4221:
alternative mathematical models that could replace those of
Ptolemy, and by scrutinizing the works of his predecessors who were all searching for unique mathematical models that could describe the physical phenomena consistently, this astronomer finally realized that all mathematical modeling had no physical truth by itself and was simply another language with which one could describe the physical observed reality. He also realized that the specific phenomena that were being described by the Ptolemaic models did not have unique mathematical solutions that were subject to the same restraints. Rather there were several mathematical models that could account for the Ptolemaic observations, yield identical predictive results at the same critical points used by Ptolemy to construct his own models (thus accounting for the observations as perfectly as Ptolemy could) and still meet the consistency requirement that was imposed by the Aristotelian cosmology which was adopted by the writers in the
5074:
6259:"This was an invention of some consequence, for the astrolabe, fitted with a series of plates for different latitudes, was neither a practical device nor an accurate observational instrument. Also, being made of brass, it was expensive. The almucantar quadrant, on the other hand, could be made of wood and was an extremely practical device with which one could solve all the problems solvable with an astrolabe, for a particular latitude. The back of such a quandrant could carry a trigonometric grid called a sine quadrant for solving all manner of computational problems."
3745:
641:
4778:
6106:
1739:
2587:
771:
3511:(Calendar of Corresponding Heavens). His job was to provide observation, and computation of the regularities in celestial phenomena, using the Islamic methods. His findings were used by Wang Chuna in the compilation of Yingtianli, which was completed in 963. The calculation, based on a 7-day week system similar to that in the Islamic calendar, was first adopted in this document, which was the most important occurrence in the Chinese history of calendrical methods.
6206:
5037:
2220:) are "to be considered as real, concrete physical bodies" or "merely the abstract circles in the heavens traced out year in and year out by the various stars and planets." He points out that many astronomers prefer to see them as solid spheres "on which the stars turn," while others, such as the Islamic scholar Dahhak, view the celestial sphere as "not a body but merely the abstract orbit traced by the stars." Al-Razi himself remains "undecided as to which
4627:
4181:
5785:
6168:
of markings were created for either equal or unequal hours. For measuring the time in equal hours, the horary quadrant could only be used for one specific latitude while a quadrant for unequal hours could be used anywhere based on an approximate formula. One edge of the quadrant had to be aligned with the sun, and once aligned, a bead on the end of a plumbline attached to the centre of the quadrant showed the time of the day.
136:
2245:
4726:
1270:
4230:
1409:
5157:
4847:
3619:("Ten Thousand Year Calendar" or "Eternal Calendar"). He was known as "Zhamaluding" in China, where in 1271, he was appointed by Khan as the first director of the Islamic observatory in Beijing, known as the Islamic Astronomical Bureau, which operated alongside the Chinese Astronomical Bureau for four centuries. Islamic astronomy gained a good reputation in China for its theory of planetary
2977:
2610:
3367:
3057:
9393:
4115:
astronomer." Qushji took this concept further and proposed that "the astronomer had no need for
Aristotelian physics and in fact should establish his own physical principles independently of the natural philosophers." Alongside his rejection of Aristotle's concept of a stationary Earth, Qushji also rejected the Aristotelian notion of the heavenly bodies moving in
5348:
1324:, in which many of his estimates come closer to modern values than any of his predecessors. For example, he estimated the Moon's diameter as 3,037 km (equivalent to 1,519 km radius) and its distance from the Earth as 215,209 miles, which come close to the currently accepted values of 1,735 km radius and 238,857 miles distance, respectively.
4136:(II.1) in which Copernicus follows Ṭūsī’s objection to Ptolemy’s “proofs” of the Earth’s immobility." This can be considered as evidence that not only was Copernicus influenced by the mathematical models of Islamic astronomers, but may have also been influenced by the astronomical physics they began developing and their views on the Earth's motion.
