Antimatter - Knowledge

3152: 70: 2131:, as a magnetized neutron star rotation cycle shears electron-positron pairs from the star surface. Therein the antimatter forms a wind that crashes upon the ejecta of the progenitor supernovae. This weathering takes place as "the cold, magnetized relativistic wind launched by the star hits the non-relativistically expanding ejecta, a shock wave system forms in the impact: the outer one propagates in the ejecta, while a reverse shock propagates back towards the star." The former ejection of matter in the outer shock wave and the latter production of antimatter in the reverse shock wave are steps in a space weather cycle. 2688:. These magnetic moments can interact with an inhomogeneous magnetic field; some of the antihydrogen atoms can be attracted to a magnetic minimum. Such a minimum can be created by a combination of mirror and multipole fields. Antihydrogen can be trapped in such a magnetic minimum (minimum-B) trap; in November 2010, the ALPHA collaboration announced that they had so trapped 38 antihydrogen atoms for about a sixth of a second. This was the first time that neutral antimatter had been trapped. 1537:, whose seminal paper “On the Theory of Electrons and Protons” (Feb 14th 1930) drew on Dirac's equation and argued for the existence of a positively charged electron (a positron), which as a counterpart to the electron should have the same mass as the electron itself. This meant that it could not be, as Dirac had in fact suggested, a proton. Dirac further postulated the existence of antimatter in a 1931 paper which referred to the positron as an "anti-electron". These were discovered by 8416: 2584:(LEAR), and was led by Walter Oelert and Mario Macri. Fermilab soon confirmed the CERN findings by producing approximately 100 antihydrogen atoms at their facilities. The antihydrogen atoms created during PS210 and subsequent experiments (at both CERN and Fermilab) were extremely energetic and were not well suited to study. To resolve this hurdle, and to gain a better understanding of antihydrogen, two collaborations were formed in the late 1990s, namely, 7294: 2610: – still too "hot" to produce study-effective antihydrogen, but a huge leap forward. In late 2002 the ATHENA project announced that they had created the world's first "cold" antihydrogen. The ATRAP project released similar results very shortly thereafter. The antiprotons used in these experiments were cooled by decelerating them with the Antiproton Decelerator, passing them through a thin sheet of foil, and finally capturing them in a 43: 2151:

electron+positron events, around an energy of 275 ± 32 GeV. At higher energies, up to 500 GeV, the ratio of positrons to electrons begins to fall again. The absolute flux of positrons also begins to fall before 500 GeV, but peaks at energies far higher than electron energies, which peak about 10 GeV. These results on interpretation have been suggested to be due to positron production in annihilation events of massive

7824: 2895: 8428: 2745:) were first observed in the 1970s in proton–nucleus collision experiments at the Institute for High Energy Physics by Y. Prockoshkin's group (Protvino near Moscow, USSR) and later created in nucleus–nucleus collision experiments. Nucleus–nucleus collisions produce antinuclei through the coalescence of antiprotons and antineutrons created in these reactions. In 2011, the 1836: 1855: 2451:). The properties of the antiproton that have been measured all match the corresponding properties of the proton, with the exception of the antiproton having opposite electric charge and magnetic moment from the proton. Shortly afterwards, in 1956, the antineutron was discovered in proton–proton collisions at the 3077:

Not all of that energy can be utilized by any realistic propulsion technology because of the nature of the annihilation products. While electron–positron reactions result in gamma ray photons, these are difficult to direct and use for thrust. In reactions between protons and antiprotons, their energy

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in a Surko-style positron accumulator. This cloud is then recaptured in a second trap near the antiprotons. Manipulations of the trap electrodes then tip the antiprotons into the positron plasma, where some combine with antiprotons to form antihydrogen. This neutral antihydrogen is unaffected by the

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to 250 GeV. In September, 2014, new results with almost twice as much data were presented in a talk at CERN and published in Physical Review Letters. A new measurement of positron fraction up to 500 GeV was reported, showing that positron fraction peaks at a maximum of about 16% of total

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and a few antiprotons in primary cosmic rays, amounting to less than 1% of the particles in primary cosmic rays. This antimatter cannot all have been created in the Big Bang, but is instead attributed to have been produced by cyclic processes at high energies. For instance, electron-positron pairs

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to keep the antimatter from coming into contact with matter and annihilating. The researchers then gradually weakened the magnetic fields and detected the antiatoms using two sensors as they escaped and annihilated. Most of the anti-atoms came out of the bottom opening, and only one-quarter out of

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Scientists claim that antimatter is the costliest material to make. In 2006, Gerald Smith estimated $ 250 million could produce 10 milligrams of positrons (equivalent to $ 25 billion per gram); in 1999, NASA gave a figure of $ 62.5 trillion per gram of antihydrogen. This is because

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scientists were able to preserve antihydrogen for approximately 17 minutes. The record for storing antiparticles is currently held by the TRAP experiment at CERN: antiprotons were kept in a Penning trap for 405 days. A proposal was made in 2018 to develop containment technology advanced enough to

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that decayed into both matter and antimatter. Positrons were detected at a higher rate and in greater density than ever previously detected in a laboratory. Previous experiments made smaller quantities of positrons using lasers and paper-thin targets; newer simulations showed that short bursts of

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The biggest limiting factor in the large-scale production of antimatter is the availability of antiprotons. Recent data released by CERN states that, when fully operational, their facilities are capable of producing ten million antiprotons per minute. Assuming a 100% conversion of antiprotons to

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In 2016, a new antiproton decelerator and cooler called ELENA (Extra Low ENergy Antiproton decelerator) was built. It takes the antiprotons from the antiproton decelerator and cools them to 90 keV, which is "cold" enough to study. This machine works by using high energy and accelerating the

1360:. If surrounding matter is present, the energy content of this radiation will be absorbed and converted into other forms of energy, such as heat or light. The amount of energy released is usually proportional to the total mass of the collided matter and antimatter, in accordance with the notable 2716:

atoms of anti-hydrogen). However, CERN only produces 1% of the anti-matter Fermilab does, and neither are designed to produce anti-matter. According to Gerald Jackson, using technology already in use today we are capable of producing and capturing 20 grams of anti-matter particles per year at a

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There are compelling theoretical reasons to believe that, aside from the fact that antiparticles have different signs on all charges (such as electric and baryon charges), matter and antimatter have exactly the same properties. This means a particle and its corresponding antiparticle must have

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in 1898, in which he coined the term. He hypothesized antiatoms, as well as whole antimatter solar systems, and discussed the possibility of matter and antimatter annihilating each other. Schuster's ideas were not a serious theoretical proposal, merely speculation, and like the previous ideas,

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Cosmic ray antiprotons also have a much higher energy than their normal-matter counterparts (protons). They arrive at Earth with a characteristic energy maximum of 2 GeV, indicating their production in a fundamentally different process from cosmic ray protons, which on average have only

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On 26 April 2011, ALPHA announced that they had trapped 309 antihydrogen atoms, some for as long as 1,000 seconds (about 17 minutes). This was longer than neutral antimatter had ever been trapped before. ALPHA has used these trapped atoms to initiate research into the spectral properties of

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It is quite possible that for some of the stars it is the other way about, these stars being built up mainly of positrons and negative protons. In fact, there may be half the stars of each kind. The two kinds of stars would both show exactly the same spectra, and there would be no way of

1975:(binary star systems containing black holes or neutron stars), mostly on one side of the Galactic Center. While the mechanism is not fully understood, it is likely to involve the production of electron–positron pairs, as ordinary matter gains kinetic energy while falling into a 2088:

threshold). It is hypothesized that during the period of baryogenesis, when the universe was extremely hot and dense, matter and antimatter were continually produced and annihilated. The presence of remaining matter, and absence of detectable remaining antimatter, is called

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Most matter observable from the Earth seems to be made of matter rather than antimatter. If antimatter-dominated regions of space existed, the gamma rays produced in annihilation reactions along the boundary between matter and antimatter regions would be detectable.

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have been artificially produced, albeit with difficulty, and are the most complex anti-nuclei so far observed. Physical principles indicate that complex antimatter atomic nuclei are possible, as well as anti-atoms corresponding to the known chemical elements.

1861: 2470:, anti-nuclei consisting of multiple bound antiprotons and antineutrons have been created. These are typically produced at energies far too high to form antimatter atoms (with bound positrons in place of electrons). In 1965, a group of researchers led by 2653:

electric and magnetic fields used to trap the charged positrons and antiprotons, and within a few microseconds the antihydrogen hits the trap walls, where it annihilates. Some hundreds of millions of antihydrogen atoms have been made in this fashion.

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ratio. AMS-02 revealed in December 2016 that it had discovered a few signals consistent with antihelium nuclei amidst several billion helium nuclei. The result remains to be verified, and as of 2017, the team is trying to rule out contamination.

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Most of the sought-after high-precision tests of the properties of antihydrogen could only be performed if the antihydrogen were trapped, that is, held in place for a relatively long time. While antihydrogen atoms are electrically neutral, the

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Sellner, S.; Besirli, M.; Bohman, M.; Borchert, M. J.; Harrington, J.; Higuchi, T.; Mooser, A.; Nagahama, H.; Schneider, G.; Smorra, C.; Tanaka, T.; Blaum, K.; Matsuda, Y.; Ospelkaus, C.; Quint, W.; Walz, J.; Yamazaki, Y.; Ulmer, S. (2017).

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Arrowsmith, C. D.; Simon, P.; Bilbao, P. J.; Bott, A. F. A.; Burger, S.; Chen, H.; Cruz, F. D.; Davenne, T.; Efthymiopoulos, I.; Froula, D. H.; Goillot, A.; Gudmundsson, J. T.; Haberberger, D.; Halliday, J. W. D.; Hodge, T. (12 June 2024).

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Antimatter has been considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons. A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities, and there is no evidence that it will ever be feasible. Nonetheless, the

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The antiprotons are still hot when initially trapped. To cool them further, they are mixed into an electron plasma. The electrons in this plasma cool via cyclotron radiation, and then sympathetically cool the antiprotons via

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identical masses and decay lifetimes (if unstable). It also implies that, for example, a star made up of antimatter (an "antistar") will shine just like an ordinary star. This idea was tested experimentally in 2016 by the

3113:; the neutrinos from this decay carry about 2/3 of the energy of the muons, meaning that from the original charged pions, the total fraction of their energy converted to neutrinos by one route or another would be about 1533:. Although Dirac had laid the groundwork for the existence of these “antielectrons” he initially failed to pick up on the implications contained within his own equation. He freely gave the credit for that insight to 2922:

and are widely generated for medical use. Antiprotons have also been shown within laboratory experiments to have the potential to treat certain cancers, in a similar method currently used for ion (proton) therapy.

