226:, neurosecretory cells connected to the central nervous system. The synthesis, storage (in chromaffin cells) and release of catecholamines is co-regulated by synaptic input from their respective pre-synaptic sympathetic neurons, as well as hormonal and local inputs. The adrenomedullary hormones are:
130:
where they exert their hormonal action. The residual hormones pass into the systemic circulation where they are diluted, degraded and have comparatively little effects. The synthesis, control, and release of those hormones is co-regulated by hormonal, local and synaptic signals (neurotransmitters).
99:, are also considered neuroendocrine cells due to their structural and functional similarity to chromaffin cells, although they are not derivatives of the neural crest. Other neuroendocrine cells are scattered throughout the body. Neurohormone are released by neurosecretory cells
191:, where they are stored and released into the systemic circulation. The synthesis, control, and release of those hormones is co-regulated by hormonal, local and synaptic signals. Neurohypophysial hormones include:
643:
Bornstein SR, Ehrhart-Bornstein M (December 1992). "Ultrastructural evidence for a paracrine regulation of the rat adrenal cortex mediated by the local release of catecholamines from chromaffin cells".
131:
The neurons secreting various hormones have been found to discharge impulses in burst, causing a pulsatile release which is more efficient than a continuous release. Hypophysiotropic hormones include:
31:(also called neurosecretory cells) into the blood. By definition of being hormones, they are secreted into the circulation for systemic effect, but they can also have a role of
110:
also known as hypophysiotropic or hypothalamic hormones are synthesized by different kinds of specialized neurons in the hypothalamus. They are then transported along neuronal
679:
Prinz C, Zanner R, Gerhard M, Mahr S, Neumayer N, Höhne-Zell B, Gratzl M (November 1999). "The mechanism of histamine secretion from gastric enterochromaffin-like cells".
608:
Gasman S, Chasserot-Golaz S, Bader MF, Vitale N (October 2003). "Regulation of exocytosis in adrenal chromaffin cells: focus on ARF and Rho GTPases".
1216:
1188:
1085:
794:
Rodriguez-Diaz R, Dando R, Jacques-Silva MC, Fachado A, Molina J, Abdulreda MH, Ricordi C, Roper SD, Berggren PO, Caicedo A (June 2011).
1044:
1286:
512:
319:
419:
Meites J, Sonntag WE (April 1981). "Hypothalamic hypophysiotropic hormones and neurotransmitter regulation: current views".
968:
206:
This is through this pathway that the vast majority of oxytocin and vasopressin hormones reach the systemic circulation.
929:
901:
180:
567:
Chung KF, Sicard F, Vukicevic V, Hermann A, Storch A, Huttner WB, Bornstein SR, Ehrhart-Bornstein M (October 2009).
1389:
145:
963:
140:
1707:
1495:
1118:
1054:
948:
155:
1510:
978:
953:
456:"Regulation of the hypothalamic thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) neuron by neuronal and peripheral inputs"
283:
135:
392:
Andrew A (June 1974). "Further evidence that enterochromaffin cells are not derived from the neural crest".
1567:
1562:
1304:
1019:
796:"Alpha cells secrete acetylcholine as a non-neuronal paracrine signal priming beta cell function in humans"
274:. Their synthesis, storage, and release of hormones is co-regulated by hormonal, local and nervous inputs.
1049:
1029:
1675:
1557:
263:
92:
1680:
357:
Unsicker K, Huber K, Schütz G, Kalcheim C (Jun–Jul 2005). "The chromaffin cell and its development".
123:
1238:
1309:
176:
1538:
1384:
1361:
1113:
894:
1130:
251:
88:
1093:
96:
311:
304:
8:
1670:
1276:
1271:
1243:
1206:
1039:
1024:
988:
188:
62:
28:
432:
1011:
820:
795:
756:
732:
707:
529:
480:
455:
184:
127:
78:
621:
1198:
887:
866:
861:
844:
825:
776:
737:
688:
661:
625:
590:
569:"Isolation of neural crest derived chromaffin progenitors from adult adrenal medulla"
549:
508:
485:
436:
401:
374:
315:
107:
50:
1165:
1160:
856:
815:
807:
768:
727:
719:
653:
617:
580:
545:
541:
475:
467:
428:
366:
32:
1490:
1123:
918:
255:
223:
219:
119:
74:
70:
66:
58:
845:"Neurohormonal modulation of rat enterochromaffin-like cell histamine secretion"
471:
1642:
1611:
1583:
1528:
1140:
1071:
772:
708:"Principles and clinical implications of the brain-gut-enteric microbiota axis"
657:
183:
of the hypothalamus. They are then transported along neuronal axons within the
1423:
370:
1701:
1652:
1428:
723:
235:
215:
115:
1435:
1371:
1356:
1319:
1266:
1233:
973:
940:
829:
780:
741:
692:
629:
594:
553:
489:
378:
150:
82:
47:
870:
665:
530:"Gene regulation in the magnocellular hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system"
440:
405:
1619:
1596:
1098:
1001:
200:
165:
267:
1647:
1533:
1183:
1135:
1064:
1059:
793:
334:
Nelson. 2005 An
Introduction To Behavioral Endocrinology, Third Edition
230:
505:
Nerve cells and nervous systems : an introduction to neuroscience
1450:
1379:
1261:
1173:
1108:
1034:
843:
Sandor A, Kidd M, Lawton GP, Miu K, Tang LH, Modlin IM (April 1996).