6144:, was used for astronomical calculations. Also known as the "Sinecal Quadrant" (the Arabic term for it is "Rubul Mujayyab"), it was used for solving trigonometric problems and taking astronomical observations. It was developed by al-Khwarizmi in the 9th century and remained prevalent until the 19th century. Its defining feature is a
2327:"Ptolemy assumed an arrangement that cannot exist, and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement, for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist."
1600:, he set forth the principles that the Earth is at the center of the universe and that it has no motion of its own. He was aware that if the Earth rotated on its axis and around the Sun, this would be consistent with his astronomical parameters, but he considered this a philosophical problem rather than a mathematical one.
2138:"And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely because of this distance and smallness that their influences are negligible, then why is it that you claim a great influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is it that you have given an influence to al-Ra's and al-Dhanab, which are two imaginary points ?"
7457:
513:“The general empirical attitude of the Qur'an which engendered in its followers a feeling of reverence for the actual, and ultimately made them the founders of modern science. It was a great point to awaken the empirical spirit in an age that renounced the visible as of no value in men's search after God.”
5131:(Arzachel) soon after. His instrument became known in Europe as the "Saphaea". It was a universal lamina (plate) which "constituted a universal device representing a stereographic projection for the terrestrial equator and could be used to solve all the problems of spherical astronomy for any latitude."
10182:
Clearly there is more to the
Copernican revolution than some clever astronomical models that arose in the context of a criticism of Ptolemy. There also needed to be a new conceptualization of astronomy that could allow for an astronomically based physics. But there is hardly anything like this in the
6167:
in 9th century
Baghdad, center of the development of quadrants. It was used to determine time (especially the times of prayer) by observations of the Sun or stars. The horary quadrant could be used to find the time either in equal or unequal (length of the day divided by twelve) hours. Different sets
4127:
in the 16th century. Despite the similarity in their discussions regarding the Earth's motion, there is uncertainty over whether al-Qushji had any influence on
Copernicus. However, it is likely that they both may have arrived at similar conclusions due to using the earlier work of al-Tusi as a basis.
2948:
Unlike the ancient Greek and
Hellenistic astronomers who were not concerned with the coherence between the mathematical and physical principles of a planetary theory, Islamic astronomers insisted on the need to match the mathematics with the real world surrounding them, which gradually evolved from a
4874:
Muslims both made many improvements to instruments already in use before their time, such as adding new scales or details and significantly enlarging them to improve accuracy, and invented many of their own new instruments. Islamic astronomers were also the first to build enormously large scientific
4429:
in the 18th century, Islamic astronomy was slowly displaced by
European astronomy, though there were attempts at harmonizing the two traditions. For example, the Indian Islamic scholar Mir Muhammad Hussain had travelled to England in 1774 to study Western science and, on his return to India in 1777,
1308:
in 830. The work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. The work is significant as it introduced Indian and
Ptolemaic concepts into Islamic sciences. This work also marked the turning point in Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had
3972:
This period was considered the period of stagnation, when the traditional system of astronomy continued to be practised with enthusiasm, but with decreasing innovation. It was believed there was no innovation of major significance during this period, but this view has been rejected by historians of
1840:
device." Ibn al-Haytham had "formulated a clear conception of the relationship between an ideal mathematical model and the complex of observable phenomena; in particular, he was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner,
1214:
kings for use in reckoning the lapse of time between known astronomical events and fixed dates. In addition to its relevance to calculating accurate calendars, it linked far and foreign cultures together by a common interest in the stars and astrology. The work of
Ptolemy was replicated and refined
8325:
All
Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted ... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere ...
4393:
with more accurate observations. The instruments and observational techniques used at the observatory were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition, and the computational techniques from the Hindu tradition. In particular, one of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented by Muslims in
319:. A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering approximately 10,000 manuscripts scattered throughout the world, many of which have not been read or catalogued. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.