2614:. The overall cooling process is workable, but highly inefficient; approximately 25 million antiprotons leave the Antiproton Decelerator and roughly 25,000 make it to the Penning–Malmberg trap, which is about 524: 1301:

amount of antimatter has ever been assembled due to the extreme cost and difficulty of production and handling. Nonetheless, antimatter is an essential component of widely available applications related to

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Antimatter cannot be stored in a container made of ordinary matter because antimatter reacts with any matter it touches, annihilating itself and an equal amount of the container. Antimatter in the form of

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There is no difference in the gravitational behavior of matter and antimatter. In other words, antimatter falls down when dropped, not up. This was confirmed with the thin, very cold gas of thousands of

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Aguilar, M.; et al. (AMS Collaboration) (August 2002). "The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) on the International Space Station: Part I – results from the test flight on the space shuttle".

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nuclei (that is, anti-alpha particles), in cosmic rays. The detection of natural antihelium could imply the existence of large antimatter structures such as an antistar. A prototype of the

6716:"A rough estimate to produce the 10 milligrams of positrons needed for a human Mars mission is about 250 million dollars using technology that is currently under development," said Smith. 2073:

clouds; positrons are produced in terrestrial gamma ray flashes created by electrons accelerated by strong electric fields in the clouds. Antiprotons have also been found to exist in the

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to a precision of 1.5 parts per billion. It is consistent with the most precise measurement of the proton magnetic moment (also made by BASE in 2014), which supports the hypothesis of

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to produce about 1 billionth of a gram (the amount used so far for particle/antiparticle collisions). In comparison, to produce the first atomic weapon, the cost of the

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particles within the chamber. More than one hundred antiprotons can be captured per second, a huge improvement, but it would still take several thousand years to make a

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Moskalenko, I. V.; Strong, A. W.; Ormes, J. F.; Potgieter, M. S. (January 2002). "Secondary antiprotons and propagation of cosmic rays in the Galaxy and heliosphere".

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from "positive electron". Although Dirac did not himself use the term antimatter, its use follows on naturally enough from antielectrons, antiprotons, etc. A complete

1496:. The squirts represented normal matter and the sinks represented negative matter. Pearson's theory required a fourth dimension for the aether to flow from and into. 1971:

may explain the origin of a giant antimatter cloud surrounding the Galactic Center. The observations show that the cloud is asymmetrical and matches the pattern of

1289:, but only a tiny fraction of these have successfully been bound together in experiments to form antiatoms. Minuscule numbers of antiparticles can be generated at 6450: 5350:

Efthymiopoulos, I; Hessler, C; Gaillard, H; Grenier, D; Meddahi, M; Trilhe, P; Pardons, A; Theis, C; Charitonidis, N; Evrard, S; Vincke, H; Lazzaroni, M (2011).

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production is difficult (only very few antiprotons are produced in reactions in particle accelerators) and because there is higher demand for other uses of

2482:. At roughly the same time, observations of antideuterium nuclei were reported by a group of American physicists at the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at 4839: 2061:

are another kind of antiparticle created by natural radioactivity (β decay). Many different kinds of antiparticles are also produced by (and contained in)

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Gsponer, Andre; Hurni, Jean-Pierre (1987). "The physics of antimatter induced fusion and thermonuclear explosions". In Velarde, G.; Minguez, E. (eds.).

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collisions. Eventually, the electrons are removed by the application of short-duration electric fields, leaving the antiprotons with energies less than

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Antimatter particles carry the same charge as matter particles, but of opposite sign. That is, an antiproton is negatively charged and an antielectron (

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Blaum, K.; Raizen, M. G.; Quint, W. (2014). "An experimental test of the weak equivalence principle for antihydrogen at the future FLAIR facility".

7145: 2265:. The beam demonstrated the highest positron yield achieved so far in a laboratory setting. The experiment employed the 440 GeV proton beam, with 6788: 1848:

A video showing how scientists used the Fermi Gamma ray Space Telescope's gamma ray detector to uncover bursts of antimatter from thunderstorms

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behave exactly identical to regular particles, but traveling backward in time. This concept is nowadays used in modern particle physics, in

459: 6703: 5474: 3109:(carrying about 78% of the charged pion energy), with the muons then decaying into a combination of electrons, positrons and neutrinos (cf. 2024:. This measurement represents the first time that a property of antimatter is known more precisely than the equivalent property in matter. 8018: 6728: 4412: 2951:. Since the energy density of antimatter is higher than that of conventional fuels, an antimatter-fueled spacecraft would have a higher 7231: 7178:

FAQ from CERN with information about antimatter aimed at the general reader, posted in response to antimatter's fictional portrayal in

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of +1, while that of positrons is –1. When a particle and its corresponding antiparticle collide, they are both converted into energy.

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Massam, T.; Muller, Th.; Righini, B.; Schneegans, M.; Zichichi, A. (1965). "Experimental observation of antideuteron production".

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Antiparticles are also produced in any environment with a sufficiently high temperature (mean particle energy greater than the

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Antiparticles bind with each other to form antimatter, just as ordinary particles bind to form normal matter. For example, a

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Weidenspointner, G.; et al. (2008). "An asymmetric distribution of positrons in the Galactic disk revealed by γ-rays".

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Recent observations indicate black holes and neutron stars produce vast amounts of positron-electron plasma via the jets.

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are exploring whether it might be possible to use magnetic scoops to collect the antimatter that occurs naturally in the

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In 2023, the production of the first electron-positron beam-plasma was reported by a collaboration led by researchers at

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in the primordial time of the universe. Antimatter galaxies, if they exist, are expected to have the same chemistry and

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is trying to determine if such galaxies exist by looking for X-ray and gamma ray signatures of annihilation events in

1910:, which are immediately annihilated by contact with nearby matter. They may similarly be produced in regions like the 8068: 6758: 5909:

Pritchard, D. E.; Heinz, T.; Shen, Y. (1983). "Cooling neutral atoms in a magnetic trap for precision spectroscopy".

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atoms that were confined in a vertical shaft surrounded by superconducting electromagnetic coils. These can create a

6535: 4600: 1816:. The results, which are identical to that of hydrogen, confirmed the validity of quantum mechanics for antimatter. 8464: 7853: 5821:

Surko, C. M.; Greaves, R. G. (2004). "Emerging science and technology of antimatter plasmas and trap-based beams".

3249: 5046: 3151: 2825:, the matter or antimatter particles can be trapped and cooled with slightly off-resonant laser radiation using a 8261: 8251: 8236: 8173: 7498: 7137: 3624: 1872: 231: 8028: 6078: 5024: 4835: 4516:

Sala, S.; Ariga, A.; Ereditato, A.; Ferragut, R.; Giammarchi, M.; Leone, M.; Pistillo, C.; Scampoli, P. (2019).

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character

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is composed almost entirely of ordinary matter, as opposed to an equal mixture of matter and antimatter. This

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contain a billion anti-protons in a portable device to be driven to another lab for further experimentation.

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Dorfan, D. E; Eades, J.; Lederman, L. M.; Lee, W.; Ting, C. C. (June 1965). "Observation of Antideuterons".

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Agakishiev, H.; et al. (STAR Collaboration) (2011). "Observation of the antimatter helium-4 nucleus".

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loses surplus positive charge by emitting a positron (in the same event, a proton becomes a neutron, and a

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show that positrons in the cosmic rays arrive with no directionality, and with energies that range from 10

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announced that it had successfully brought into existence nine hot antihydrogen atoms by implementing the

8221: 8108: 7951: 4712: 3140:, and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself. 3053: 2777: 2773: 2143: 2135: 1361: 34: 2645:. While the antiprotons are being cooled in the first trap, a small cloud of positrons is captured from 8241: 7173: 7116: 7069: 7002:

Proceedings of the International Conference on Emerging Nuclear Energy Systems, Madrid, June/July, 1986

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Castelvecchi, D. (19 December 2016). "Ephemeral antimatter atoms pinned down in milestone laser test".

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Positrons are produced naturally in β decays of naturally occurring radioactive isotopes (for example,

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in "ordinary" matter, and can be thought of as matter with reversed charge, parity, and time, known as

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is by adding a bar over the particle's symbol. For example, the proton and antiproton are denoted as

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Adriani, O.; et al. (2011). "The Discovery of Geomagnetically Trapped Cosmic-Ray Antiprotons".

7966: 7808: 7715: 7614: 7244: 7039:"Air Force pursuing antimatter weapons / Program was touted publicly, then came official gag order" 6777: 3948: 2991: 2874: 2673: 2299: 2074: 1485: 1481: 1415:. The process by which this inequality between matter and antimatter particles developed is called 1057: 779: 531: 320: 4254: 3596: 3531: 3406:

Tsan, Ung Chan (2013). "Mass, Matter, Materialization, Mattergenesis and Conservation of Charge".

2805:. This device cannot, however, contain antimatter that consists of uncharged particles, for which 1439:

of +1, while antiprotons and antineutrons have a baryon number of –1. Similarly, electrons have a

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Dolgov, A. D. (2002). "Cosmological Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry and Antimatter in the Universe".

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Serpico, P. D. (December 2012). "Astrophysical models for the origin of the positron "excess"".

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and other galaxies, where very energetic celestial events occur (principally the interaction of

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Gabrielse, G.; et al. (1989). "Cooling and slowing of trapped antiprotons below 100 meV".

5680:"Background-free observation of cold antihydrogen with field ionization analysis of its states" 3985: 2952: 2814: 2596: 2543: 2515: 2384: 1067: 1047: 917: 226: 4436:"Universe Should Not Actually Exist: Big Bang Produced Equal Amounts of Matter And Antimatter" 1452: 7916: 7813: 4404: 4300: 2830: 2749:

reported the observation of artificially created antihelium-4 nuclei (anti-alpha particles) (

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has, as of 2021, recorded eight events that seem to indicate the detection of antihelium-3.

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Canetti, L.; Drewes, M.; Shaposhnikov, M. (2012). "Matter and antimatter in the universe".