585:
568:
271:
259:
40:
36:
811:
1601:
1500:
1482:
1440:
1418:
1341:
1333:
1314:
1296:
1225:
1103:
996:
958:
240:
195:
160:
1505:
1472:
1467:
1459:
1346:
1281:
1152:
910:
24:
607:
1629:
1591:
1410:
1351:
81:, even though they are not neurons they are derivatives of the
54:
1662:
1637:
1548:
1520:
1253:
77:, cells which are very similar in structure to post-synaptic
879:
566:
356:
310:(6th ed.). Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. p.
111:
642:
527:
53:
are neurohypophysial hormones in specialized hypothalamic
528:
Burbach JP, Luckman SM, Murphy D, Gainer H (July 2001).
301:
187:
to their axon terminals forming the pars nervosa of the
678:
928:
705:
842:
754:
303:
302:Purves WK, Sadava D, Orians GH, Heller HC (2001).
712:Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology
394:Journal of Embryology and Experimental Morphology
1699:
122:, where they are stored and released into the
895:
755:Haas HL, Sergeeva OA, Selbach O (July 2008).
706:Rhee SH, Pothoulakis C, Mayer EA (May 2009).
418:
421:Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology
171:
209:
902:
888:
860:
819:
731:
584:
479:
246:
16:Hormone released by neuroendocrine cells
1700:
453:
391:
883:
502:
102:
433:10.1146/annurev.pa.21.040181.001455
13:
681:The American Journal of Physiology
14:
1719:
757:"Histamine in the nervous system"
507:. London: Springer. p. 200.
1390:5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
862:10.1053/gast.1996.v110.pm8612997
146:Growth hormone-releasing hormone
836:
787:
748:
699:
672:
636:
601:
560:
460:Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology
258:of the digestive tract secrete
181:magnocellular secretory neurons
141:Corticotropin-releasing hormone
546:10.1152/physrev.2001.81.3.1197
521:
496:
447:
412:
385:
350:
337:
328:
295:
156:Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
126:. They then rapidly reach the
1:
622:10.1016/S0898-6568(03)00052-4
289:
284:Natural neuroactive substance
214:Adrenomedullary hormones are
136:Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
909:
306:Life: The Science of Biology
254:in the epithelia lining the
7:
472:10.1016/j.yfrne.2010.01.001
277:
264:enterochromaffin-like cells
10:
1724:
1558:Insulin-like growth factor
773:10.1152/physrev.00043.2007
658:10.1210/endo.131.6.1446648
1661:
1628:
1610:
1582:
1547:
1519:
1481:
1458:
1449:
1409:
1402:
1370:
1332:
1295:
1252:
1224:
1215:
1197:
1151:
1084:
1010:
987:
939:
917:
371:10.1007/s11064-005-6966-5
177:Neurohypophysial hormones
172:Neurohypophysial hormones
124:hypophyseal portal system
27:produced and released by
724:10.1038/nrgastro.2009.35
454:Nillni EA (April 2010).
210:Adrenomedullary hormones
118:forming the bulk of the
179:are synthesized in the
35:or other roles such as
1385:N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
1362:Pancreatic polypeptide
359:Neurochemical Research
252:Enterochromaffin cells
1708:Hormones of the brain
761:Physiological Reviews
534:Physiological Reviews
247:Enteric neurohormones
97:enteroendocrine cells
93:enterochromaffin-like
57:which extend to the
29:neuroendocrine cells
1671:Natriuretic peptide
989:Posterior pituitary
974:Somatostatin (GHIH)
687:(5 Pt 1): C845-55.
610:Cellular Signalling
189:posterior pituitary
79:sympathetic neurons
63:posterior pituitary
43:(local) messenger.