4110:
and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationery Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth. He also observed comets and elaborated on al-Tusi's argument. He took it a step further and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence
2739:
spheres are not excluded by him. I have not heard it from his pupils; and even if it be correct that he discovered such a system, he has not gained much by it, for eccentricity is likewise contrary to the principles laid down by Aristotle.... I have explained to you that these difficulties do not
3187:
remains speculative, since there is no documentary evidence to prove it. The possibility that Copernicus independently developed the Tusi couple remains open, since no researcher has yet proven that he knew about Tusi´s work or the Maragha school. It has been argued that, given some differences
4114:
His predecessor al-Tusi had previously realized that "the monoformity of falling bodies, and the uniformity of celestial motions," both moved “in a single way,” though he still relied on Aristotelian philosophy to provide "certain principles that only the natural philosophers could provide the
5719:
that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His fragments of his sundial in a Damascus museum is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.
4220:
By his sheer insight into the role of mathematics in describing natural phenomena, this astronomer managed to bring the hay'a tradition to such unparalleled heights that could not be matched anywhere else in the world at that time neither mathematically nor astronomically. By working on the
4514:
The medieval Islamic observatories were also the earliest institutions to emphasize group research (as opposed to individual research) and where "theoretical investigations went hand in hand with observations." In this sense, they were similar to modern scientific research institutions.
6148:
like grid on one side that is divided into sixty equal intervals on each axis and is also bounded by a 90 degree graduated arc. A cord was attached to the apex of the quadrant with a bead at the end of it to act as a plumb bob. They were also sometimes drawn on the back of astrolabes.
873:
thought in this field. The foundations of Islamic astronomy closely parallel the genesis of other Islamic sciences in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science that was essentially Islamic. These include
2236:." He concludes that "astronomical models, whatever their utility or lack thereof for ordering the heavens, are not founded on sound rational proofs, and so no intellectual commitment can be made to them insofar as description and explanation of celestial realities are concerned."
5710:
Since ancient dials were nodus-based with straight hour-lines, they indicated unequal hours — also called temporary hours — that varied with the seasons, since every day was divided into twelve equal segments; thus, hours were shorter in winter and longer in summer. Abu'l-Hasan
961:
based on the Islamic viewpoint. This calendar has twelve lunar months, the beginnings of which are determined by the sighting of the crescent moon. This calendar is about 11 days shorter than the solar year. This calendar is still in use for religious purposes among Muslims.
9407:
2838:. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with
3323:
view of the impossibility of multiple worlds or universes. He describes the main Aristotelian arguments against the existence of multiple worlds or universes, pointing out their weaknesses and refuting them. This rejection arose from his affirmation of
626:. He concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory and that it is not possible to empirically deduce which theory is true (see
4409:
in 1702. After examining La Hire's work, Jai Singh concluded that the techniques and instruments used in the European tradition were inferior to the Islamic and Indian traditions. It is uncertain whether Islamic astronomers in India were aware of the
10183:
European tradition before Copernicus. The fact that we can find a long, vigorous discussion in Islam of this issue intricately tied to the question of the Earth's movement should indicate that such a conceptual foundation was there for the borrowing.
5127:. His instrument could solve problems of spherical astronomy for any geographic latitude, though in a somewhat more complicated fashion than the standard astrolabe. Another, more advanced and more famous, universal astrolabe was constructed by
3973:
astronomy in recent times, who argue that Muslim astronomers continued to make significant advances in astronomy through to the 16th century and possibly after this as well. After the 16th century, there appears to have been little concern for
5637:. This is considered one of the most important innovations in 16th-century practical astronomy, as previous clocks were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes. He further improved the observational clock, as described in his
4870:
Modern knowledge of the instruments used by Muslim astronomers primarily comes from two sources. First the remaining instruments in private and museum collections today, and second the treatises and manuscripts preserved from the Middle Ages.