3858: 3809: 3703: 3485: 3415: 3349: 3288: 3071: 2855: 2826: 2528: 2254: 1290: 844: 722: 707: 697: 449:{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle } 221: 27: 7095: 6520: 6101: 4573: 952: 571: 8: 8454: 8226: 7528: 7420: 7410: 7323: 7278: 6845: 4605: 3192: 2940: 2657: 2094: 1991: 1923: 1538: 1493: 1404: 967: 794: 784: 732: 727: 702: 601: 313: 284: 125: 7161: 7023: 6825: 6618: 6575: 6503: 6380: 6333: 6261: 6200: 6120: 6058: 5961: 5924: 5877: 5836: 5791: 5754: 5697: 5626: 5575: 5552: 5509: 5448: 5425: 5400: 5374: 5211: 5168: 5099: 4988: 4922: 4880: 4872: 4788: 4685: 4618: 4533: 4484: 4341: 4211: 4016: 4008: 3862: 3813: 3707: 3489: 3419: 3361: 3353: 3292: 3010:), and about 2 orders of magnitude greater than the best possible results expected from 2656:

In 2005, ATHENA disbanded and some of the former members (along with others) formed the

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appears in past theories of matter that have now been abandoned. Using the once popular

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Schmidt, G. R. (1999). "Antimatter Production for Near-Term Propulsion Applications".

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Agakishiev, H.; et al. (2011). "Observation of the antimatter helium-4 nucleus".

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in 2010. The blue areas indicate where potential lightning can occur for terrestrial

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A collision between any particle and its anti-particle partner leads to their mutual

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Stewart, P. J. (2010). "Charles Janet: Unrecognized genius of the periodic system".

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Matter–antimatter reactions have practical applications in medical imaging, such as

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Material composed of antiparticles of the corresponding particles of ordinary matter

8345: 7921: 7868: 7798: 7778: 7660: 7283: 7165: 7005: 6867: 6829: 6644: 6622: 6605: 6579: 6515: 6507: 6458: 6384: 6337: 6265: 6204: 6152: 6132: 6124: 6062: 5985: 5965: 5948: 5928: 5881: 5840: 5795: 5758: 5701: 5652: 5630: 5613: 5556: 5513: 5420: 5404: 5258: 5223: 5215: 5184: 5172: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5020: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4931: 4926: 4876: 4814: 4800: 4792: 4689: 4622: 4545: 4537: 4488: 4471: 4365: 4345: 4328: 4225: 4215: 4168: 4079: 4012: 3957: 3866: 3817: 3725: 3711: 3694: 3633: 3493: 3423: 3357: 3296: 3269: 3174: 2834: 2790: 2577: 2380: 2102: 2090: 2057:) and in interactions of gamma quanta (emitted by radioactive nuclei) with matter. 1999: 1983: 1919: 1809: 1505: 1431:) is positively charged. Neutrons do not carry a net charge, but their constituent 1408: 1192: 1167: 1142: 1132: 1087: 957: 764: 744: 739: 596: 183: 178: 6270: 5705: 3565: 3464:

are associated to antimatter particles. All known interactions do conserve matter.

1812:

experiment, which measured the transition between the two lowest energy states of

1786:

respectively. To prevent confusion, however, the two conventions are never mixed.

8401: 8286: 7783: 7650: 7503: 7240: 7140:(from the Frequently Asked Questions at the Center for Antimatter–Matter Studies) 5323: 4769: 3752: 3198: 3195: – Exotic molecule consisting of a hydrogen atom bound to a positronium atom 2995: 2987: 2818: 2685: 2344: 2085: 2017: 2009: 1976: 1911: 1800: 1747: 1565: 1500: 1477: 1447: 1330: 1187: 1182: 1102: 1042: 947: 922: 912: 877: 872: 839: 769: 692: 551: 294: 5932: 5799: 5560: 3168: – Non-standard model of the universe; emphasizes the role of ionized gases 2376: 2250:

ultra-intense lasers and millimeter-thick gold are a far more effective source.

1458: 8340: 7926: 7448: 7443: 7400: 7333: 7328: 7203: 6627: 6600: 6584: 6559: 6285:

Antipov, Y. M.; et al. (1974). "Observation of antihelium3 (in Russian)".

6035: 5762: 5739:

Malmberg, J. H.; deGrassie, J. S. (1975). "Properties of a nonneutral plasma".

5408: 4083: 3186: 3157: 3091: 3083: 3011: 2971: 2967: 2798: 2794: 2704:

antihydrogen, it would take 100 billion years to produce 1 gram or 1

2681: 2665: 2431: 2239: 1972: 1956: 1723: 1546: 1522: 1392: 1334: 1258: 1172: 1157: 1117: 1107: 1082: 1027: 977: 972: 809: 789: 759: 644: 581: 576: 343: 6833: 6511: 5083: 4172: 3961: 3497: 3427: 2660:, which is also based at CERN. The ultimate goal of this endeavour is to test 8448: 8396: 8376: 8168: 8118: 7956: 7685: 7665: 7588: 7548: 7483: 7415: 7338: 7193: 5416: 3878: 3105:(carrying about 22% of the energy of the charged pions) and unstable charged 2918:

is also emitted). Nuclides with surplus positive charge are easily made in a

2746: 2475: 2176: 2027:

Antimatter quantum interferometry has been first demonstrated in 2018 in the

1982:

Antimatter may exist in relatively large amounts in far-away galaxies due to

1561: 1550: 1440: 1436: 1147: 1112: 1072: 1037: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1002: 982: 927: 862: 216: 47: 7127: 7112: 6462: 5262: 3385:"One step closer: UW-Madison scientists help explain scarcity of antimatter" 1022: 7710: 7583: 7578: 7573: 7538: 7488: 7405: 6636: 6396: 6218: 6209: 6144: 5977: 5895: 5886: 5859: 5807: 5713: 5644: 5434: 5127: 5012: 4940: 4636: 4559: 4541: 4502: 4357: 4239: 4091: 3870: 3822: 3795: 3308: 2802: 2661: 2641: 2602: 2495: 2410: 2389: 2348: 2098: 2070: 2058: 2054: 2021: 2002: 1987: 1943: 1907: 1903: 1825: 1813: 1796: 1702: 1681: 1577: 1530: 1489: 1416: 1388: 1341: 1278: 1270: 1162: 987: 962: 937: 892: 887: 824: 804: 238: 188: 173: 168: 135: 101: 79: 7209: 3330:

Canetti, L.; et al. (2012). "Matter and Antimatter in the Universe".

1994:

would be observationally identical, making them difficult to distinguish.

1746:. Another convention is to distinguish particles by positive and negative 8371: 8335: 8327: 7911: 7848: 7757: 7619: 7513: 7425: 6543: 5159: 4134: 3087: 2859: 2806: 2705: 2646: 2520: 2364: 2152: 1511: 1464: 1152: 1122: 1092: 897: 654: 145: 96: 20: 7014: 6871: 6388: 6136: 6128: 5969: 5635: 5227: 5118: 5004: 4493: 4466: 4349: 4220: 4195: 3300: 2369:

The existence of the antiproton was experimentally confirmed in 1955 by

8203: 8053: 7906: 7863: 7558: 7533: 7460: 7364: 7343: 6778:"Extraction of Antiparticles Concentrated in Planetary Magnetic Fields" 5517: 4805: 4119: 3645: 3539:. Vol. 12. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier. pp. 320–325. 3110: 3067: 2907: 2460: 2360: 2117: 2062: 2028: 1939: 1895: 1658: 1518: 1322: 1303: 1282: 1032: 942: 882: 799: 649: 586: 556: 546: 519:{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }} 289: 150: 106: 91: 8391: 6066: 5844: 4230: 2387:. An antiproton consists of two up antiquarks and one down antiquark ( 8350: 8307: 8098: 7087:

Schmidt, G.R.; Gerrish, H.P.; Martin, J.J.; Smith, G.A.; Meyer, K.J.

6030: 5351: 4962: 3831: 3716: 2963: 2919: 2373: 2231: 1947: 1935: 1927: 1926:). The presence of the resulting antimatter is detectable by the two 1915: 1876: 1868: 1743: 1349: 1097: 829: 7293: 7128:

Freeview Video 'Antimatter' by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU

5679: 5608: 5349: 4627: 4070:

Castelvecchi, D. (5 October 2023). "Antimatter falls down, not up".

3689: 3637: 1510:

differed from the modern concept of antimatter in that it possessed

42: 8058: 7695: 7523: 6182: 5391: 5352:"HiRadMat: A New Irradiation Facility for Material Testing at CERN" 5176: 4979: 4467:"A parts-per-billion measurement of the antiproton magnetic moment" 3502:

Antimatter particles are characterized by negative baryonic number

3137: 3102: 3029: 2915: 2697: 2669: 2573: 2452: 2347:

process. The produced pair beams have a volume that fills multiple

2307: 2222:

Positrons were reported in November 2008 to have been generated by

2217: 2123: 1968: 1951: 1931: 1891: 1639: 1620: 1542: 1484:, the possibility of matter with negative gravity was discussed by 1428: 1384: 1380: 1353: 1294: 932: 669: 561: 86: 51: 6371: 6049: 4902:

Accardo, L.; et al. (AMS Collaboration) (18 September 2014).

4863: 4796: 4676: 3999: 3661:

Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century

3344: 3283: 2198:

established an upper limit of 1.1×10 for the antihelium to helium

8291: 8163: 7655: 7543: 7478: 7395: 7390: 4768:

Wardle, J. F. C.; Homan, D. C.; Ojha, R.; Roberts, D. H. (1998).

3476:

Tsan, U. C. (2012). "Negative Numbers And Antimatter Particles".

3392: 3094:

decay more slowly (with a lifetime of 26 nanoseconds) and can be

2911: 2878: 2246: 2162:

There is an ongoing search for larger antimatter nuclei, such as

1387:) and an antiproton (the antiparticle of the proton) can form an 659: 140: 130: 3919:

Beyond Einstein: The Cosmic Quest for the Theory of the Universe

8148: 8023: 7264: 6420:"Antimatter stars may lurk in the solar system's neighbourhood" 5467:"Breaking Through: A Century of Physics at Berkeley, 1868–1968" 2959: 2894: 2866:

was estimated at $ 23 billion with inflation during 2007.

2822: 2810: 2649: 2585: 2467: 2303: 2243: 2187: 2128: 1517:

The modern theory of antimatter began in 1928, with a paper by

1345: 1318: 1266: 639: 634: 7726: 5144: 4297:"Integral discovers the galaxy's antimatter cloud is lopsided" 3189: – Exotic molecule consisting of two atoms of positronium 1906:) produce minute quantities of antiparticles in the resulting 1894:

where high-energy particle collisions take place. High-energy

8312: 8198: 8193: 8043: 7998: 7843: 7838: 7273: 7259: 7202:, costly experiment to study neutrinos & anti-neutrinos. 7089:"Antimatter Production for Near-term Propulsion Applications" 6956:. pp. 5–6 (pp. 6–7 of pdf). AIAA–87–1814. Archived from 6560:"Improved limit on the directly measured antiproton lifetime" 6308:"Antihelium-3 production in lead–lead collisions at 158 5574:

Gabrielse, Gerald; et al. (ATRAP Collaboration) (1996).