1012:Anterior pituitary
218:secreted from the
185:infundibular stalk
128:anterior pituitary
108:Releasing hormones
103:Releasing hormones
95:cells, both being
51:releasing hormones
1695:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1578:
1577:
1398:
1397:
1328:
1327:
1080:
1079:
514:978-3-540-76090-0
503:Brown AG (2001).
321:978-0-7167-3873-2
1715:
1456:
1455:
1451:Digestive system
1407:
1406:
1222:
1221:
1161:Thyroid hormones
937:
936:
926:
925:
904:
897:
890:
881:
880:
875:
874:
864:
849:Gastroenterology
840:
834:
833:
823:
791:
785:
784:
752:
746:
745:
735:
703:
697:
696:
676:
670:
669:
640:
634:
633:
605:
599:
598:
588:
586:10.1002/stem.180
564:
558:
557:
525:
519:
518:
500:
494:
493:
483:
451:
445:
444:
416:
410:
409:
389:
383:
382:
354:
348:
341:
335:
332:
326:
325:
309:
299:
224:chromaffin cells
89:Enterochromaffin
75:chromaffin cells
33:neurotransmitter
1723:
1722:
1718:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1713:
1712:
1698:
1697:
1696:
1687:
1657:
1624:
1606:
1574:
1543:
1515:
1477:
1445:
1394:
1366:
1324:
1291:
1248:
1211:
1193:
1177:
1169:
1147:
1131:Adrenal medulla
1124:Androstenedione
1076:
1006:
983:
931:
920:
913:
908:
878:
841:
837:
812:10.1038/nm.2371
800:Nature Medicine
792:
788:
767:(3): 1183–241.
753:
749:
704:
700:
677:
673:
641:
637:
606:
602:
579:(10): 2602–13.
565:
561:
540:(3): 1197–267.
526:
522:
515:
501:
497:
452:
448:
417:
413:
390:
386:
355:
351:
342:
338:
333:
329:
322:
300:
296:
292:
280:
249:
220:adrenal medulla
212:
174:
120:median eminence
105:
71:adrenomedullary
67:adrenal medulla
59:median eminence
17:
12:
11:
5:
1721:
1711:
1710:
1693:
1692:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1683:
1678:
1667:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1634:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1616:
1614:
1608:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1588:
1586:
1584:Adipose tissue
1580:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1565:
1554:
1552:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1529:Enteroglucagon
1525:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1514:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1487:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1475:
1470:
1464:
1462:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1429:Beta thymosins
1426:
1415:
1413:
1404:
1400:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1376:
1374:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1338:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1323:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1301:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1258:
1256:
1250:
1249:
1247:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1230:
1228:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1210:
1209:
1203:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1192:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1180:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1157:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1146:
1145:
1144:
1143:
1141:Norepinephrine
1138:
1128:
1127:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1101:
1094:Adrenal cortex
1090:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1074:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1016:
1014:
1008:
1007:
1005:
1004:
999:
993:
991:
985:
984:
982:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
956:
951:
945:
943:
934:
923:
915:
914:
907:
906:
899:
892:
884:
877:
876:
855:(4): 1084–92.
835:
786:
747:
698:
671:
635:
600:
559:
520:
513:
495:
446:
411:
384:
365:(6–7): 921–5.
349:
336:
327:
320:
293:
291:
288:
287:
286:
279:
276:
268:stomach glands
248:
245:
244:
243:
238:
233:
216:catecholamines
211:
208:
204:
203:
198:
173:
170:
169:
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
143:
138:
116:axon terminals
104:
101:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1720:
1709:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1653:Prostaglandin
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1621:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1546:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1369:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1331:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1251:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
994:
992:
990:
986:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
946:
944:
942:
938:
935:
933:
930:Hypothalamic–
927:
924:
922:
916:
912:
905:
900:
898:
893:
891:
886:
885:
882:
872:
868:
863:
858:
854:
850:
846:
839:
831:
827:
822:
817:
813:
809:
806:(7): 888–92.
805:
801:
797:
790:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
751:
743:
739:
734:
729:
725:
721:
718:(5): 306–14.
717:
713:
709:
702:
694:
690:
686:
682:
675:
667:
663:
659:
655:
652:(6): 3126–8.
651:
647:
646:Endocrinology
639:
631:
627:
623:
619:
616:(10): 893–9.
615:
611:
604:
596:
592:
587:
582:
578:
574:
570:
563:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
524:
516:
510:
506:
499:
491:
487:
482:
477:
473:
469:
466:(2): 134–56.
465:
461:
457:
450:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
415:
407:
403:
400:(3): 589–98.