1889:'s view on the Milky Way galaxy. Aristotle believed the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together" and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the
1582:(c. 1028), which some have interpreted to imply he was criticizing Ptolemy's geocentrism, but most agree that he was actually criticizing the details of Ptolemy's model rather than his geocentrism. Alhazen did, however, later propose the
452:
says: "And it is He who ordained the stars for you that you may be guided thereby in the darkness of the land and the sea." On the basis of this advice Muslims began to develop better observational and navigational instruments, thus most
4474:
Islamic astronomers had based their work largely on actual observations of the heavens, far more so than earlier Greek astronomers who relied heavily upon abstract calculation. This led to the emergence of the modern astronomical
685:
says: "The number of months in the sight of Allah is twelve (in a year) so ordained by Him the day He created the heavens and the earth; of them four are sacred; that is the straight usage." Therefore Muslims could not follow the
6759:
tables) in the sense that "the entries found in the almanacs give directly the positions of the celestial bodies and need no further computation", in contrast to the more common "auxiliary astronomical tables" based on Ptolemy's
5641:, using only one dial to represent the hours, minutes and seconds. He describes this observational clock as "a mechanical clock with a dial showing the hours, minutes and seconds and we divided every minute into five seconds."
10465:
History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26,
10436:
History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26,
10407:
History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26,
9503:
History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26,
1001:
Another impetus came from Islamic religious observances, which presented a host of problems in mathematical astronomy. In solving these religious problems the Islamic scholars went far beyond the Greek mathematical methods.
713:." This led Muslims to find the phases of the moon in the sky, and their efforts led to new mathematical calculations and observational instruments, as well as a special science being formed specifically for moon sighting.
4831:
inspired by the famous Samarkand observatory. The instruments and observational techniques used at the observatory were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition, and the computational techniques from the Hindu tradition.
330:
has affected astronomy directly and indirectly. A major impetus for the flowering of astronomy in Islam came from religious observances, which presented an assortment of problems in mathematical astronomy, specifically in
1309:
adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge. Al-Khwarizmi's work marked the beginning of non-traditional methods of study and calculations.
11480:"There is no evidence for the Hellenistic origin of the spherical astrolabe, but rather evidence so far available suggests that it may have been an early but distinctly Islamic development with no Greek antecedents."
6254:
in the 11th or 12th century, and was later known in Europe as the "Quadrans Vetus" (New Quadrant). It was intended as a simplified alternative to the astrolabe serving a specific latitude. According to David King:
4566:
dynasty encouraged the undertaking of extensive works in Astronomy, such as the construction of a large scale instrument with which observations were made in the year 950. We know of this by recordings made in the
2517:"Rotation of the earth would in no way invalidate astronomical calculations, for all the astronomical data are as explicable in terms of the one theory as of the other. The problem is thus difficult of solution."
3079:, incorporated the Urdi lemma, and eliminated the need for an equant by introducing an extra epicycle (the Tusi-couple), departing from the Ptolemaic system in a way that was mathematically identical to what
593:
and universes, "such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has." Al-Razi also criticized the Aristotelian notion of solid
6416:
among other things. Al-Wafa'i developed another compendium in the 15th century which he called the "equatorial circle", which also featured a horizontal sundial. These compendia later became popular in
6270:
The universal (shakkāzīya) quadrant was used for solving astronomical problems for any latitude. These quadrants had either one or two sets of shakkāzīya grids and were developed in the 14th century in
2715:"To assert the existence of an eccentric sphere or an epicyclic sphere is contrary to nature. The astronomy of our time offers no truth, but only agrees with the calculations and not with what exists."
2046:, discussed whether the Earth moved and considered how this might be consistent with astronomical computations and physical systems. Several other Muslim astronomers, most notably those following the
5922:. It was in the 1980s, however, that Emilie Savage-Smith discovered several celestial globes without any seams in Lahore and Kashmir. The earliest was invented in Kashmir by the Muslim metallurgist
4875:
instruments in order to greatly improve the accuracy of observations. Their contributions to astronomical instrumentation are abundant. Many of these instruments were often invented or designed for
2513:, he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem. He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters:
4414:
via the Jesuits, but it appears they were not concerned with theoretical astronomy, hence the theoretical advances in Europe did not interest them at the time. They did, however, employ the use of
4111:
rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory and that it is not possible to empirically deduce which theory is true.
