006
4603:unscear.org
4253:perestroika
3933:First World
3926:West Berlin
3604:radiophobia
3557:lymphocytes
3542:caesium-137
3538:caesium-134
3439:caesium-137
3398:Elaphomyces
3215:to surface
3205:Groundwater
3199:Desna River
3193:3,700
3113:caesium-137
3080:radioiodine
3061:noble gases
3059:All of the
2739:Switzerland
2338:resort town
2323:Zhytomyrska
1947:ventilation
1857:coal miners
1812:respirators
1644:Kiev region
1550:Yuri Izrael
1314:respirators
1250:Cherepovets
816:Safety test
676:(about $ 68
579:Sarcophagus
551:(2021 film)
449:FC Stroitel
422:Dzernavichy
363:power plant
263:Individuals
120:Kyiv Oblast
104:Kiev Oblast
14679:Categories
14662: (
14643:30°05′57″E
14640:51°23′23″N
14551:Energoatom
14453:Unfinished
14298:Peace camp
14088:1985–1987
14021:accidents
13889:disasters
13517:Red Forest
12654:14 October
12623:14 October
12329:Greenpeace
12305:8 November
12219:7 February
11817:8 November
11777:8 November
11692:8 November
11638:: 373879.
11375:Teratology
11358:8 November
11250:8 November
11219:8 November
10973:8 November
10943:8 November
10743:8 November
10514:: 283–310.
10453:2003–2005.
10433:25 October
10286:1 November
10254:1 November
10224:1 November
10191:1 November
10125:1 November
10117:. Norway.
9915:8 November
9885:8 November
9832:8 November
9477:8 November
9133:"Halflife"
8224:8 November
7753:(4): 249.
7725:30 October
7397:8 November
7285:8 November
7249:Biblioatom
7228:8 November
6982:8 November
6887:5 November
6534:8 November
6416:8 November
6381:8 February
6024:The Beaver
6003:8 November
5825:8 November
5578:8 November
5547:13 October
5417:8 November
5112:12 January
5082:8 November
4972:8 November
4705:26 January
4493:: 173–198.
4405:The Lancet
4262:References
4227:decay heat
4121:Filmmakers
3989:classified
3968:Jean Dupuy
3924:, 1986 in
3887:capitalist
3757:Iodine-131
3534:iodine-131
3494:beta burns
3373:Red Forest
3285:Red Forest
3129:10 Bq
3044:half-lives
2380:immunology
2354:iodine-131
2247:See also:
2153:inclusions
1902:(250
1816:dosimeters
1617:media help
1467:Evacuation
1269:equivalent
1144:Explosions
963:iodine-135
822:excitation
761:decay heat
746:Background
385:Red Forest
64:1986-04-26
14556:Turboatom
14544:Companies
14491:Chernobyl
14090:Therac-25
14023:and sites
13893:incidents
13887:Lists of
13737:Chernobyl
13637:Slavutych
13503:Opachychi
13480:Chernobyl
13458:Locations
12587:27 August
12567:Routledge
12517:(5): 25.
12130:20 August
11961:20 August
11519:233371673
11493:0036-8075
11187:26 August
10114:The Local
9947:20 August
9553:0006-3207
9214:20 August
8782:20 August
8685:20 August
8319:0362-4331
8151:0160-4120
7557:0261-3077
7441:"Shelter"
7437:«Shelter»
7367:20 August
7176:643483454
7168:0027-9358
6820:7 October
6787:7 October
6705:884784975
6691:CiteSeerX
6675:135616447
6487:0959-8138
6212:20 August
5972:20 August
5696:0262-4079
5660:1818-2127
5610:: 11–22.
5217:USA Today
5050:16 August
4666:Kyiv Post
4425:0140-6736
4232:oxidizing
4143:Chernobyl
4064:Chernobyl
3883:communist
3879:Holodomor
3765:mutations
3699:causality
3597:Abortions
3341:kaolinite
3247:. In the
3106:compounds
3073:xenon-133
2998:strontium
2950:south of
2412:air burst
2331:Rivnenska
2299:G8 summit
2260:Bellesrad
2224:habitable
2118:inert gas
2106:Framatome
1478:with the
1429:dosimeter
1425:Gray (Gy)
1421:roentgens
1258:xenon-135
1210:zirconium
1130:fuel rods
959:xenon-136
947:xenon-135
719:Slavutych
557:Chernobyl
473:Slavutych
375:Opachychi
358:Chernobyl
342:Locations
81:UTC+04:00
14624:Category
14496:disaster
14465:Chyhyryn
14336:Category
14202:Related
14092:accident
13961:Pakistan
13821:Category
13793:Samosely
13561:Aravichy
13151:(2003).