399:
395:
388:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
353:
346:
340:
331:
323:
317:
313:
308:
307:
298:
294:
285:
282:
281:
275:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
242:
239:
237:
236:Noradrenaline
234:
232:
229:
228:
227:
225:
221:
217:
207:
202:
199:
197:
194:
193:
192:
190:
186:
182:
178:
167:
164:
162:
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
133:
132:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
100:
98:
94:
90:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
49:
44:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
1436:Thymopoietin
1372:Pineal gland
1357:Somatostatin
1320:Progesterone
1267:Progesterone
1234:Testosterone
1217:Gonadal axis
1189:Thyroid axis
1086:Adrenal axis
941:Hypothalamus
852:
848:
838:
803:
799:
789:
764:
760:
750:
715:
711:
701:
684:
680:
674:
649:
645:
638:
613:
609:
603:
576:
572:
562:
537:
533:
523:
504:
498:
463:
459:
449:
424:
420:
414:
397:
393:
387:
362:
358:
352:
344:
339:
330:
305:
297:
250:
213:
205:
175:
151:Somatostatin
106:
87:
83:neural crest
73:hormones in
48:hypothalamus
45:
21:neurohormone
20:
18:
1620:Osteocalcin
1597:Adiponectin
1424:Thymosin α1
1199:Parathyroid
1099:Aldosterone
1002:Vasopressin
427:: 295–322.
201:Vasopressin
166:Neurotensin
1648:Calcitriol
1534:Peptide YY
1184:Calcitonin
1136:Adrenaline
1065:Lipotropin
1060:Endorphins
573:Stem Cells
290:References
231:Adrenaline
39:(self) or
1419:Thymosins
1380:Melatonin
1262:Estradiol
1109:Cortisone
1035:Prolactin
932:pituitary
919:Endocrine
272:histamine
260:serotonin
114:to their
69:produces
41:paracrine
37:autocrine
1702:Category
1612:Skeleton
1602:Resistin
1501:Secretin
1483:Duodenum
1441:Thymulin
1342:Glucagon
1334:Pancreas
1315:Estrogen
1297:Placenta
1104:Cortisol
997:Oxytocin
959:Dopamine
911:Hormones
830:21685896
781:18626069
742:19404271
693:10564076
630:12873702
595:19609938
554:11427695
490:20074584
379:16187226
278:See also
270:secrete
262:, while
241:Dopamine
196:Oxytocin
161:Dopamine
1506:Motilin
1473:Ghrelin
1468:Gastrin
1460:Stomach
1347:Insulin
1282:Relaxin
1277:Inhibin
1272:Activin
1244:Inhibin
1153:Thyroid
871:8612997
821:3132226
733:3817714
666:1446648
481:2849853
441:6112966
406:4448939
347:p. 714.
343:Purves
266:at the
55:neurons
25:hormone
23:is any
1630:Kidney
1592:Leptin
1551:/other
1411:Thymus
1352:Amylin
1226:Testis
1119:DHEA-S
921:glands
869:
828:
818:
779:
740:
730:
691:
664:
628:
593:
552:
511:
488:
478:
439:
404:
377:
345:et al.
318:
65:. The
1663:Heart
1638:Renin
1568:IGF-2
1563:IGF-1
1549:Liver
1539:GLP-1
1521:Ileum
1403:Other
1287:GnSAF
1254:Ovary
256:lumen
112:axons
1114:DHEA
1050:ACTH
1045:CLIP
1040:POMC
969:GHRH
949:GnRH
867:PMID
826:PMID
777:PMID
738:PMID
689:PMID
662:PMID
626:PMID
591:PMID
550:PMID
509:ISBN
486:PMID
437:PMID
402:PMID
375:PMID
316:ISBN
91:and
61:and
46:The
1681:BNP
1676:ANP
1643:EPO
1511:VIP
1496:GIP
1491:CCK
1310:HPL
1305:hCG
1239:AMH
1207:PTH
1055:MSH
1030:TSH
1020:FSH
979:MCH
964:CRH
954:TRH
857:doi
853:110
816:PMC
808:doi
769:doi
728:PMC
720:doi
685:277
654:doi
650:131
618:doi
581:doi
542:doi
476:PMC
468:doi
429:doi
367:doi
312:718
222:by
1704::
1072:GH
1025:LH
865:.
851:.
847:.
824:.
814:.
804:17
802:.
798:.
775:.
765:88
763:.
759:.
736:.
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589:.
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575:.
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548:.
538:81
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462:.
458:.
435:.
425:21
423:.
398:31
396:.
373:.
363:30
361:.
314:.
85:.
19:A
1176:4
1174:T
1168:3
1166:T
903:e
896:t
889:v
873:.
859::
832:.
810::
783:.
771::
744:.
722::
716:6
695:.
668:.
656::
632:.
620::
597:.
583::
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369::
324:.
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