2660:
where they have been preserved. Their students took up the challenge earlier posed by Ibn al-Haytham, namely to develop an alternate non-Ptolemaic configuration that evaded the errors found in the
614:
of an innate principle of circular motion in the heavenly bodies, and maintained that the celestial spheres were "imaginary things" and "more tenuous than a spider's web". Under such influences,
5516:
also invented a mechanical planetary computer which he called the Plate of Zones, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, including the prediction of the true positions in
3386:
claimed to have observed the transit of Venus across the Sun. He took this as evidence that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun (in the Ptolemaic cosmology). In the 12th century, the
2224:, concrete or abstract, most conform with external reality," and notes that "there is no way to ascertain the characteristics of the heavens," whether by "observable" evidence or by authority (
6275:. Some astrolabes are also printed on the back with the universal quadrant like an astrolabe created by Ibn al-Sarrāj. The Shakkaziya quadrant produced by Jamal al-Din al-Maridini was an
4012:
5815:
3402:
identified to Ibn Bajjah's observation as the transit of Venus and Mercury. However, Ibn Bajjah cannot have observed a Venus transit, as there were no Venus transits in his lifetime.
114:
102:
970:
This period was most notably the period of assimilation and syncretization of earlier Hellenistic, Indian and Sassanid astronomy occurred during the eighth and early ninth centuries.
709:
is first sighted in the western evening sky. The Qur'an says: "They ask you about the waxing and waning phases of the crescent moons, say they are to mark fixed times for mankind and
6485:
to make it more convenient to find the direction and distance to Mecca at the centre from anywhere on the Earth, which may be based on cartographic grids dating back to 10th century
89:
50:
2707:
physical principles and argued for a strictly concentric model of the universe. Al-Bitruji failed in his attempt to make an accurate model of the motions of the planets employing
118:
98:
549:
From the 12th century onwards, Islamic astronomy began becoming a science primarily dependant upon observation rather than philosophy, primarily due to religious opposition from
110:
5854:
were used primarily for solving problems in celestial astronomy. Today, 126 such instruments remain worldwide, the oldest from the 11th century. The altitude of the sun, or the
2740:
concern the astronomer, for he does not profess to tell us the existing properties of the spheres, but to suggest, whether correctly or not, a theory in which the motion of the
1692:(Algazel). They used two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:
3956:
treatises) among others. Byzantine science thus played an important role in transmitting Arabic knowledge to Western Europe in later centuries, such as the transmission of the
4511:
are carried out. Islamic observatories were also the first to employ enormously large astronomical instruments in order to greatly improve the accuracy of their observations.
8630:
3115:
by Copernicus, which was mathematically achieved by reversing the direction of the last vector connecting the Earth to the Sun. In the published version of his masterwork,
3111:. His work thus marked a turning point in astronomy, which may be considered a "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance". His rectified model was later adapted into a
814:
are the reasons which led to Muslims making advances in spherical geometry. Solving any of these problems involves finding the unknown sides or angles of a triangle on the
15149:
3499:. In the early 10th Century, the Chinese emperor of the Song dynasty encouraged the advancement of the study of astronomy and its related disciplines. In 961, the Emperor
5687:
made tables for these instruments which considerably shortened the time needed to make specific calculations. Sundials were frequently placed on mosques to determine the
5980:(973-1048), in a section of his work that is "dedicated to verifying the presence of the new crescent on the horizon." Though these early observation tubes did not have
3549:. Owing to Ma's contribution to the compilation of 'Yingtianli', Ma was made a hereditary noble and his sons later succeeded his position with the Imperial Observatory.
2149:
as "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" and thus argued that "it is certainly impossible to have knowledge of their influences."
