141:
1063:, and as with antimatter-matter annihilation also includes extreme radiation. A proton-antiproton annihilation propulsion system transforms 39% of the propellant mass into an intense high-energy flux of gamma radiation. The gamma rays and the high-energy charged pions will cause heating and radiation damage if they are not shielded against. Unlike neutrons, they will not cause the exposed material to become radioactive by transmutation of the nuclei. The components needing shielding are the crew, the electronics, the cryogenic tankage, and the magnetic coils for magnetically assisted rockets. Two types of shielding are needed:
2738:
448:. The propulsion concepts that employ these mechanisms generally fall into four categories: solid core, gaseous core, plasma core, and beamed core configurations. The alternatives to direct antimatter annihilation propulsion offer the possibility of feasible vehicles with, in some cases, vastly smaller amounts of antimatter but require a lot more matter propellant. Then there are hybrid solutions using antimatter to catalyze fission/fusion reactions for propulsion.
876:
tens of thousands to millions of times more. Most storage schemes proposed for interstellar craft require the production of frozen pellets of antihydrogen. This requires cooling of antiprotons, binding to positrons, and capture of the resulting antihydrogen atoms - tasks which have, as of 2010, been performed only for small numbers of individual atoms. Storage of antimatter is typically done by trapping electrically charged frozen antihydrogen pellets in
2199:
122:
25:
2733:{\displaystyle {\frac {M_{0}}{M_{1}}}=\left({\frac {(-2I_{\text{sp}}\Delta v/c^{2}+1-a-{\sqrt {(1-a)^{2}+4aI_{\text{sp}}^{2}/c^{2}}})(1-a+{\sqrt {(1-a)^{2}+4aI_{\text{sp}}^{2}/c^{2}}})}{(-2I_{\text{sp}}\Delta v/c^{2}+1-a+{\sqrt {(1-a)^{2}+4aI_{\text{sp}}^{2}/c^{2}}})(1-a-{\sqrt {(1-a)^{2}+4aI_{\text{sp}}^{2}/c^{2}}})}}\right)^{\frac {1}{\sqrt {(1-a)^{2}+4aI_{\text{sp}}^{2}/c^{2}}}}}
884:. There is no theoretical barrier to these tasks being performed on the scale required to fuel an antimatter rocket. However, they are expected to be extremely (and perhaps prohibitively) expensive due to current production abilities being only able to produce small numbers of atoms, a scale approximately 10 times smaller than needed for a 10-gram trip to Mars.
1671:
793:, but the fluid is used to generate electricity, which is then used to power some form of electric space propulsion system. The resulting system shares many of the characteristics of other charged particle/electric propulsion proposals, that typically being high specific impulse and low thrust (An associated article further detailing
646:
gas to produce a cloud of hot gas, which heats a surrounding layer of gaseous hydrogen. Direct heating of the hydrogen by gamma rays was considered impractical, due to the difficulty of compressing enough of it within an engine of reasonable size to absorb the gamma rays. A third proposed engine type
875:
The chief practical difficulties with antimatter rockets are the problems of creating antimatter and storing it. Creating antimatter requires input of vast amounts of energy, at least equivalent to the rest energy of the created particle/antiparticle pairs, and typically (for antiproton production)
828:
with a hole through which a pulse of antiprotons and positrons is injected. It is surrounded by a hemisphere of fusion fuel, for example deuterium-tritium, or lithium deuteride. Antiproton annihilation occurs at the surface of the hemisphere, which ionizes the fuel. These ions heat the core of the
840:
concept uses antiprotons to ignite the P-B reactions in an MICF scheme. Excessive radiation losses are a major obstacle to ignition and require modifying the particle density, and plasma temperature to increase the gain. It was concluded that it is entirely feasible that this system could achieve
527:
into relativistic particles through laser annihilation. The technology was explored by research groups led by Prof. Leif
Holmlid and Sindre Zeiner-Gundersen, and a third relativistic particle reactor is currently being built at the University of Iceland. In theory, emitted particles from hydrogen
443:
Antimatter rockets can be divided into three types of application: those that directly use the products of antimatter annihilation for propulsion, those that heat a working fluid or an intermediate material which is then used for propulsion, and those that heat a working fluid or an intermediate
832:
The antiproton-driven
Magnetically Insulated Inertial Confinement Fusion Propulsion (MICF) concept relies on self-generated magnetic field which insulates the plasma from the metallic shell that contains it during the burn. The lifetime of the plasma was estimated to be two orders of magnitude
887:
Generally, the energy from antiproton annihilation is deposited over such a large region that it cannot efficiently drive nuclear capsules. Antiproton-induced fission and self-generated magnetic fields may greatly enhance energy localization and efficient use of annihilation energy.