5495: 4196:"Observation of the 1S–2S transition in trapped antihydrogen" 3044: 2589: 2351:

and are thus able to sustain collective plasma oscillations.

2227: 2036: 1676: 1492:

proposed the existence of "squirts" and sinks of the flow of

1432: 664: 624: 113: 6556: 6102:"Resonant quantum transitions in trapped antihydrogen atoms" 5289:"Billions of particles of anti-matter created in laboratory" 2354: 1456:, led to the initialism "C.T." and the science fiction term 8158: 8153: 8078: 8033: 8003: 6953: 6912:

Kaye & Laby: Table of Physical & Chemical Constants

6908:"§4.7 Nuclear fission and fusion, and neutron interactions" 6784: 6732: 6699: 6665: 6003: 4742: 4408: 3106: 3079: 3078:

is converted largely into relativistic neutral and charged

2932: 2841: 2569: 2565: 2479: 2262: 2235: 2199: 2032: 2013: 1995: 1326: 1317:

In theory, a particle and its antiparticle (for example, a

1293:; however, total artificial production has been only a few 674: 629: 299: 6491:

International Journal of Modern Physics: Conference Series

6183:"Cold antihydrogen: a new frontier in fundamental physics" 5860:"Cold antihydrogen: a new frontier in fundamental physics" 5375:"Laboratory realization of relativistic pair-plasma beams" 4515: 3432:

Matter conservation means conservation of baryonic number

2877:

of the Earth, and ultimately the belts of gas giants like

7269: 7122: 6696:"New and Improved Antimatter Spaceship for Mars Missions" 5371: 4574:"Antimatter caught streaming from thunderstorms on Earth" 3982: 2147: 7190:

Animated illustration of antihydrogen production at CERN

4836:"NASA – Vast Cloud of Antimatter Traced to Binary Stars" 3510:. Materialization and annihilation obey conservation of 1750:. Thus, the electron and positron are denoted simply as 6246:"Antimatter-Based Propulsion for Exoplanet Exploration" 4518:"First demonstration of antimatter wave interferometry" 3170:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2858:. According to CERN, it has cost a few hundred million 26:"Anti-nucleus" redirects here. For the antibodies, see 6866:. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 6601:"Physicists plan antimatter's first outing – in a van" 5946:

Andresen; et al. (2010). "Trapped antihydrogen".

5538: 4770:"Electron-positron Jets Associated with Quasar 3C 279" 4767: 3847:"Quantised singularities in the electromagnetic field" 1942:

of the gamma rays indicate that each carries 511

1871:

flashes daily. The red dots show those spotted by the

7086: 5609:"Production and detection of cold antihydrogen atoms" 3101:

Charged pions ultimately decay into a combination of

2316: 2271: 462: 355: 6943:"Comparison of Fusion/Antiproton Propulsion systems" 6807:"Antiproton portable traps and medical applications" 4963:"Synopsis: More Dark Matter Hints from Cosmic Rays?" 4148:

distinguishing them by present astronomical methods.

3147: 2599:, a device capable of decelerating antiprotons from 2069:

discovered antimatter (positrons) originating above

6682:

Antimatter is the most expensive substance on Earth

6028: 3136:funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the 2990:, and about 3 orders of magnitude greater than the 5908: 2931:Isolated and stored antimatter could be used as a 2335: 2302:, and irradiated a particle converter composed of 2290: 518: 448: 6759:"Manhattan Project: CTBTO Preparatory Commission" 6188:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 5865:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 5738: 5356:2nd International Particle Accelerator Conference 2958:If matter–antimatter collisions resulted only in 2809:are used. In particular, such a trap may use the 2717:yearly cost of 670 million dollars per facility. 2134:Preliminary results from the presently operating 1679:, so an antiproton must therefore be formed from 8446: 6805:Lewis, R. A.; Smith, G. A.; Howe, S. D. (1997). 6487: 5319:"Laser creates billions of antimatter particles" 3220:"Ten things you might not know about antimatter" 3086:decay almost immediately (with a lifetime of 85 2101:, which has been experimentally observed in the 1450:term for "made of or pertaining to antimatter", 1344:, giving rise to various proportions of intense 6031:"Confinement of antihydrogen for 1,000 seconds" 6000:"Antimatter atoms produced and trapped at CERN" 5576:"The production and study of cold antihydrogen" 4325: 4037: 1488:in the 1880s. Between the 1880s and the 1890s, 6804: 5075: 2242:, which caused the incoming electrons to emit 1281:. Antimatter occurs in natural processes like 7742: 7225: 3456:are associated to matter particles, negative 2945:antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion 2833:. Small particles can also be suspended with 2122:Satellite experiments have found evidence of 2111: 1238: 321: 6999: 6864:35th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit 6448: 5820: 5248: 4598: 4458: 4162: 4069: 3916: 1890:Antiparticles are created everywhere in the 1411:in the visible universe is one of the great 443: 392: 7239: 6693: 6656: 6654: 4709:"Antimatter Found Orbiting Earth – A First" 4465:Smorra, C.; et al. (20 October 2017). 4427: 4194:Ahmadi, M; et al. (19 December 2016). 4139: 2008:In October 2017, scientists working on the 1529:for electrons predicted the possibility of 7749: 7735: 7232: 7218: 6417: 6356: 3266: 1245: 1231: 328: 314: 7063: 7013: 6626: 6583: 6519: 6370: 6341: 6305: 6269: 6208: 6048: 5885: 5775: 5677: 5634: 5573: 5424: 5390: 5158: 5117: 5107: 4978: 4930: 4862: 4804: 4675: 4626: 4601:"Rogue Antimatter Found in Thunderclouds" 4549: 4492: 4229: 4219: 4118: 3998: 3821: 3715: 3594: 3523: 3478:International Journal of Modern Physics E 3408:International Journal of Modern Physics E 3382: 3343: 3282: 2580:. The experiment was performed using the 2355:Antiprotons, antineutrons, and antinuclei 2016:reported a measurement of the antiproton 7036: 6940: 6775: 6651: 5945: 5606: 5581:. CERN. pp. 1–21. No. SPSLC-I-211. 4960: 4383:. Oxford University Press. p. 114. 3750: 3687: 3096:deflected magnetically to produce thrust 2893: 2558:Decelerates antiprotons received from AD 2554:Extra Low Energy Antiproton ring (ELENA) 2206: 41: 6861: 6284: 6243: 5471:Regents of the University of California 5197: 5081: 4901: 4852: 4661: 4433: 3945: 3621: 3611:from the original on 12 September 2006. 3518:(associated to all known interactions). 3329: 3256:from the original on 26 September 2011. 3250:"Smidgen of Antimatter Surrounds Earth" 3183: – Theory of gravity on antimatter 3181:Gravitational interaction of antimatter 2966:of the particles would be converted to 2684:of their component particles produce a 2383:, for which they were awarded the 1959 2039:), by a group led by Marco Giammarchi. 1819: 8447: 7206:science article, updated Sept. 2, 2024 7143: 6765:from the original on 22 December 2014. 6598: 6180: 5857: 5293:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 5063:from the original on 23 September 2014 4464: 4252: 4193: 4112: 3754:Cosmology: The Science of the Universe 2224:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 1499:The term antimatter was first used by 7730: 7213: 6099: 5367: 5365: 5027:from the original on 29 November 2019 4950:from the original on 17 October 2014. 4405:"Searching for Primordial Antimatter" 4378: 4255:"The Mystery of the Matter Asymmetry" 4150: 3844: 3793: 3658: 3622:Pearson, K. (1891). "Ether Squirts". 3529: 3383:Tenenbaum, David (28 December 2012). 2837:, using a highly focused laser beam. 2793:can be contained by a combination of 2489: 2457:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 2042: 1990:as normal-matter galaxies, and their 1471: 1273:(or "partners") of the corresponding 8427: 6729:"Antimatter Questions & Answers" 5269:from the original on 1 November 2019 4739:"What's the Matter with Antimatter?" 4706: 4580:from the original on 12 January 2011 4446:from the original on 26 October 2017 4277:from the original on 12 October 2008 4043:Introduction to Elementary Particles 3796:"The Quantum Theory of the Electron" 3775:from the original on 10 October 2021 3732:from the original on 10 October 2021 3690:"Potential Matter – A Holiday Dream" 3546:from the original on 10 October 2019 3475: 3405: 3389:University of Wisconsin–Madison News 3230:from the original on 8 November 2018 3090:) into high-energy photons, but the 2994:that can be liberated, today, using 2881:, ideally at a lower cost per gram. 2821:) of the trapped particles. At high 7133:CERN Webcasts (RealPlayer required) 6989:from the original on 24 April 2013. 6905: 6306:Arsenescu, R.; et al. (2003). 5678:Gabrielse, G.; et al. (2002). 5134:from the original on 19 April 2017. 4881:10.1016/j.astropartphys.2011.08.007 3597:"An Interview with Jack Williamson" 3484:(1): 1250005-1–1250005-23. 2190:in June 1998. By not detecting any 2065:. In January 2011, research by the 1934:annihilate with nearby matter. The 1558:Feynman–Stueckelberg interpretation 1503:in two rather whimsical letters to 13: 7057: 6794:from the original on 23 July 2008. 6706:from the original on 6 August 2011 6225:from the original on 29 March 2020 6162:from the original on 23 March 2020 6081:from the original on 23 March 2020 6006:. 17 November 2010. Archived from 5720:from the original on 23 March 2020 5659:from the original on 23 March 2020 5607:Amoretti, M.; et al. (2002). 5588:from the original on 25 March 2020 5455:from the original on 23 July 2010. 5362: 4842:from the original on 7 March 2016. 4824:from the original on 4 April 2016. 4415:from the original on 16 March 2010 3917:Kaku, M.; Thompson, J. T. (1997). 3885: 3801:Proceedings of the Royal Society A 3448:being algebraic numbers. Positive 2533:Decelerated and stored antiprotons 2371:University of California, Berkeley 2174:, was flown into space aboard the 1409:asymmetry of matter and antimatter 1403:There is strong evidence that the 479: 14: 8476: 7106: 7049:from the original on 9 June 2012. 7037:Davidson, Keay (4 October 2004). 6694:Steigerwald, B. (14 March 2006). 6672:from the original on 12 June 2010 6244:Jackson, Gerald (December 2022). 5295:. 3 November 2008. Archived from 5082:Aguilar, M.; et al. (2013). 4307:from the original on 18 June 2008 3751:Harrison, E. R. (16 March 2000). 3576:from the original on 28 July 2019 2871:NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts 2538:Antimatter Factory (2000–present) 2474:reported production of nuclei of 2336:{\displaystyle 1.5\times 10^{13}} 401: 50:photograph of the first observed 8426: 8415: 8414: 7822: 7292: 6950:NASA Technical Memorandum 107030 5477:from the original on 9 July 2010 5331:from the original on 22 May 2009 4643:from the original on 14 May 2015 3506:or/and negative leptonic number 3150: 2955:than a conventional spacecraft. 2630:or 0.1% of the original amount. 1853: 1834: 1435:do. Protons and neutrons have a 68: 7756: 7066:Antimatter: The Ultimate Mirror 7030: 6993: 6975: 6934: 6899: 6878: 6855: 6798: 6769: 6751: 6721: 6687: 6592: 6550: 6528: 6481: 6469:from the original on 1 May 2021 6442: 6430:from the original on 1 May 2021 6411: 6350: 6299: 6278: 6237: 6174: 6100:Amole, C.; et al. (2012). 6093: 6022: 5992: 5939: 5902: 5851: 5814: 5769: 5732: 5671: 5600: 5567: 5532: 5489: 5459: 5441: 5343: 5311: 5281: 5242: 5191: 5138: 5039: 4954: 4895: 4846: 4828: 4761: 4731: 4700: 4655: 4592: 4566: 4509: 4434:Adamson, A. (19 October 2017). 4397: 4372: 4319: 4289: 4246: 4187: 4156: 4127: 4106: 4063: 4031: 3976: 3939: 3910: 3838: 3787: 3744: 3681: 3652: 3625:American Journal of Mathematics 3615: 3588: 2783: 2708:of antihydrogen (approximately 2291:{\displaystyle 3\times 10^{11}} 2191: 2163: 2031:(L-NESS) of Rafael Ferragut in 1988:absorption and emission spectra 1873:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope 1867:There are some 500 terrestrial 1549:of antimatter was envisaged by 1396: 232:Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider 8382:Galaxy formation and evolution 6521:11858/00-001M-0000-001A-152D-1 6449:Joshua Sokol (19 April 2017). 5109:10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.141102 4997:10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.121102 4932:10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.121101 3595:McCaffery, Larry (July 1991). 3558: 3469: 3399: 3376: 3323: 3260: 3242: 3212: 2484:Brookhaven National Laboratory 2343:electron-positron pairs via a 1422: 775:Atomic, molecular, and optical 440: 434: 420: 389: 383: 369: 362: 1: 7681:Macroscopic quantum phenomena 7170:10.1016/S0262-4079(12)61690-X 6542:. 9 June 2011. Archived from 6271:10.1080/00295450.2021.1997057 5706:10.1103/PhysRevLett.89.213401 5449:"All Nobel Prizes in Physics" 5220:10.1016/S0370-1573(02)00013-3 4745:. 29 May 2000. Archived from 4599:Castelvecchi, Davide (2015). 4133:This is a consequence of the 4017:10.1088/1367-2630/14/9/095012 3362:10.1088/1367-2630/14/9/095012 3205: 2801:fields, in a device called a 2720: 2478:at the Proton Synchrotron at 2067:American Astronomical Society 1789: 1285:collisions and some types of 7804:Self-interacting dark matter 7691:Order and disorder (physics) 7185:What is direct CP-violation? 6916:National Physical Laboratory 6776:Bickford, J. (August 2007). 6029:ALPHA Collaboration (2011). 4707:Than, Ker (10 August 2011). 3570:Science Fiction Encyclopedia 2904:positron emission tomography 2595:In 1999, CERN activated the 2211: 1902:(or any other matter in the 1462:, as used in such novels as 1413:unsolved problems in physics 1308:positron emission tomography 257:Positron emission tomography 7: 7962:Navarro–Frenk–White profile 7952:Massive compact halo object 7947:Mass dimension one fermions 5933:10.1103/PhysRevLett.51.1983 5800:10.1103/PhysRevLett.63.1360 5561:10.1103/PhysRevLett.14.1003 5249:Joshua Sokol (April 2017). 4713:National Geographic Society 4694:10.1088/2041-8205/737/2/L29 3177: – Hypothetical object 3143: 2778:International Space Station 2774:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 2544:Antiproton Decelerator (AD) 2259:High-Radiation to Materials 2144:International Space Station 2136:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 1571: 1560:states that antimatter and 1333:, and other differences in 35:Antimatter (disambiguation) 10: 8481: 7070:Cambridge University Press 6628:10.1038/d41586-018-02221-9 5763:10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.577 5409:10.1038/s41467-024-49346-2 4084:10.1038/d41586-023-03043-0 3893:"Discovering the positron" 3759:Cambridge University Press 3665:Princeton University Press 3530:Dirac, Paul A. M. (1965). 3124: 3120: 2889: 2869:Several studies funded by 2664:through comparison of the 2582:Low Energy Antiproton Ring 2508:Low Energy Antiproton Ring 2493: 2358: 2215: 2115: 2112:Observation in cosmic rays 2097:for this asymmetry is the 2046: 1823: 1521:. Dirac realised that his 1314:, and industrial imaging. 32: 25: 18: 8410: 8359: 8325: 8300: 8212: 7984: 7975: 7892: 7831: 7820: 7764: 7643: 7597: 7469: 7383: 7357: 7301: 7290: 7252: 7064:G. Fraser (18 May 2000). 