13003:29 April
12978:29 April
12953:29 April
12927:29 April
12901:29 April
12873:Archived
12785:Archived
12754:Archived
12749:NBC News
12718:(eds.).
12695:13 March
12686:Archived
12684:(1): 2.
12648:Archived
12617:Archived
12581:Archived
12455:series.
12413:15 March
12376:15 March
12370:Archived
12343:15 March
12334:Archived
12332:. 2006.
12299:Archived
12273:20008689
12213:Archived
12209:17706919
12154:Archived
12092:24 April
12062:22457234
12013:17083123
11952:Archived
11919:Archived
11894:23 March
11888:Archived
11864:21 April
11808:Archived
11747:37694075
11739:16628547
11686:Archived
11664:22175034
11602:Archived
11600:. 2008.
11566:Archived
11564:. 2008.
11511:33888597
11446:27382490
11420:: 1–17.
11395:10440782
11352:Archived
11328:10597995
11244:Archived
11213:Archived
11181:Archived
10967:Archived
10937:Archived
10843:21608117
10794:26674931
10737:Archived
10712:27858869
10640:Archived
10619:31580079
10611:11797891
10576:44929090
10568:11797892
10497:15725606
10427:Archived
10388:Archived
10363:95291429
10280:Archived
10248:Archived
10244:BBC News
10218:Archived
10185:Archived
10119:Archived
10094:26439334
10045:37646445
10036:10501199
9941:Archived
9936:Die Welt
9879:Archived
9875:17795690
9693:Archived
9654:20002049
9604:26313953
9596:15045533
9471:Archived
9467:BBC News
9369:13 March
9360:Archived
9277:Archived
9275:. 1995.
9273:OECD-NEA
9244:Archived
9176:Archived
9089:12495449
9055:(1): 4.
8957:Archived
8908:Archived
8814:24 April
8808:Archived
8776:Archived
8741:25 March
8735:Archived
8579:Archived
8575:BBC News
8551:cite web
8541:29 April
8454:Archived
8397:28 April
8391:Archived
8362:28 April
8356:Archived
8329:28 April
8323:Archived
8290:26 April
8284:Archived
8260:26 April
8251:Archived
8218:Archived
8182:Archived
8178:BBC News
8159:25222299
8094:Archived
8063:Archived
8010:Archived
8006:Fox News
7954:ABC News
7928:Archived
7926:. 2011.
7897:Archived
7870:27 April
7864:Archived
7799:Archived
7767:97015862
7716:Archived
7666:21 April
7660:Archived
7625:Archived
7593:Archived
7561:Archived
7528:18 April
7497:Archived
7493:BBC News
7473:26 April
7422:Archived
7391:Archived
7361:Archived
7309:Archived
7279:Archived
7275:BBC News
7222:Archived
7217:Nautilus
7135:Archived
7097:Archived
7066:Archived
7036:Archived
7005:Archived
6946:cite web
6881:Archived
6852:26 April
6846:Archived
6814:Archived
6781:Archived
6639:95752280
6593:Archived
6528:Archived
6503:12917536
6495:21521731
6450:26 April
6444:Archived
6410:Archived
6375:Archived
6340:Archived
6304:Archived
6089:Archived
6038:28 April
5997:Archived
5966:Archived
5962:BBC News
5937:22 March
5931:Archived
5852:Archived
5819:Archived
5815:Sci News
5789:Archived
5706:5 August
5700:Archived
5652:Energize
5622:Archived
5572:Archived
5568:BBC News
5511:Archived
5472:Archived
5447:29 April
5441:Archived
5437:narod.ru
5411:Archived
5375:Archived
5309:Archived
5251:Archived
5221:Archived
5187:Archived
5154:Archived
5152:. 2002.
5150:OECD-NEA
5076:Archived
4963:Archived
4961:. 1992.
4876:Archived
4843:Archived
4808:(1990).
4761:Archived
4607:Archived
4583:14 April
4574:Archived
4510:Springer
4441:39494685
4433:27116266
4323:Archived
4245:glasnost
4150:See also
3981:glasnost
3868:glasnost
3319:(4NQO).
3213:adsorbed
3096:sublimed
3040:isotopes
3028:relative
2919:, where
2799:Slovenia
2708:Bulgaria
2449:Country
2424:Cold War
2232:samosely
1746:and the
1728:ABC News
1519:de facto
1363:kamikaze
1357:morning.