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to derive thrust from the annihilation reaction, but no known form of matter (consisting of atoms or ions) interacts with gamma rays in a manner that would enable specular reflection. The momentum of gamma rays can, however, be partially transferred to matter by
479:
configuration. It is not perfectly efficient; energy is lost as the rest mass of the charged (22.3%) and uncharged pions (14.38%), lost as the kinetic energy of the uncharged pions (which can't be deflected for thrust); and lost as neutrinos and gamma rays (see
140:
2777:. However, there is no solution yet for when plasma contactors are turned off to allow maintenance work on the hull. Long term space flight at interstellar velocities causes erosion of the rocket's hull due to collision with particles,
510:
One method to reach relativistic velocities uses a matter-antimatter GeV gamma ray laser photon rocket made possible by a relativistic proton-antiproton pinch discharge, where the recoil from the laser beam is transmitted by the
1892:
856:. Annihilation takes place on the surface of the antiproton cloud, peeling back 0.5% of the cloud. The power density released is roughly comparable to a 1 kJ, 1 ns laser depositing its energy over a 200 ÎĽm ICF target.
518:
A new annihilation process has purportedly been developed by researchers from the
University of Gothenburg, Sweden. Several annihilation reactors have been constructed in the past years which attempted to convert
528:
annihilation processes could reach 0.94c and can be used in space propulsion. However the veracity of
Holmlid's research is under dispute and no successful implementations have been peer reviewed or replicated.
1209:
2773:. The major interaction of concern is differential charging of various parts of a spacecraft, leading to high electric fields and arcing between spacecraft components. This can be resolved with well placed
1902:
719:
allows the gas to ionize and operate at even higher effective temperatures. Heat loss is suppressed by magnetic confinement in the reaction chamber and nozzle. Although performance is extremely high (
1666:{\displaystyle {\frac {dM_{\text{ship}}}{M_{\text{ship}}}}={\frac {-dv(1-I_{\text{sp}}{\frac {v}{c^{2}}})}{(1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}})(-{\frac {I_{\text{sp}}v^{2}}{c^{2}}}+(1-a)v+aI_{\text{sp}})}}}
557:), refractory metal core. Propellant is pumped into the hot core and expanded through a nozzle to generate thrust. The performance of this concept is roughly equivalent to that of the
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annihilation has also been proposed for rocketry. Annihilation of positrons produces only gamma rays. Early proposals for this type of rocket, such as those developed by
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A secondary problem is the extraction of useful energy or momentum from the products of antimatter annihilation, which are primarily in the form of extremely energetic
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system substitutes the low-melting point solid with a high temperature gas (i.e. tungsten gas/plasma), thus permitting higher operational temperatures and performance (
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895:. The antimatter mechanisms proposed to date have for the most part provided plausible mechanisms for harnessing energy from these annihilation products. The classic
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588:~ 10 sec) due to temperature limitations of the solid. However, the antimatter energy conversion and heating efficiencies are typically high due to the short
423:
as their power source. There are several designs that attempt to accomplish this goal. The advantage to this class of rocket is that a large fraction of the
3498:
3356:
Chen, Hui; Wilks, Scott C.; Bonlie, James D.; Liang, Edison P.; Myatt, Jason Myatt; Price, Dwight F.; D. Meyerhofer, David D.; Beiersdorfer, Peter (2009).
3517:
3114:
1800:
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Lewis, Raymond; Meyer, Kirby; Smith, Gerald; Howe, Steven (1999). "AIMStar - Antimatter
Initiated Microfusion for pre-cursor interstellar missions".
3482:
2913:
3221:
3048:
Comment on 'Ultradense protium p(0) and deuterium D(0) and their relation to ordinary
Rydberg matter: a review' 2019 Physica Scripta 94, 075005
2910:
How to Build an
Antimatter Rocket for Interstellar Missions: Systems level Considerations in Designing Advanced Propulsion Technology Vehicles
1094:. For example, the total mass–energy content of the neutral pion is converted into gammas, not just its rest mass. It is necessary to use a
806:
3138:
Vulpetti, Giovanni; Pecchioli, Mauro (September 1989). "Considerations about the specific impulse of an antimatter-based thermal engine".
1325:{\displaystyle {\frac {M_{0}}{M_{1}}}=\left({\frac {1+{\frac {\Delta v}{c}}}{1-{\frac {\Delta v}{c}}}}\right)^{\frac {c}{2I_{\text{sp}}}}}
685:~ 2 Ă— 10 sec). However, the longer mean free path for thermalization and absorption results in much lower energy conversion efficiencies (
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uses annihilation gamma rays to heat an ablative sail, with the ablated material providing thrust. As with nuclear thermal rockets, the
2040:{\displaystyle {\frac {dM_{\text{ship}}}{M_{\text{ship}}}}={\frac {-dv}{(-{\frac {I_{\text{sp}}v^{2}}{c^{2}}}+(1-a)v+aI_{\text{sp}})}}}
782:
445:
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for a 6 light year distance, erosion is estimated to be in the order of about 30 kg/m or about 1 cm of aluminum shielding.