6512:10.1142/S2010194514602646 6418:Leah Crane (1 May 2021). 6343:10.1088/1367-2630/5/1/301 5147:The Astrophysical Journal 4664:The Astrophysical Journal 4173:10.1038/nature.2016.21193 3962:10.1007/s10698-008-9062-5 3498:10.1142/S021830131250005X 3428:10.1142/S0218301313500274 3201:– Antimatter hypernucleus 2552: 2542: 2537: 2527: 2514: 2506: 2159:one-sixth of the energy. 1527:Schrödinger wave equation 1383:(the antiparticle of the 261: 194:Gravitational interaction 7967:Scalar field dark matter 7809:Scalar field dark matter 7716:Thermo-dielectric effect 7615:Enthalpy of vaporization 7309:Bose–Einstein condensate 6941:Borowski, S. K. (1987). 6585:10.1088/1367-2630/aa7e73 4576:. BBC. 11 January 2011. 3949:Foundations of Chemistry 3794:Dirac, P. A. M. (1928). 3115:0.22 + (2/3)⋅0.78 = 0.74 3037:of matter would produce 3002:per fission reaction or 2992:nuclear potential energy 2769:) from such collisions. 2674:hydrogen spectral series 2300:Super Proton Synchrotron 2099:violation of CP symmetry 2077:around the Earth by the 1946:of energy (that is, the 1482:vortex theory of gravity 532:Einstein field equations 19:Not to be confused with 8465:Fictional power sources 7610:Enthalpy of sublimation 6834:10.1023/A:1012653416870 6787:and Draper Laboratory. 6463:10.1126/science.aal1067 5912:Physical Review Letters 5779:Physical Review Letters 5742:Physical Review Letters 5685:Physical Review Letters 5541:Physical Review Letters 5263:10.1126/science.aal1067 5088:Physical Review Letters 4967:Physical Review Letters 4911:Physical Review Letters 3923:Oxford University Press 3601:Science Fiction Studies 3054:mass–energy equivalence 2926: 2884: 2848: 2548:Decelerates antiprotons 2310:. This yielded a total 1362:mass–energy equivalence 835:Theories of gravitation 750:Electroweak interaction 7832:Hypothetical particles 7814:Primordial black holes 7625:Latent internal energy 7375:Color-glass condensate 7200:"Mining for Neutrinos" 7144:Taylor, Allen (2012). 6814:Hyperfine Interactions 6735:. 2001. Archived from 6564:New Journal of Physics 6321:New Journal of Physics 6210:10.1098/rsta.2010.0026 5887:10.1098/rsta.2010.0026 4542:10.1126/sciadv.aav7610 4145:As Dirac said in 1933 3986:New Journal of Physics 3871:10.1098/rspa.1931.0130 3823:10.1098/rspa.1928.0023 3533:Physics Nobel Lectures 3166:Alfvén–Klein cosmology 2953:thrust-to-weight ratio 2899: 2672:and antihydrogen (see 2597:Antiproton Decelerator 2516:Antiproton Accumulator 2385:Nobel Prize in Physics 2337: 2292: 1457: 1451: 520: 450: 227:Antiproton decelerator 163:Concepts and phenomena 55: 7917:Dark globular cluster 7435:Magnetically ordered 5379:Nature Communications 4961:Schirber, M. (2014). 4855:Astroparticle Physics 4379:Close, F. E. (2009). 4301:European Space Agency 4047:John Wiley & Sons 3761:. pp. 266, 433. 3688:Schuster, A. (1898). 2962:emission, the entire 2897: 2856:particle accelerators 2725:Antihelium-3 nuclei ( 2612:Penning–Malmberg trap 2501:Antimatter facilities 2338: 2293: 2207:Artificial production 1965:European Space Agency 1576:One way to denote an 1535:J. Robert Oppenheimer 1291:particle accelerators 713:Philosophy of physics 521: 451: 121:Antiprotonic hydrogen 45: 8460:Quantum field theory 7937:Dwarf galaxy problem 7859:Minicharged particle 7774:Baryonic dark matter 7314:Fermionic condensate 6983:"Antimatter weapons" 6546:on 17 February 2014. 6536:"Antimatter of Fact" 5327:. 19 November 2008. 3925:. pp. 179–180. 3897:timeline.web.cern.ch 3845:Dirac, Paul (1931). 3436:and leptonic number 3395:on 28 December 2012. 3072:thermonuclear weapon 3052:) of energy (by the 2972:energy per unit mass 2827:magneto-optical trap 2529:Antiproton Collector 2314: 2269: 2255:University of Oxford 2226:in large numbers. A 2095:necessary conditions 1992:astronomical objects 1963:Observations by the 1930:produced every time 1820:Origin and asymmetry 1523:relativistic version 845:Theory of everything 723:Quantum field theory 460: 353: 222:Particle accelerator 33:For other uses, see 28:Antinuclear antibody 7529:Chemical ionization 7421:Programmable matter 7411:Quantum spin liquid 7279:Supercritical fluid 7180:Angels & Demons 7162:2012NewSc.214R..31T 7146:"Angels and Demons" 7138:What is Antimatter? 7024:2005physics...7114G 7008:. pp. 66–169. 6872:10.2514/6.1999-2691 6826:1997HyInt.109..155L 6619:2018Natur.554..412G 6599:Gibney, E. (2018). 6576:2017NJPh...19h3023S 6504:2014IJMPS..3060264B 6389:10.1038/nature10079 6381:2011Natur.473..353S 6334:2003NJPh....5....1A 6262:2022NucTe.208S.107J 6201:2010RSPTA.368.3671M 6181:Madsen, N. (2010). 6129:10.1038/nature10942 6121:2012Natur.483..439A 6059:2011NatPh...7..558A 5970:10.1038/nature09610 5962:2010Natur.468..673A 5925:1983PhRvL..51.1983T 5878:2010RSPTA.368.3671M 5858:Madsen, N. (2010). 5837:2004PhPl...11.2333S 5792:1989PhRvL..63.1360G 5755:1975PhRvL..35..577M 5698:2002PhRvL..89u3401G 5636:10.1038/nature01096 5627:2002Natur.419..456A 5553:1965PhRvL..14.1003D 5510:1965NCimS..39...10M 5401:2024NatCo..15.5029A 5212:2002PhR...366..331A 5169:2002ApJ...565..280M 5100:2013PhRvL.110n1102A 4989:2014PhRvL.113l1102A 4923:2014PhRvL.113l1101A 4873:2012APh....39....2S 4789:1998Natur.395..457W 4686:2011ApJ...737L..29A 4619:2015Natur.521..135C 4606:Scientific American 4534:2019SciA....5.7610S 4494:10.1038/nature24048 4485:2017Natur.550..371S 4411:. 30 October 2008. 4350:10.1038/nature06490 4342:2008Natur.451..159W 4253:Sather, E. (1999). 4221:10.1038/nature21040 4212:2017Natur.541..506A 4009:2012NJPh...14i5012C 3863:1931RSPSA.133...60D 3814:1928RSPSA.117..610D 3708:1898Natur..58..367S 3490:2012IJMPE..2150005T 3420:2013IJMPE..2250027T 3354:2012NJPh...14i5012C 3301:10.1038/nature10079 3293:2011Natur.473..353S 3193:Positronium hydride 3033:of antimatter with 3026:). The reaction of 3024:proton–proton chain 2984:orders of magnitude 2941:interstellar travel 2906:(PET). In positive 2658:ALPHA Collaboration 2576:concept during the 2503: 2466:In addition to anti 2261:(HRMT) facility at 2029:Positron Laboratory 1924:interstellar medium 1405:observable universe 795:Non-linear dynamics 733:Quantum computation 728:Quantum information 602:Satyendra Nath Bose 285:Carl David Anderson 126:Antiprotonic helium 7942:Halo mass function 7902:Cuspy halo problem 7676:Leidenfrost effect 7605:Enthalpy of fusion 7370:Quark–gluon plasma 7156:(2871). CERN: 31. 6851:on 22 August 2011. 6250:Nuclear Technology 6010:on 23 January 2011 5824:Physics of Plasmas 5518:10.1007/BF02814251 5299:on 6 December 2015 4719:on 10 October 2011 4303:. 9 January 2008. 3659:Kragh, H. (2002). 3252:. 11 August 2011. 2900: 2500: 2490:Antihydrogen atoms 2333: 2298:protons, from the 2288: 2043:Natural production 1969:INTEGRAL satellite 1900:Earth's atmosphere 1541:in 1932 and named 1472:Conceptual history 1358:ionizing radiation 820:General relativity 815:Special relativity 755:Strong interaction 516: 446: 56: 8442: 8441: 8387:Illustris project 8321: 8320: 7794:Mixed dark matter 7789:Light dark matter 7724: 7723: 7706:Superheated vapor 7701:Superconductivity 7671:Equation of state 7519:Flash evaporation 7471:Phase transitions 7456:String-net liquid 7349:Photonic molecule 7319:Degenerate matter 7176:on 27 March 2014. 7079:978-0-521-65252-0 6884:(compared to the 6668:. 12 April 1999. 6613:(7693): 412–413. 6365:(7347): 353–356. 6195:(1924): 3671–82. 6115:(7390): 439–443. 6067:10.1038/nphys2025 5956:(7324): 673–676. 5919:(21): 1983–1986. 5872:(1924): 3671–82. 5845:10.1063/1.1651487 5786:(13): 1360–1363. 5621:(6906): 456–459. 5547:(24): 1003–1006. 5291:(Press release). 4479:(7676): 371–374. 4390:978-0-19-955016-6 4336:(7175): 159–162. 4206:(7638): 506–510. 4056:978-3-527-40601-2 3932:978-0-19-286196-2 3768:978-0-521-66148-5 3674:978-0-691-09552-3 3277:(7347): 353–356. 3224:symmetry magazine 3127:Antimatter weapon 2988:chemical energies 2949:antimatter rocket 2864:Manhattan Project 2791:charged particles 2562: 2561: 2472:Antonino Zichichi 2257:working with the 2127:may be formed in 2049:Positron emission 1920:relativistic jets 1862: 1843: 1312:radiation therapy 1287:radioactive decay 1255: 1254: 718:Quantum mechanics 592:Ernest Rutherford 572:Erwin Schrödinger 567:Werner Heisenberg 417: 365: 338: 337: 199:Positron emission 8472: 8430: 8429: 8418: 8417: 7982: 7981: 7922:Dark matter halo 7869:Sterile neutrino 7826: 7825: 7799:Warm dark matter 7779:Cold dark matter 7751: 7744: 7737: 7728: 7727: 7661:Compressed fluid 7296: 7241:States of matter 7234: 7227: 7220: 7211: 7210: 7177: 7172:. Archived from 7102: 7101:on 6 March 2007. 7100: 7094:. Archived from 7093: 7083: 7051: 7050: 7034: 7028: 7027: 7017: 7006:World Scientific 6997: 6991: 6990: 6979: 6973: 6972: 6970: 6968: 6962: 6947: 6938: 6932: 6931: 6929: 6927: 6918:. Archived from 6903: 6897: 6895: 6893: 6882: 6876: 6875: 6859: 6853: 6852: 6850: 6844:. Archived from 6811: 6802: 6796: 6795: 6793: 6782: 6773: 6767: 6766: 6755: 6749: 6748: 6746: 6744: 6739:on 21 April 2008 6725: 6719: 6718: 6713: 6711: 6691: 6685: 6684: 6679: 6677: 6658: 6649: 6648: 6630: 6596: 6590: 6589: 6587: 6554: 6548: 6547: 6532: 6526: 6525: 6523: 6485: 6479: 6478: 6476: 6474: 6446: 6440: 6439: 6437: 6435: 6415: 6409: 6408: 6374: 6354: 6348: 6347: 6345: 6303: 6297: 6296: 6288:Yadernaya Fizika 6282: 6276: 6275: 6273: 6256:(1): S107–S112. 6241: 6235: 6234: 6232: 6230: 6212: 6178: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6167: 6161: 6106: 6097: 6091: 6090: 6088: 6086: 6052: 6026: 6020: 6019: 6017: 6015: 5996: 5990: 5989: 5943: 5937: 5936: 5906: 5900: 5899: 5889: 5855: 5849: 5848: 5818: 5812: 5811: 5773: 5767: 5766: 5736: 5730: 5729: 5727: 5725: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5664: 5638: 5604: 5598: 5597: 5595: 5593: 5587: 5580: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5536: 5530: 5529: 5498:Il Nuovo Cimento 5493: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5482: 5463: 5457: 5456: 5445: 5439: 5438: 5428: 5394: 5369: 5360: 5359: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5338: 5336: 5315: 5309: 5308: 5306: 5304: 5285: 5279: 5278: 5276: 5274: 5246: 5240: 5239: 5195: 5189: 5188: 5162: 5160:astro-ph/0106567 5142: 5136: 5135: 5121: 5111: 5079: 5073: 5072: 5070: 5068: 5062: 5051: 5043: 5037: 5036: 5034: 5032: 4982: 4958: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4934: 4908: 4899: 4893: 4892: 4866: 4850: 4844: 4843: 4832: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4808: 4774: 4765: 4759: 4758: 4756: 4754: 4735: 4729: 4728: 4726: 4724: 4715:. Archived from 4704: 4698: 4697: 4679: 4659: 4653: 4652: 4650: 4648: 4630: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4570: 4564: 4563: 4553: 4522:Science Advances 4513: 4507: 4506: 4496: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4453: 4451: 4431: 4425: 4424: 4422: 4420: 4401: 4395: 4394: 4376: 4370: 4369: 4323: 4317: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4293: 4287: 4286: 4284: 4282: 4276: 4259: 4250: 4244: 4243: 4233: 4223: 4191: 4185: 4184: 4160: 4154: 4143: 4137: 4131: 4125: 4124: 4122: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4067: 4061: 4060: 4045:(2nd ed.). 4035: 4029: 4028: 4002: 3980: 3974: 3973: 3943: 3937: 3936: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3905: 3903: 3889: 3883: 3882: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3825: 3808:(778): 610–624. 3791: 3785: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3757:(2nd ed.). 3748: 3742: 3741: 3739: 3737: 3719: 3717:10.1038/058367a0 3685: 3679: 3678: 3667:. pp. 5–6. 3656: 3650: 3649: 3619: 3613: 3612: 3592: 3586: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3562: 3556: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3545: 3538: 3527: 3521: 3520: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3403: 3397: 3396: 3391:. Archived from 3380: 3374: 3373: 3347: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3286: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3246: 3240: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3216: 3175:Antimatter comet 3171: 3160: 3155: 3154: 3116: 3074:ever detonated. 