1206:hydrogen
1077:momentum
1032:Accident
975:shutdown
759:Reactor
690:meltdown
672:billion
591:Samosely
417:Aravichy
88:Location
14810:Pripyat
14475:Kharkiv
14460:Crimean
14071:Effects
13577:Pripyat
13510:Poliske
13496:Kopachi
13293:Effects
12855:3283909
12846:2517096
12791:18 June
12760:21 June
12519:Bibcode
12264:6276814
12189:Bibcode
12160:31 July
12053:3361791
12004:2983485
11948:UNSCEAR
11655:3235888
11502:9398532
11473:Bibcode
11465:Science
11437:4921147
11287:8516187
11240:RadSafe
11177:3585500
11146:3120899
11137:1248180
11092:1912378
11024:4392597
11016:9363899
10914:9363899
10895:4351740
10887:8614463
10867:Bibcode
10821:Bibcode
10785:4674188
10646:14 July
10477:Bibcode
10394:22 July
10155:21 June
10072:Bibcode
10015:Bibcode
9776:21 June
9751:21 June
9725:21 June
9699:12 June
9662:2831227
9634:Bibcode
9561:4110805
9533:Bibcode
9397:Bibcode
9057:Bibcode
8719:Bibcode
8460:15 June
8427:31 July
8387:UN News
8188:20 June
8129:Bibcode
8100:20 June
8090:Bellona
8069:19 June
8016:2 March
7790:Science
7698:Bibcode
7599:30 June
7103:29 June
7072:29 June
6569:YouTube
6137:31 July
6098:18 July
5890:21 June
5795:10 July
5757:Bibcode
5478:18 June
5257:18 June
5227:18 June
4646:4 April
4285:14 July
4115:Pripyat
3922:May Day
3618:with a
3591:species
3461:Pripyat
3431:caesium
3385:melanin
3325:ecocide
3293:thyroid
3270:dipygus
3226:washout
3117:aerosol
3065:krypton
2994:caesium
2952:Bryansk
2889:Totals
2859:Moldova
2649:Austria
2620:Finland
2533:Ukraine
2504:Belarus
2361:Tourism
2319:Kyivska
2161:uranium
2138:ceramic
2059:in 2017
1476:Pripyat
1338:cistern
1310:bitumen
1148:As the
674:roubles
650:Pripyat
644:of the
642:reactor
429:Pripyat
380:Poliske
370:Kopachi
213:Effects
149:Outcome
124:Ukraine
96:Pripyat
62: (
14501:battle
14484:Closed
14442:crisis
14415:Active
14204:topics
14127:under
13946:France
13750:(2022)
13538:Vilcha
13524:Tarasy
13323:Deaths
13159:
13070:"Home"
12853:
12843:
12726:
12573:
12494:24 May
12271:
12261:
12207:
12060:
12050:
12011:
12001:
11983:Cancer
11745:
11737:
11662:
11652:
11611:16 May
11575:18 May
11517:
11509:
11499:
11491:
11444:
11434:
11393:
11326:
11285:
11175:
11144:
11134:
11090:
11050:
11022:
11014:
10994:Nature
10912:
10908:,
10893:
10885:
10859:Nature
10841:
10792:
10782:
10710:
10673:
10617:
10609:
10574:
10566:
10495:
10419:
10361:
10312:
10092:
10043:
10033:
9873:
9799:
9660:
9652:
9602:
9594:
9559:
9551:
9502:
9352:
9318:
9286:3 June
9087:
9080:149393
9077:
8900:
8864:]
8837:
8317:
8157:
8149:
7934:9 July
7903:10 May
7830:
7805:10 May
7765:
7555:
7255:18 May
7196:
7174:
7166:
7141:1 June
7042:20 May
6936:28 May
6910:
6756:Person
6734:
6703:
6693:
6673:
6637:
6501:
6493:
6485:
6275:
6159:
6063:
5694:
5658:
5503:
5367:
5340:
5163:3 June
5033:
4816:
4767:2 June
4737:3 June
4516:
4465:
4439:
4431:
4423:
4332:3 June
3958:, 2011
3956:Berlin
3910:, and
3693:
3687:
3681:
3472:level.
3387:-rich
3377:winter
3315:, and
3099:vapour
2990:iodine
2936:seeded
2925:Norway
2911:, the
2769:Greece
2678:Norway
2623:11,500
2594:12,000
2591:Sweden
2586:0.002
2565:49,800
2562:Russia
2536:37,200
2513:10,200
2507:29,900
2431:Russia
2342:Tarará
2145:porous
2140:form.