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in which small fusion fuel droplets would be injected into a cloud of antiprotons confined in a very small volume within a reaction
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using the gamma rays produced by antiproton or positron annihilation have been proposed. These methods resemble those proposed for
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264:
89:
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project employs the antiproton catalyzed microfission (ACMF) concept which uses pellets with a molar ratio of 9:1 of D-T:U for
1193:) that is much higher for a relativistic antimatter rocket than for either a classical or relativistic "conventional" rocket.
61:
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1102:(charged pions) moving near the speed of light. These two modifications to the two rocket equations result in a mass ratio (
398:
1201:
The loss of mass specific to antimatter annihilation requires a modification of the relativistic rocket equation given as
68:
3071:
Vulpetti, G. (August 1987). "A further analysis about the liquid-propellant thermal antimatter engine design concept".
651:
achievable by these methods is limited by materials considerations, typically being in the range of 1000–2000 seconds.
42:
3238:
Kammash, Terry; Martin, James; Godfroy, Thomas (17 January 2003). "Antimatter Driven P-B11 Fusion
Propulsion System".
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as the energy or heat from the annihilation is harnessed to create an exhaust from non-exotic material or propellant.
108:
75:
3316:"Antiproton-Catalyzed Microfission/Fusion Propulsion Systems for Exploration of the Outer Solar System and Beyond"
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is the fraction of the original (on board) propellant mass (non-relativistic) remaining after annihilation (i.e.,
2839:
62nd
International Astronautical Congress 2011 : (IAC 2011) : Cape Town, South Africa, 3-7 October 2011
302:
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Finally, relativistic considerations have to be taken into account. As the by products of annihilation move at
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2841:. International Astronautical Federation. Paris: International Astronautical Federation. pp. 6792–6812.
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of a matter/antimatter mixture may be converted to energy, allowing antimatter rockets to have a far higher
327:
2958:
Winterberg, F. (21 August 2012). "Matter–antimatter gigaelectron volt gamma ray laser rocket propulsion".
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greater than implosion inertial fusion, which corresponds to a longer burn time, and hence, greater gain.
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Augenstein, B. W.; Solem, J. C. (1990). "Antiproton initiated fusion for spacecraft propulsion".
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G. Gaidos, R.A. Lewis, G.A. Smith, B. Dundore and S. Chakrabarti, AIAA Paper 1998-3589, July 1998
2997:"Future interstellar rockets may use laser-induced annihilation reactions for relativistic drive"
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630:. One proposed method is to use positron annihilation gamma rays to heat a solid engine core.
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Antiproton Driven
Magnetically Insulated Inertial Confinement Fusion (Micf) Propulsion System
3187:
High Specific Impulse Superfluid and Nanotube Propulsion Device, System and Propulsion Method
2125:
191:
789:. Antimatter annihilations are used to directly or indirectly heat a working fluid, as in a
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has also been proposed. These proposed designs are typically similar to those suggested for
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There and Back Again: A Layman's Guide to Ultra-Reliability for Interstellar Missions
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Thermal Analysis of a Tungsten Radiation Shield for Beamed Core Antimatter Rocketry
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958:
648:
432:
254:
249:
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3185:
1887:{\displaystyle (1-{\frac {I_{\text{sp}}v}{c^{2}}})\sim (1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}})}
3521:
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3322:
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491:
3108:"Positron Propelled and Powered Space Transport Vehicle for Planetary Missions"
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1056:) no longer holds due to the mass losses occurring in antimatter annihilation.
589:
428:
3460:
746:~ 10-10 sec), the long mean free path results in very low energy utilization (
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Robert H. Frisbee, Stephanie D. Leifer, AIAA Paper 98-3403, July 13–15, 1998.
3424:
3031:
2856:
810:
548:
287:
494:, assumed the use of some material that could reflect gamma rays, used as a
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332:
3403:
Solem, J. C. (1991). "Prospects for Efficient Use of Annihilation Energy".
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309:
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244:
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Schmidt, George (2012). "Nuclear Systems for Space Power and Production".