3065: 3047: 3042: 3036: 3032: 3021: 3019: 3009: 3007: 3001: 2981: 2979: 2835:optical tweezers 2768: 2767: 2766: 2760: 2757: 2756: 2744: 2743: 2742: 2736: 2733: 2732: 2715: 2713: 2644: 2629: 2627: 2626: 2623: 2620: 2609: 2605: 2578:PS210 experiment 2504: 2499: 2463:and colleagues. 2450: 2448: 2447: 2441: 2438: 2437: 2429: 2427: 2426: 2420: 2417: 2416: 2408: 2406: 2405: 2399: 2396: 2395: 2381:Owen Chamberlain 2342: 2340: 2339: 2334: 2332: 2331: 2297: 2295: 2294: 2289: 2287: 2286: 2179: 2103:weak interaction 2091:baryon asymmetry 1984:cosmic inflation 1864: 1863: 1845: 1844: 1785: 1784: 1783: 1776: 1775: 1767: 1766: 1765: 1758: 1757: 1742: 1740: 1739: 1733: 1730: 1729: 1721: 1719: 1718: 1712: 1709: 1708: 1700: 1698: 1697: 1691: 1688: 1687: 1675: 1673: 1672: 1665: 1664: 1656: 1654: 1653: 1646: 1645: 1637: 1635: 1634: 1627: 1626: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1609: 1606: 1605: 1597: 1596: 1595: 1588: 1587: 1566:Feynman diagrams 1539:Carl D. Anderson 1512:negative gravity 1375: 1374: 1325:) have the same 1269:composed of the 1247: 1240: 1233: 898:Skłodowska-Curie 780:Condensed matter 745:Weak interaction 740:Electromagnetism 597:Louis de Broglie 525: 523: 522: 517: 515: 514: 502: 494: 493: 475: 474: 455: 453: 452: 447: 433: 432: 423: 418: 416: 405: 382: 381: 372: 367: 366: 358: 340: 339: 330: 323: 316: 179:Baryon asymmetry 72: 58: 57: 54:, 2 August 1932. 8480: 8479: 8475: 8474: 8473: 8471: 8470: 8469: 8445: 8444: 8443: 8438: 8406: 8402:UniverseMachine 8355: 8317: 8296: 8214: 8208: 7986: 7977: 7971: 7894: 7888: 7827: 7823: 7818: 7784:Hot dark matter 7766: 7760: 7755: 7725: 7720: 7651:Baryonic matter 7639: 7593: 7564:Saturated fluid 7504:Crystallization 7465: 7439:Antiferromagnet 7379: 7353: 7297: 7288: 7248: 7238: 7109: 7098: 7091: 7080: 7060: 7058:Further reading 7055: 7054: 7035: 7031: 7015:physics/0507114 7004:. Vol. 4. 6998: 6994: 6981: 6980: 6976: 6966: 6964: 6960: 6945: 6939: 6935: 6925: 6923: 6922:on 5 March 2010 6906:Sowerby, M. G. 6904: 6900: 6891: 6889: 6883: 6879: 6860: 6856: 6848: 6809: 6803: 6799: 6791: 6780: 6774: 6770: 6757: 6756: 6752: 6742: 6740: 6727: 6726: 6722: 6709: 6707: 6692: 6688: 6675: 6673: 6660: 6659: 6652: 6597: 6593: 6555: 6551: 6534: 6533: 6529: 6486: 6482: 6472: 6470: 6447: 6443: 6433: 6431: 6416: 6412: 6355: 6351: 6304: 6300: 6283: 6279: 6242: 6238: 6228: 6226: 6179: 6175: 6165: 6163: 6159: 6104: 6098: 6094: 6084: 6082: 6027: 6023: 6013: 6011: 5998: 5997: 5993: 5944: 5940: 5907: 5903: 5856: 5852: 5819: 5815: 5774: 5770: 5737: 5733: 5723: 5721: 5676: 5672: 5662: 5660: 5605: 5601: 5591: 5589: 5585: 5578: 5572: 5568: 5537: 5533: 5494: 5490: 5480: 5478: 5465: 5464: 5460: 5447: 5446: 5442: 5370: 5363: 5348: 5344: 5334: 5332: 5324:Cosmos Magazine 5317: 5316: 5312: 5302: 5300: 5287: 5286: 5282: 5272: 5270: 5247: 5243: 5200:Physics Reports 5196: 5192: 5143: 5139: 5080: 5076: 5066: 5064: 5060: 5049: 5045: 5044: 5040: 5030: 5028: 4959: 4955: 4947: 4906: 4900: 4896: 4857:. 39–40: 2–11. 4851: 4847: 4834: 4833: 4829: 4821: 4772: 4766: 4762: 4752: 4750: 4737: 4736: 4732: 4722: 4720: 4705: 4701: 4660: 4656: 4646: 4644: 4628:10.1038/521135a 4597: 4593: 4583: 4581: 4572: 4571: 4567: 4528:(5): eaav7610. 4514: 4510: 4463: 4459: 4449: 4447: 4432: 4428: 4418: 4416: 4403: 4402: 4398: 4391: 4377: 4373: 4324: 4320: 4310: 4308: 4295: 4294: 4290: 4280: 4278: 4274: 4257: 4251: 4247: 4192: 4188: 4161: 4157: 4144: 4140: 4132: 4128: 4111: 4107: 4078:(7981): 14–15. 4068: 4064: 4057: 4039:Griffiths, D.J. 4036: 4032: 3981: 3977: 3944: 3940: 3933: 3915: 3911: 3901: 3899: 3891: 3890: 3886: 3843: 3839: 3792: 3788: 3778: 3776: 3769: 3749: 3745: 3735: 3733: 3686: 3682: 3675: 3657: 3653: 3638:10.2307/2369570 3620: 3616: 3593: 3589: 3579: 3577: 3564: 3563: 3559: 3549: 3547: 3543: 3536: 3528: 3524: 3474: 3470: 3404: 3400: 3381: 3377: 3328: 3324: 3265: 3261: 3248: 3247: 3243: 3233: 3231: 3218: 3217: 3213: 3208: 3199:Antihypernuclei 3169: 3156: 3149: 3146: 3129: 3123: 3114: 3057: 3040: 3038: 3034: 3027: 3017: 3015: 3005: 3003: 2999: 2996:nuclear fission 2977: 2975: 2929: 2898:A PET/CT system 2892: 2887: 2851: 2786: 2765: 2763: 2762: 2761: 2758: 2755: 2753: 2752: 2751: 2750: 2741: 2739: 2738: 2737: 2734: 2731: 2729: 2728: 2727: 2726: 2723: 2711: 2709: 2700:of antimatter. 2686:magnetic moment 2639: 2624: 2621: 2618: 2617: 2615: 2607: 2600: 2502: 2498: 2492: 2446: 2444: 2443: 2442: 2439: 2436: 2434: 2433: 2432: 2430: 2425: 2423: 2422: 2421: 2418: 2415: 2413: 2412: 2411: 2409: 2404: 2402: 2401: 2400: 2397: 2394: 2392: 2391: 2390: 2388: 2367: 2359:Main articles: 2357: 2345:particle shower 2327: 2323: 2315: 2312: 2311: 2282: 2278: 2270: 2267: 2266: 2220: 2214: 2209: 2175: 2142:) on board the 2120: 2114: 2086:pair production 2075:Van Allen Belts 2051: 2045: 2018:magnetic moment 2010:BASE experiment 1977:stellar remnant 1884: 1883: 1882: 1881: 1880: 1865: 1854: 1850: 1849: 1846: 1835: 1828: 1822: 1801:magnetic bottle 1792: 1782: 1780: 1779: 1778: 1774: 1772: 1771: 1770: 1769: 1764: 1762: 1761: 1760: 1756: 1754: 1753: 1752: 1751: 1748:electric charge 1738: 1736: 1735: 1734: 1731: 1728: 1726: 1725: 1724: 1722: 1717: 1715: 1714: 1713: 1710: 1707: 1705: 1704: 1703: 1701: 1696: 1694: 1693: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1683: 1682: 1680: 1671: 1669: 1668: 1667: 1663: 1661: 1660: 1659: 1657: 1652: 1650: 1649: 1648: 1644: 1642: 1641: 1640: 1638: 1633: 1631: 1630: 1629: 1625: 1623: 1622: 1621: 1619: 1614: 1612: 1611: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1602: 1601: 1600: 1599: 1594: 1592: 1591: 1590: 1586: 1584: 1583: 1582: 1581: 1574: 1501:Arthur Schuster 1478:negative matter 1474: 1425: 1366: 1365: 1335:quantum numbers 1331:electric charge 1329:, but opposite 1251: 1222: 1221: 1218: 1217: 1216: 1206: 1198: 1197: 858: 850: 849: 840:Quantum gravity 790:Complex systems 688: 680: 679: 615: 607: 606: 552:Albert Einstein 542: 534: 507: 503: 498: 486: 482: 467: 463: 461: 458: 457: 456: 428: 424: 419: 409: 404: 377: 373: 368: 357: 356: 354: 351: 350: 334: 305: 304: 295:Andrei Sakharov 280: 272: 271: 252: 244: 243: 212: 204: 203: 164: 156: 155: 82: 38: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8478: 8468: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8440: 8439: 8437: 8436: 8424: 8411: 8408: 8407: 8405: 8404: 8399: 8394: 8392:Imaginary mass 8389: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8369: 8363: 8361: 8357: 8356: 8354: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8341:HVC 127-41-330 8338: 8332: 8330: 8323: 8322: 8319: 8318: 8316: 8315: 8310: 8304: 8302: 8301:Other projects 8298: 8297: 8295: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8254: 8249: 8244: 8239: 8234: 8229: 8224: 8218: 8216: 8210: 8209: 8207: 8206: 8201: 8196: 8191: 8186: 8181: 8176: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8141: 8136: 8131: 8126: 8121: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8101: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8011: 8006: 8001: 7996: 7990: 7988: 7979: 7973: 7972: 7970: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7927:Dark radiation 7924: 7919: 7914: 7909: 7904: 7898: 7896: 7890: 7889: 7887: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7835: 7833: 7829: 7828: 7821: 7819: 7817: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7770: 7768: 7762: 7761: 7754: 7753: 7746: 7739: 7731: 7722: 7721: 7719: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7647: 7645: 7641: 7640: 7638: 7637: 7632: 7630:Trouton's rule 7627: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7601: 7599: 7595: 7594: 7592: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7499:Critical point 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7475: 7473: 7467: 7466: 7464: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7401:Liquid crystal 7398: 7393: 7387: 7385: 7381: 7380: 7378: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7361: 7359: 7355: 7354: 7352: 7351: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7334:Strange matter 7331: 7329:Rydberg matter 7326: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7305: 7303: 7299: 7298: 7291: 7289: 7287: 7286: 7281: 7276: 7267: 7262: 7256: 7254: 7250: 7249: 7237: 7236: 7229: 7222: 7214: 7208: 7207: 7204:New York Times 7197: 7187: 7182: 7141: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7108: 7107:External links 7105: 7104: 7103: 7084: 7078: 7059: 7056: 7053: 7052: 7029: 6992: 6974: 6963:on 28 May 2008 6933: 6898: 6896:, for example) 6877: 6854: 6797: 6768: 6750: 6720: 6686: 6650: 6591: 6549: 6527: 6480: 6441: 6410: 6349: 6298: 6277: 6236: 6173: 6092: 6043:(7): 558–564. 6036:Nature Physics 6021: 5991: 5938: 5901: 5850: 5813: 5768: 5749:(9): 577–580. 5731: 5692:(21): 213401. 5670: 5599: 5566: 5531: 5488: 5458: 5440: 5361: 5342: 5310: 5280: 5241: 5206:(6): 331–405. 5190: 5177:10.1086/324402 5153:(1): 280–296. 5137: 5094:(14): 141102. 5074: 5054:AMS-02 at NASA 5038: 4973:(12): 121102. 4953: 4917:(12): 121101. 4894: 4845: 4827: 4760: 4749:on 4 June 2008 4730: 4699: 4654: 4591: 4565: 4508: 4457: 4426: 4396: 4389: 4371: 4318: 4288: 4245: 4186: 4155: 4138: 4126: 4120:hep-ph/0211260 4105: 4062: 4055: 4049:. p. 61. 4030: 3975: 3938: 3931: 3909: 3884: 3857:(821): 60–72. 3837: 3786: 3767: 3743: 3680: 3673: 3651: 3614: 3587: 3557: 3522: 3468: 3414:(5): 1350027. 3398: 3375: 3322: 3259: 3241: 3210: 3209: 3207: 3204: 3203: 3202: 3196: 3190: 3187:Di-positronium 3184: 3178: 3172: 3162: 3161: 3158:Physics portal 3145: 3142: 3134:U.S. Air Force 3125:Main article: 3122: 3119: 3070:, the largest 2982:) is about 10 2968:kinetic energy 2943:as part of an 2937:interplanetary 2928: 2925: 2891: 2888: 2886: 2883: 2875:Van Allen belt 2850: 2847: 2785: 2782: 2764: 2754: 2740: 2730: 2722: 2719: 2692:antihydrogen. 2666:atomic spectra 2560: 2559: 2556: 2550: 2549: 2546: 2540: 2539: 2535: 2534: 2531: 2525: 2524: 2518: 2512: 2511: 2494:Main article: 2491: 2488: 2445: 2435: 2424: 2414: 2403: 2393: 2356: 2353: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2319: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2274: 2216:Main article: 2213: 2210: 2208: 2205: 2116:Main article: 2113: 2110: 2047:Main article: 2044: 2041: 1973:X-ray binaries 1954:multiplied by 1866: 1852: 1851: 1847: 1833: 1832: 1831: 1830: 1829: 1821: 1818: 1791: 1788: 1781: 1773: 1763: 1755: 1737: 1727: 1716: 1706: 1695: 1685: 1670: 1662: 1651: 1643: 1632: 1624: 1613: 1603: 1593: 1585: 1573: 1570: 1547:periodic table 1473: 1470: 1424: 1421: 1265:is defined as 1259:modern physics 1253: 1252: 1250: 1249: 1242: 1235: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1220: 1219: 1214:Modern physics 1212: 1211: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1199: 1196: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1048:P. W. Anderson 1045: 1040: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1020: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1000: 995: 990: 985: 980: 975: 970: 965: 960: 955: 950: 945: 940: 935: 930: 925: 920: 915: 910: 905: 900: 895: 890: 885: 880: 875: 870: 865: 859: 856: 855: 852: 851: 848: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 810:Plasma physics 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 736: 735: 730: 725: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 689: 686: 685: 682: 681: 678: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 616: 613: 612: 609: 608: 605: 604: 599: 594: 589: 584: 582:Wolfgang Pauli 579: 577:Pascual Jordan 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 549: 543: 540: 539: 536: 535: 526: 513: 510: 506: 501: 497: 492: 489: 485: 481: 478: 473: 470: 466: 445: 442: 439: 436: 431: 427: 422: 415: 412: 408: 403: 400: 397: 394: 391: 388: 385: 380: 376: 371: 364: 361: 347: 346: 344:Modern physics 336: 335: 333: 332: 325: 318: 310: 307: 306: 303: 302: 297: 292: 287: 281: 278: 277: 274: 273: 270: 269: 264: 259: 253: 250: 249: 246: 245: 242: 241: 236: 235: 234: 229: 219: 213: 210: 209: 206: 205: 202: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 