2134:corium
2003:Geneva
1793:corium
1768:corium
1697:Vremya
1680:Sweden
1668:SPOT-1
1281:prompt
1267:, the
1265:joules
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
721:. The
678:
670:
400:Vilcha
390:Tarasy
235:Deaths
160:Deaths
75:01:23
14535:]
14470:Odesa
14427:Rivne
14191:1945
14170:1954
14164:1957
14158:1957
14152:1957
14145:1961
14139:1961
14133:1962
14123:1962
14117:1969
14107:1979
14101:1980
14095:1982
14082:1985
14064:1986
14058:1987
14052:1990
14041:2001
14035:2011
14029:2019
13951:India
13941:China
13545:Yaniv
13206:, by
13129:2 May
13104:2 May
13079:2 May
13054:2 May
13028:2 May
12879:7 May
12825:Sleep
12689:(PDF)
12674:(PDF)
12337:(PDF)
12324:(PDF)
12081:IPPNW
11955:(PDF)
11944:(PDF)
11858:(PDF)
11847:(PDF)
11811:(PDF)
11800:(PDF)
11743:S2CID
11605:(PDF)
11594:(PDF)
11569:(PDF)
11558:(PDF)
11515:S2CID
11020:S2CID
10891:S2CID
10732:Slate
10708:JSTOR
10615:S2CID
10572:S2CID
10359:S2CID
9871:S2CID
9771:CIRSD
9658:S2CID
9600:S2CID
9557:S2CID
9363:(PDF)
9346:(PDF)
9280:(PDF)
9269:(PDF)
9025:(PDF)
9016:[
9010:(PDF)
8911:(PDF)
8890:(PDF)
8873:(PDF)
8866:(PDF)
8860:[
8611:9 May
8254:(PDF)
8243:(PDF)
7986:1 May
7960:1 May
7763:S2CID
7719:(PDF)
7686:(PDF)
7428:8 May
6728:58–59
6671:S2CID
6635:S2CID
6599:2 May
6549:23:00
6545:21:02
6499:S2CID
6343:(PDF)
6332:(PDF)
6307:(PDF)
6296:(PDF)
6092:(PDF)
6085:(PDF)
5667:(PDF)
5648:(PDF)
5315:5 May
5157:(PDF)
5146:(PDF)
5044:(PDF)
4966:(PDF)
4955:(PDF)
4731:(PDF)
4724:(PDF)
4699:(PDF)
4688:(PDF)
4577:(PDF)
4566:(PDF)
4544:9 May
4437:S2CID
4388:8 May
4382:(PDF)
4326:(PDF)
4319:(PDF)
4205:Notes
3335:With
3217:soils
3069:xenon
2944:Gomel
2913:Welsh
2829:Italy
2772:1,200
2743:1,300
2712:4,800
2681:5,200
2652:8,600
2577:2,100
2571:5,700
2542:3,200
2525:2,200
2519:4,200
2166:AK-47
2151:with
1377:boron
1150:scram
1090:scram
405:Yaniv
141:Cause
114:(now
14147:SL-1
14111:and
13891:and
13835:List
13157:ISBN
13131:2022
13106:2022
13081:2022
13056:2022
13030:2022
13005:2022
12980:2022
12955:2022
12929:2022
12903:2022
12881:2019
12851:PMID
12793:2019
12762:2015
12724:ISBN
12697:2015
12656:2021
12625:2021
12589:2021
12571:ISBN
12496:2024
12443:2023
12415:2011
12378:2011
12345:2011
12307:2018
12269:PMID
12221:2024
12205:PMID
12162:2010
12132:2011
12094:2006
12058:PMID
12009:PMID
11963:2011
11927:2008
11896:2011
11866:2012
11819:2018
11779:2018
11735:PMID
11694:2018
11660:PMID
11636:2012
11613:2012
11577:2012
11507:PMID
11489:ISSN
11442:PMID
11418:2016
11391:PMID
11360:2018
11324:PMID
11283:PMID
11252:2018
11221:2018
11189:2016
11173:PMID
11142:PMID
11088:PMID
11048:ISBN
11012:PMID
10975:2018
10945:2018
10910:PMID
10883:PMID
10839:PMID
10790:PMID
10745:2018
10671:ISBN
10648:2015
10607:PMID
10564:PMID
10493:PMID
10435:2020
10417:ISBN
10396:2019
10310:ISBN
10288:2013
10256:2013
10226:2013
10193:2013
10157:2015
10127:2013
10090:PMID
10041:PMID