638:. A second proposed engine type uses positron annihilation within a solid
451:
3268:
2782:
2191:). The resulting relativistic rocket equation with loss of propellant is
1098:
that takes into account the relativistic effects of both the vehicle and
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216:
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3105:
2878:
Fusion Reactions and Matter-Antimatter Annihilation for Space Propulsion
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Another general problem with high powered propulsion is excess heat or
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824:. The pellet consists of a hemisphere of fissionable material such as
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3358:"Relativistic Positron Creation Using Ultraintense Short Pulse Lasers"
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Smith, Gerald; Metzger, John; Meyer, Kirby; Thode, Les (2006-03-07).
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is difficult to integrate analytically. If it is assumed that
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The Antimatter Photon Drive: A Relativistic Propulsion System
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gas is ducted through this core, heated, and expelled from a
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is the non-relativistic (rest) mass of the rocket ship, and
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Report ND-3555-SDI (The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA)
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This is a hybrid approach in which antiprotons are used to
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460:
370:
3479:
Evaluation of Propulsion Options for Interstellar Missions
3190:
Michael Wallace, Joseph D. Nix, Christopher W. Smith, 2014
2995:
Holmlid, Leif; Zeiner-Gundersen, Sindre (1 October 2020).
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Robert H. Frisbee, AIAA Paper 2003-4696, July 20–23, 2003,
3355:
2934:
Darrel Smith, Jonathan Webby, AIAA Paper 2001-3231, 2001
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471:, producing thrust. This type of antimatter rocket is a
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870:
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Pure antimatter rocket: direct use of reaction products
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annihilation reactions produce charged and uncharged
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will ionize the rocket's hull over time and poses a
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49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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532:Thermal antimatter rocket: heating of a propellant
444:material to generate electricity for some form of
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2068:can be integrated and the integral evaluated for
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16:Rockets using antimatter as their power source
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3285:35th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit
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624:liquid-propellant thermal antimatter engine
536:This type of antimatter rocket is termed a
467:. The charged pions can be channelled by a
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2769:. Also, gas plasma interactions may cause
820:(ICF) Rocket concept uses pellets for the
547:concept uses antiprotons to heat a solid,
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801:Catalyzed fission/fusion or spiked fusion
781:The idea of using antimatter to power an
435:than any other proposed class of rocket.
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
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3166:Electric Rocket Propulsion: A Background
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848:A different approach was envisioned for
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1445:The derivative form of the equation is
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1136:{\displaystyle {\frac {M_{0}}{M_{1}}}}
999:{\displaystyle {\frac {M_{0}}{M_{1}}}}
3402:
1197:Modified relativistic rocket equation
446:electric spacecraft propulsion system
2193:
2122:, and initial and final velocities (
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1447:
1203:
871:Difficulties with antimatter rockets
592:between collisions with core atoms (
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
1790:{\displaystyle v\sim I_{\text{sp}}}
13:
3462:Antiproton Annihilation Propulsion
2465:
2257:
2175:
1280:
1257:
1150:
1013:
809:or to "spike" the propulsion of a
807:catalyze a fission/fusion reaction
14:
3556:
3503:NASA science news, April 6, 2011
3336:"Laser Pulse Produces Positrons"
3227:from the original on 2022-10-09.
2064:
622:~ 85%). Several methods for the
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23:
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3349:
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3140:Journal of Propulsion and Power
3120:from the original on 2022-10-09
3099:
3022:10.1016/j.actaastro.2020.05.034
2982:10.1016/j.actaastro.2012.07.001
1894:then the resulting equation is
1760:
1709:{\displaystyle M_{\text{ship}}}
829:pellet to fusion temperatures.
463:, in addition to neutrinos and
303:Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider
34:needs additional citations for
3382:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.105001
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2184:{\displaystyle v_{f}=\Delta v}
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2009:
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1952:
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1804:
1756:=0.22 for the charged pions).
1657:
1635:
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1542:
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1501:
1395:is the specific impulse (i.e.
1:
3465:R. L. Forward, September 1985
3338:. Photonics Media. 2008-11-18
2824:
2053:
1415:{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp}}}
1388:{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp}}}
1186:{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp}}}
1049:{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp}}}
813:or any similar applications.
739:{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp}}}
678:{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp}}}
581:{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp}}}
3176:Jerry M. Seitzman, 2003-2004
3093:10.1016/0094-5765(87)90155-X
2888:Claude Deutsch, 13 July 2005
2746:
1679:
1096:relativistic rocket equation
642:pellet or within compressed
328:Positron emission tomography
125:A proposed antimatter rocket
7:
3524:Henry Garrett, 30 July 2012
2812:
1368:is the speed of light, and
1338:
818:Inertial confinement fusion
795:antimatter power generation
777:Antimatter power generation
10:
3561:
3240:AIP Conference Proceedings
438:
766:{\displaystyle \eta _{e}}
705:{\displaystyle \eta _{e}}
615:{\displaystyle \eta _{e}}
538:thermal antimatter rocket
265:Gravitational interaction
3425:10.13182/FST91-A11946978
1159:{\displaystyle \Delta v}
1092:relativistic mass–energy
1029:) and specific impulse (
1022:{\displaystyle \Delta v}
1006:), the velocity change (
928:propellant mass fraction
865:nuclear pulse propulsion
787:nuclear electric rockets
3362:Physical Review Letters
3321:August 5, 2014, at the
3203:Kammash, Terry (1998).