165: 162: 161: 158: 157: 154: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 123: 110: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 83: 78: 77: 74: 73: 65: 64: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8477: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8452: 8450: 8435: 8434: 8425: 8423: 8422: 8413: 8412: 8409: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8397:Negative mass 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8377:Exotic matter 8375: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8365: 8364: 8362: 8358: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8346:Smith's Cloud 8344: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8333: 8331: 8329: 8328:dark galaxies 8324: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8305: 8303: 8299: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8263: 8260: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8238: 8235: 8233: 8230: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8219: 8217: 8211: 8205: 8202: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8180: 8177: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8167: 8165: 8162: 8160: 8157: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8125: 8122: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8010: 8007: 8005: 8002: 8000: 7997: 7995: 7992: 7991: 7989: 7983: 7980: 7974: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7957:Mirror matter 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7899: 7897: 7891: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7836: 7834: 7830: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7771: 7769: 7763: 7759: 7752: 7747: 7745: 7740: 7738: 7733: 7732: 7729: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7686:Mpemba effect 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7666:Cooling curve 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7648: 7646: 7642: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7603: 7602: 7600: 7596: 7590: 7589:Vitrification 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7554:Recombination 7552: 7550: 7549:Melting point 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7494:Critical line 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7484:Boiling point 7482: 7480: 7477: 7476: 7474: 7472: 7468: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7436: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7416:Exotic matter 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7388: 7386: 7382: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7356: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7306: 7304: 7300: 7295: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7257: 7255: 7251: 7246: 7242: 7235: 7230: 7228: 7223: 7221: 7216: 7215: 7212: 7205: 7201: 7198: 7195: 7194:Exploratorium 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7150:New Scientist 7147: 7142: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7120: 7119: 7114: 7111: 7110: 7097: 7090: 7085: 7081: 7075: 7071: 7067: 7062: 7061: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7033: 7025: 7021: 7016: 7011: 7007: 7003: 6996: 6988: 6984: 6978: 6959: 6955: 6951: 6944: 6937: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6902: 6887: 6881: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6858: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6808: 6801: 6790: 6786: 6779: 6772: 6764: 6760: 6754: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6724: 6717: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6690: 6683: 6671: 6667: 6663: 6657: 6655: 6646: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6607: 6602: 6595: 6586: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6570:(8): 083023. 6569: 6565: 6561: 6553: 6545: 6541: 6540:The Economist 6537: 6531: 6522: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6492: 6484: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6445: 6429: 6425: 6424:New Scientist 6421: 6414: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6353: 6344: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6322: 6317: 6315: 6311: 6302: 6294: 6290: 6289: 6281: 6272: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6240: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6189: 6184: 6177: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6103: 6096: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6037: 6032: 6025: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5995: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5950: 5942: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5913: 5905: 5897: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5866: 5861: 5854: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5825: 5817: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5780: 5772: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5743: 5735: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5686: 5681: 5674: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5615: 5610: 5603: 5584: 5577: 5570: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5535: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5492: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5462: 5454: 5450: 5444: 5436: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5393: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5368: 5366: 5357: 5353: 5346: 5330: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5314: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5284: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5245: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5194: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5141: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5078: 5059: 5055: 5048: 5042: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4957: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4905: 4898: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4856: 4849: 4841: 4837: 4831: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4798: 4797:10.1038/26675 4794: 4790: 4786: 4783:(6701): 457. 4782: 4778: 4771: 4764: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4734: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4703: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4658: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4613:(7551): 135. 4612: 4608: 4607: 4602: 4595: 4579: 4575: 4569: 4561: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4512: 4504: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4473: 4468: 4461: 4445: 4441: 4440:TechTimes.com 4437: 4430: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4400: 4392: 4386: 4382: 4375: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4330: 4322: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4292: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4264: 4256: 4249: 4241: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4190: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4159: 4153:, p. 325 4152: 4149: 4142: 4136: 4130: 4121: 4116: 4109: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4066: 4058: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4034: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3993:(9): 095012. 3992: 3988: 3987: 3979: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3950: 3942: 3934: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3913: 3898: 3894: 3888: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3841: 3833: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3802: 3797: 3790: 3774: 3770: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3755: 3747: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3702:(1503): 367. 3701: 3697: 3696: 3691: 3684: 3676: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3655: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3632:(4): 309–72. 3631: 3627: 3626: 3618: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3591: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3561: 3542: 3535: 3534: 3526: 3519: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3472: 3465: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3402: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3379: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3341: 3338:(9): 095012. 3337: 3333: 3326: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3285: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3271: 3263: 3255: 3251: 3245: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3215: 3211: 3200: 3197: 3194: 3191: 3188: 3185: 3182: 3179: 3176: 3173: 3167: 3164: 3163: 3159: 3153: 3148: 3141: 3139: 3135: 3128: 3118: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3099: 3097: 3093: 3092:charged pions 3089: 3085: 3084:neutral pions 3081: 3075: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3031: 3025: 3013: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2986:greater than 2985: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2956: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2924: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2896: 2882: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2867: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2846: 2843: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2831:magnetic trap 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2781: 2779: 2775: 2770: 2748: 2747:STAR detector 2718: 2707: 2701: 2699: 2693: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2651: 2648: 2643: 2637: 2631: 2613: 2604: 2598: 2593: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2557: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2545: 2541: 2536: 2532: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2497: 2487: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2476:antideuterium 2473: 2469: 2464: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2449: 2428: 2407: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2375: 2372: 2366: 2362: 2352: 2350: 2349:Debye spheres 2346: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2317: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2272: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2248: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2204: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2184: 2178: 2177:Space Shuttle 2173: 2169: 2165: 2160: 2156: 2154: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2132: 2130: 2125: 2119: 2109: 2106: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2082: 2080: 2079:PAMELA module 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2059:Antineutrinos 2056: 2050: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2006: 2004: 2003:superclusters 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1980: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1961: 1959: 1958: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1908:particle jets 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1888: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1827: 1817: 1815: 1811: 1805: 1802: 1798: 1787: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1720: 1699: 1678: 1674: 1655: 1636: 1579: 1569: 1567: 1563: 1562:antiparticles 1559: 1554: 1552: 1551:Charles Janet 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1531:antielectrons 1528: 1524: 1520: 1515: 1513: 1508: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1486:William Hicks 1483: 1479: 1469: 1467: 1466: 1461: 1460: 1455: 1454: 1453:contraterrene 1449: 1444: 1442: 1441:lepton number 1438: 1437:baryon number 1434: 1430: 1420: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1401: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1338: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1315: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1271:antiparticles 1268: 1264: 1260: 1248: 1243: 1241: 1236: 1234: 1229: 1228: 1226: 1225: 1215: 1209: 1208: 1202: 1201: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1148:J. J. 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