9949:2011
9917:2018
9887:2018
9834:2018
9797:ISBN
9778:2023
9753:2023
9727:2023
9701:2021
9650:PMID
9630:1181
9592:PMID
9549:ISSN
9500:ISBN
9479:2018
9371:2011
9350:ISBN
9316:ISBN
9288:2015
9252:2013
9216:2011
9184:2013
9151:2013
9119:2013
9085:PMID
8992:2016
8965:2009
8919:2013
8898:ISBN
8835:ISBN
8816:2006
8784:2011
8743:2016
8687:2011
8613:2022
8587:2019
8557:link
8543:2022
8462:2019
8429:2010
8399:2019
8364:2019
8331:2019
8315:ISSN
8292:2020
8262:2020
8247:IRNS
8226:2018
8190:2018
8155:PMID
8147:ISSN
8102:2018
8071:2018
8018:2012
7988:2022
7962:2022
7936:2020
7905:2020
7872:2016
7828:ISBN
7807:2021
7727:2013
7668:2015
7633:2019
7601:2019
7569:2016
7553:ISSN
7530:2022
7505:2016
7475:2013
7430:2012
7399:2018
7369:2011
7317:2013
7287:2018
7257:2024
7230:2018
7194:ISBN
7172:OCLC
7164:ISSN
7143:2019
7105:2019
7074:2019
7044:2012
7013:2022
6984:2018
6952:link
6938:2019
6908:ISBN
6889:2018
6876:TASS
6854:2014
6822:2016
6789:2016
6758:(1).
6732:ISBN
6701:OCLC
6601:2011
6536:2018
6491:PMID
6483:ISSN
6452:2014
6418:2018
6383:2019
6351:2010
6315:2010
6273:ISBN
6214:2011
6157:ISBN
6139:2010
6100:2019
6061:ISBN
6040:2008
6005:2018
5974:2011
5939:2010
5892:2015
5860:2017
5827:2018
5797:2019
5708:2021
5692:ISSN
5656:ISSN
5630:2019
5580:2018
5549:2016
5519:2009
5501:ISBN
5480:2019
5449:2006
5419:2018
5383:2009
5365:ISBN
5338:ISBN
5317:2005
5259:2019
5229:2019
5195:2013
5165:2015
5114:2011
5084:2018
5052:2009
5031:ISBN
4974:2018
4959:IAEA
4884:2021
4851:2021
4814:ISBN
4769:2010
4739:2010
4707:2013
4648:2011
4615:2007
4585:2012
4546:2024
4514:ISBN
4463:ISBN
4429:PMID
4421:ISSN
4390:2024
4361:2023
4334:2015
4287:2022
4002:. A
3786:The
3751:The
3705:The
3578:vole
3544:and
3313:UV-C
3281:pine
3088:1760
3067:and
2996:and
2909:Alps
2655:10.3
2580:0.01
2574:0.03
2557:0.1
2551:0.15
2545:0.53
2528:1.1
2510:14.4
2378:and
2346:Cuba
2329:and
2293:The
2266:and
1822:and
1810:and
1797:lava
1517:and
1452:IAEA
1450:The
1415:The
1391:, a
1316:and
1110:core
903:Kiev
790:RBMK
636:The
153:INES
131:Type
72:Time
54:Date
13220:on
12841:PMC
12833:doi
12527:doi
12259:PMC
12251:doi
12247:169
12197:doi
12048:PMC
12040:doi
12036:166
11999:PMC
11991:doi
11987:107
11725:doi
11721:119
11650:PMC
11640:doi
11497:PMC
11481:doi
11469:372
11432:PMC
11422:doi
11383:doi
11347:NPR
11314:doi
11275:doi
11208:NPR
11132:PMC
11124:doi
11120:295
11115:BMJ
11080:doi
11002:doi
10998:390
10902:doi
10875:doi
10863:380
10829:doi
10780:PMC
10772:doi
10700:doi
10599:doi
10556:doi
10485:doi
10473:581
10351:doi
10347:113
10080:doi
10031:PMC
10023:doi
9976:doi
9861:doi
9642:doi
9584:doi
9541:doi
9529:144
9441:doi
9405:doi
9075:PMC
9065:doi
8803:RFI
8727:doi
8536:CNN
8137:doi
7924:CBC
7839:...
7755:doi
7751:100
7706:doi
6663:doi
6627:doi
6567:on
6475:doi
6471:342
6467:BMJ
5765:doi
5753:167
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