2819:Nuclear photonic rocket
2148:{\displaystyle v_{i}=0}
1084:relativistic velocities
628:nuclear thermal rockets
415:is a proposed class of
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2761:The cosmic background
2734:
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836:The antimatter-driven
816:The antiproton-driven
791:nuclear thermal rocket
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706:
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616:
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559:nuclear thermal rocket
298:Antiproton decelerator
234:Concepts and phenomena
126:
3368:(10): 105001–105004.
3046:Klavs Hansen (2022).
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2735:
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2115:{\displaystyle M_{1}}
2090:
2088:{\displaystyle M_{0}}
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950:{\displaystyle M_{1}}
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919:{\displaystyle M_{0}}
899:with its "wet" mass (
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192:Antiprotonic hydrogen
124:
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2757:Other general issues
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1065:radiation protection
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783:electric space drive
750:
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293:Particle accelerator
43:improve this article
3417:1991FuTec..20.1040S
3374:2009PhRvL.102j5001C
3303:10.2514/6.1999-2700
3252:2003AIPC..654..497K
3085:1987AcAau..15..551V
3013:2020AcAau.175...32H
2974:2012AcAau..81...34W
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2631:
2548:
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515:to the spacecraft.
356:Carl David Anderson
197:Antiprotonic helium
58:"Antimatter rocket"
3520:2014-05-08 at the
3485:2014-05-08 at the
3411:(4P2): 1040–1045.
3172:2013-08-05 at the
2916:2015-05-02 at the
2884:2023-10-04 at the
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2696:
2617:
2534:
2409:
2326:
2181:
2145:
2112:
2085:
2037:
1884:
1787:
1746:
1726:
1706:
1663:
1432:
1412:
1385:
1358:
1322:
1183:
1156:
1133:
1100:propellant exhaust
1077:thermal insulation
1069:thermal protection
1046:
1019:
996:
947:
916:
893:ionizing radiation
763:
736:
702:
675:
612:
578:
549:high-atomic weight
505:Compton scattering
482:antimatter as fuel
127:
3545:Rocket propulsion
3405:Fusion Technology
3260:10.1063/1.1541331
3073:Acta Astronautica
3032:20.500.11815/2191
3001:Acta Astronautica
2961:Acta Astronautica
2848:978-1-61839-805-5
2802:{\displaystyle c}
2754:
2753:
2727:
2726:
2703:
2653:
2647:
2624:
2564:
2541:
2462:
2439:
2416:
2356:
2333:
2254:
2225:
2061:
2060:
2035:
2028:
1992:
1968:
1933:
1930:
1919:
1879:
1840:
1823:
1784:
1749:{\displaystyle a}
1729:{\displaystyle a}
1703:
1687:
1686:
1661:
1654:
1618:
1594:
1573:
1535:
1517:
1484:
1481:
1470:
1435:{\displaystyle c}
1409:
1382:
1361:{\displaystyle c}
1346:
1345:
1319:
1315:
1293:
1290:
1267:
1235:
1180:
1131:
1088:rest mass changes
1043:
994:
930:) to "dry" mass (
733:
672:
575:
413:antimatter rocket
409:
408:
270:Positron emission
119:
118:
111:
93:
3552:
3525:
3510:
3504:
3496:
3490:
3475:
3466:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3443:
3437:
3436:
3400:
3394:
3393:
3353:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3343:
3332:
3326:
3313:
3307:
3306:
3296:
3280:
3274:
3273:
3271:
3235:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3219:
3209:
3200:
3191:
3183:
3177:
3162:
3156:
3155:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3126:
3125:
3119:
3112:
3103:
3097:
3096:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3024:
2992:
2986:
2985:
2955:
2949:
2948:Jonathan A. Webb
2941:
2935:
2927:
2921:
2906:
2889:
2874:
2861:
2860:
2834:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2775:plasma contactor
2748:
2739:
2737:
2736:
2731:
2729:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2715:
2709:
2704:
2701:
2686:
2685:
2664:
2660:
2658:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2646:
2645:
2636:
2630:
2625:
2622:
2607:
2606:
2585:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2553:
2547:
2542:
2539:
2524:
2523:
2502:
2485:
2484:
2475:
2464:
2463:
2460:
2444:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2428:
2422:
2417:
2414:
2399:
2398:
2377:
2357:
2355:
2354:
2345:
2339:
2334:
2331:
2316:
2315:
2294:
2277:
2276:
2267:
2256:
2255:
2252:
2236:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2214:
2213:
2204:
2194:
2190:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2171:
2170:
2154:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2138:
2137:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2113:
2111:
2110:
2094:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2055:
2046:
2044:
2043:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2029:
2026:
1993:
1991:
1990:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1970:
1969:
1966:
1959:
1950:
1939:
1934:
1932:
1931:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1917:
1907:
1897:
1893:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1878:
1877:
1868:
1867:
1858:
1841:
1839:
1838:
1829:
1825:
1824:
1821:
1814:
1796:
1794:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1782:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1735:
1733:
1732:
1727:
1715:
1713:
1712:
1707:
1705:
1704:
1701:
1681:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1655:
1652:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1596:
1595:
1592:
1585:
1574:
1572:
1571:
1562:
1561:
1552:
1540:
1536:
1534:
1533:
1521:
1519:
1518:
1515:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1482:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1458:
1448:
1441:
1439:
1438:
1433:
1421:
1419:
1418:
1413:
1411:
1410:
1407:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1386:
1384:
1383:
1380:
1367:
1365:
1364:
1359:
1340:
1331:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1321:
1320:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1313:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1278:
1269:
1268:
1263:
1255:
1246:
1236:
1234:
1233:
1224:
1223:
1214:
1204:
1192:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1182:
1181:
1178:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1157:
1142:
1140:
1139:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1129:
1120:
1119:
1110:
1071:(different from
1055:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1041:
1028:
1026:
1025:
1020:
1005:
1003:
1002:
997:
995:
993:
992:
983:
982:
973:
956:
954:
953:
948:
946:
945:
925:
923:
922:
917:
915:
914:
772:
770:
769:
764:
762:
761:
745:
743:
742:
737:
735:
734:
731:
711:
709:
708:
703:
701:
700:
684:
682:
681:
676:
674:
673:
670:
649:specific impulse
621:
619:
618:
613:
611:
610:
587:
585:
584:
579:
577:
576:
573:
513:Mössbauer effect
500:parabolic shield
433:specific impulse
401:
394:
387:
250:Baryon asymmetry
143:
129:
128:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
3560:
3559:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3550:
3549:
3530:
3529:
3528:
3522:Wayback Machine
3511:
3507:
3497:
3493:
3487:Wayback Machine
3476:
3469:
3459:
3455:
3444:
3440:
3401:
3397:
3354:
3350:
3341:
3339:
3334:
3333:
3329:
3323:Wayback Machine
3314:
3310:
3294:10.1.1.577.1826
3281:
3277:
3236:
3232:
3224:
3217:10.1.1.498.1830
3207:
3201:
3194:
3184:
3180:
3174:Wayback Machine
3163:
3159:
3152:10.2514/3.23194
3136:
3132:
3123:
3121:
3117:
3110:
3104:
3100:
3069:
3065:
3044:
3040:
2993:
2989:
2956:
2952:
2942:
2938:
2928:
2924:
2918:Wayback Machine
2907:
2892:
2886:Wayback Machine
2875:
2864:
2849:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2815:
2794:
2791:
2790:
2787:micrometeorites
2759:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2705:
2700:
2681:
2677:
2659:
2641:
2637:
2632:
2626:
2621:
2602:
2598:
2584:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2543:
2538:
2519:
2515:
2501:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2459:
2455:
2445:
2433:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2413:
2394:
2390:
2376:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2335:
2330:
2311:
2307:
2293:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2251:
2247:
2237:
2235:
2231:
2230:
2219:
2215:
2209:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2166:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2133:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2106:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2079:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2025:
2021:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1971:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1951:
1940:
1938:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1900:
1873:
1869:
1863:
1859:
1857:
1834:
1830:
1820:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1781:
1777:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1721:
1718:
1717:
1700:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1651:
1647:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1597:
1591:
1587:
1586:
1584:
1567:
1563:
1557:
1553:
1551:
1541:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1514:
1510:
1491:
1489:
1478:
1474:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1406:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1396:
1379:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1369:
1353:
1350:
1349:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1279:
1277:
1270:
1256:
1254:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1240:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1207:
1199:
1177:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1167:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1143:) for a given (
1125:
1121:
1115:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1103:
1040:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1011:
1008:
1007:
988:
984:
978:
974:
972:
970:
967:
966:
941:
937:
935:
932:
931:
910:
906:
904:
901:
900:
897:rocket equation
873:
844:
803:
779:
757:
753:
751:
748:
747:
730:
726:
724:
721:
720:
696:
692:
690:
687:
686:
669:
665:
663:
660:
659:
606:
602:
600:
597:
596:
572:
568:
566:
563:
562:
534:
469:magnetic nozzle
454:
441:
405:
376:
375:
366:Andrei Sakharov
351:
343:
342:
323:
315:
314:
283:
275:
274:
235:
227:
226:
153:
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3558:
3548:
3547:
3542:
3527:
3526:
3505:
3491:
3467:
3453:
3438:
3395:
3348:
3327:
3308:
3275:
3246:(1): 497–501.
3230:
3192:
3178:
3157:
3146:(5): 591–595.
3130:
3098:
3079:(8): 551–555.
3063:
3038:
2987:
2950:
2936:
2922:
2890:
2862:
2847:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2822:
2821:
2814:
2811:
2798:
2763:hard radiation
2758:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2742:
2740:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2708:
2699:
2695:
2692:
2689:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2673:
2670:
2667:
2663:
2657:
2651:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2629:
2620:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2591:
2588:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2561:
2557:
2552:
2546:
2537:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2505:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2491:
2488:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2458:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2443:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2412:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2338:
2329:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2262:
2259:
2250:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2234:
2229:
2222:
2218:
2212:
2208:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2169:
2165:
2144:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2109:
2105:
2082:
2078:
2059:
2058:
2049:
2047:
2033:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2011:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1996:
1989:
1985:
1978:
1974:
1964:
1957:
1954:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1937:
1926:
1915:
1911:
1883:
1876:
1872:
1866:
1862:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1844:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1819:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1780:
1776:
1773:
1745:
1725:
1699:
1685:
1684:
1675:
1673:
1659:
1650:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1615:
1611:
1604:
1600:
1590:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1570:
1566:
1560:
1556:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1539:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1488:
1477:
1466:
1462:
1431:
1405:
1378:
1357:
1344:
1343:
1334:
1332:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1289:
1285:
1282:
1276:
1273:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1253:
1250:
1244:
1239:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1218:
1198:
1195:
1176:
1155:
1152:
1128:
1124:
1118:
1114:
1039:
1018:
1015:
991:
987:
981:
977:
944:
940:
913:
909:
872:
869:
842:
802:
799:
778:
775:
760:
756:
729:
699:
695:
668:
609:
605:
571:
533:
530:
453:
450:
440:
437:
429:energy density
407:
406:
404:
403:
396:
389:
381:
378:
377:
374:
373:
368:
363:
358:
352:
349:
348:
345:
344:
341:
340:
335:
330:
324:
321:
320:
317:
316:
313:
312:
307:
306:
305:
300:
290:
284:
281:
280:
277:
276:
273:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
236:
233:
232:
229:
228:
225:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
181:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
154:
149:
148:
145:
144:
136:
135:
117:
116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3557:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3537:
3535:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3509:
3502:
3501:
3495:
3488:
3484:
3481:
3480:
3474:
3472:
3464:
3463:
3457:
3449:
3442:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3399:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3352:
3337:
3331:
3324:
3320:
3317:
3312:
3304:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3286:
3279:
3270:
3269:2027.42/87345
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3234:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3206:
3199:
3197:
3189:
3188:
3182:
3175:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3161:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3134:
3116:
3109:
3102:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3067:
3058:
3053:
3049:
3042:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2991:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2962:
2954:
2947:
2946:
2940:
2933:
2932:
2926:
2919:
2915:
2912:
2911:
2905:
2903:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2887:
2883:
2880:
2879:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2844:
2840:
2833:
2829:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2810:
2796:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2767:health threat
2764:
2750:
2743:
2741:
2721:
2717:
2712:
2706:
2697:
2693:
2690:
2687:
2682:
2674:
2671:
2668:
2661:
2655:
2642:
2638:
2633:
2627:
2618:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2603:
2595:
2592:
2589:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2559:
2555:
2550:
2544:
2535:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2520:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2472:
2468:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2434:
2430:
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1090:according to
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1016:
989:
985:
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862:
857:
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839:
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827:
823:
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814:
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811:fusion rocket
808:
798:
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792:
788:
784:
774:
758:
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727:
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697:
693:
666:
657:
652:
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645:
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637:
636:rocket nozzle
633:
629:
625:
607:
603:
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591:
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560:
556:
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546:
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288:Cloud chamber
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151:Antiparticles
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91:
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81:
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67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
3513:
3508:
3500:Space Charge
3499:
3494:
3478:
3461:
3456:
3447:
3441:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3365:
3361:
3351:
3340:. Retrieved
3330:
3311:
3284:
3278:
3243:
3239:
3233:
3186:
3181:
3165:
3160:
3143:
3139:
3133:
3122:. Retrieved
3101:
3076:
3072:
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3047:
3041:
3004:
3000:
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2968:(1): 34–39.
2965:
2959:
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2909:
2877:
2838:
2832:
2771:space charge
2760:
2744:
2063:
2062:
2051:
1797:, such that
1759:
1758:
1688:
1677:
1444:
1347:
1336:
1200:
1081:
1058:
890:
886:
874:
858:
854:Penning trap
847:
835:
831:
822:D-T reaction
815:
804:
780:
716:
714:
656:gaseous core
655:
653:
623:
553:
552:
544:
542:
537:
535:
517:
509:
492:Eugen Sänger
486:
476:
472:
455:
442:
412:
410:
310:Penning trap
260:CP violation
245:Baryogenesis
240:Annihilation
207:True muonium
183:
182:
173:Antihydrogen
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1073:Heat shield
717:plasma core
477:beamed core
473:pion rocket
217:Positronium
168:Antineutron
3540:Antimatter
3534:Categories
3342:2008-11-18
3210:(Report).
3124:2010-04-21
3057:2207.08133
2825:References
1061:waste heat
882:Paul traps
594:efficiency
545:solid core
496:light sail
465:gamma rays
457:Antiproton
421:antimatter
361:Paul Dirac
350:Scientists
222:Quarkonium
178:Antihelium
163:Antiproton
133:Antimatter
99:April 2007
69:newspapers
3289:CiteSeerX
3212:CiteSeerX
3007:: 32–36.
2857:795367347
2672:−
2593:−
2582:−
2576:−
2510:−
2493:−
2466:Δ
2450:−
2385:−
2368:−
2302:−
2291:−
2285:−
2258:Δ
2242:−
2176:Δ
2004:−
1956:−
1942:−
1855:−
1846:∼
1811:−
1775:∼
1630:−
1582:−
1549:−
1508:−
1493:−
1281:Δ
1275:−
1258:Δ
1151:Δ
1014:Δ
755:η
694:η
604:η
590:mean path
525:deuterium
425:rest mass
419:that use
3518:Archived
3483:Archived
3390:19392120
3319:Archived
3222:Archived
3170:Archived
3115:Archived
2914:Archived
2882:Archived
2813:See also
2789:. At 0.2
963:fraction
712:~ 35%).
632:Hydrogen
521:hydrogen
488:Positron
158:Positron
3433:6628569
3413:Bibcode
3370:Bibcode
3248:Bibcode
3081:Bibcode
3009:Bibcode
2970:Bibcode
1166:) and (
959:payload
957:)(with
926:)(with
878:Penning
861:ICAN-II
850:AIMStar
773:~ 10%)
439:Methods
417:rockets
282:Devices
212:Pionium
202:Muonium
83:scholar
3431:
3388:
3291:
3214:
2855:
2845:
2065:Eq.III
1689:where
1348:where
845:~10s.
338:Weapon
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
3225:(PDF)
3208:(PDF)
3118:(PDF)
3111:(PDF)
3052:arXiv
1761:Eq.II
1422:=0.69
644:xenon
461:pions
255:Comet
90:JSTOR
76:books
3429:OSTI
3386:PMID
2853:OCLC
2843:ISBN
2785:and
2783:dust
2155:and
2095:and
1929:ship
1918:ship
1702:ship
1480:ship
1469:ship
1086:the
1067:and
859:The
715:The
654:The
640:lead
543:The
431:and
371:CERN
333:Fuel
322:Uses
185:Onia
62:news
3421:doi
3378:doi
3366:102
3299:doi
3264:hdl
3256:doi
3244:654
3148:doi
3089:doi
3027:hdl
3017:doi
3005:175
2978:doi
2779:gas
2054:III
1442:).
1079:).
1075:or
880:or
838:P-B
797:).
523:or
498:or
484:).
475:or
411:An
45:by
3536::
3470:^
3427:.
3419:.
3409:20
3407:.
3384:.
3376:.
3364:.
3360:.
3297:.
3287:.
3262:.
3254:.
3242:.
3220:.
3195:^
3142:.
3113:.
3087:.
3077:15
3075:.
3050:.
3025:.
3015:.
3003:.
2999:.
2976:.
2966:81
2964:.
2893:^
2865:^
2851:.
2781:,
2747:IV
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2623:sp
2540:sp
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2027:sp
1967:sp
1822:sp
1783:sp
1680:II
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507:.
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3435:.
3423::
3415::
3392:.
3380::
3372::
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3250::
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3150::
3144:5
3127:.
3095:.
3091::
3083::
3060:.
3054::
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