6843:, Najm al-Din al-Misri (c. 1325) wrote a treatise describing over 100 different types of scientific and astronomical instruments, many of which he invented himself.
5923:
5003:
in the 10th century accurately observed more than 10,000 entries for the sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1.4 meters.
2405:, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the
830:, and the sun's position. The observer must know the altitude of the sun and that of the pole; the former can be observed, and the latter is equal to the observer's
3283:) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has of the throne (
3206:, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al-Tusi.
2501:, a contemporary of al-Biruni, suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which al-Biruni did not reject. Al-Biruni agreed with the
149:
383:, there were 12 years of 12 lunar months and seven years of 13 lunar months. The periodic insertion of a 13th month kept calendar dates in step with the seasons.
15041:
15019:
12593:
King, David A. (December 2003), "14th-Century England or 9th-Century Baghdad? New Insights on the Elusive Astronomical Instrument Called Navicula de Venetiis",
10292:
Zaken, Avner Ben (2004), "The heavens of the sky and the heavens of the heart: the Ottoman cultural context for the introduction of post-Copernican astronomy",
2533:), in which he recorded his astronomical findings and formulated astronomical tables. In it he presented a geocentric model, tabulating the distance of all the
5918:
before and after this were seamed, and in the 20th century, it was believed by metallurgists to be technically impossible to create a metal globe without any
1720:
Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument in particular became more famous after it was adopted by
13279:
5949:
These seamless celestial globes are considered to be an unsurpassed feat in metallurgy, hence some consider this achievement to be comparable to that of the
426:, for instance, repeated applications of Menelaus' theorem were required. For medieval Islamic astronomers, there was an obvious challenge to find a simpler
12375:
Kennedy, Edward S. (1952), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Maneteq" II: Longitudes, Distances, and Equations of the Planets",
6587:
4712:, as well as a library and mosque. Some of the top astronomers of the day gathered there, and their collaboration resulted in important alternatives to the
4450:, thus his view corresponds to the modern view that the universe consists of billions of galaxies, each one consisting of billions of stars. The last known
4078:'s claim that a stationery Earth can be determined through observation. Al-Tusi, however, eventually accepted that the Earth was stationery on the basis of
3858:
1782:
1570:
accepted unanimously the geocentric model. However, several Muslim scholars questioned the Earth's apparent immobility and centrality within the universe.
1369:(Albatenius) (853-929) produced "improved tables of the orbits of the sun and the moon" that "contained his great discovery that the direction of the sun's
1366:
10278:
7416:
4307:
After the destruction of the Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din in 1580, astronomical activity stagnated in the Ottoman Empire, until the introduction of
1129:
had previously done with geometrical works, all extant knowledge in the field of astronomy that was known to the author. This work was originally known as
1781:, unlike the ancients who believed that the celestial spheres followed their own set of physical laws different from that of Earth. In the 10th century,
15024:
12710:
An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina
9918:, (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr.), pp. 35-8 or Charles Burnett, "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century,"
3529:
12626:
In Synchrony with the Heavens, Studies in Astronomical Timekeeping and Instrumentation in Medieval Islamic Civilization: Instruments of Mass Calculation
5344:" and to Biruni (c. 1000) who made important contributions to the development of the volvelle. In the 20th century, the volvelle had many diverse uses.
5100:
and fixed stars. The first universal astrolabes were later constructed in the Islamic world and which, unlike their predecessors, did not depend on the
4311:
in 1660, when the Ottoman scholar Ibrahim Efendi al-Zigetvari Tezkireci translated Noël Duret's French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic.
2578:" problem of the Ptolemic model, and proposed a solution for the problem. He claimed that his teacher Avicenna had also worked out the equant problem.
5841:. It was an Islamic variation of the astrolabe and the armillary sphere, of which only one complete instrument, from the 14th century, has survived.
1958:
During this period, a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. It was Greek tradition to separate mathematical astronomy (as typified by
6942:
6780:. The work provided the true daily positions of the sun, moon and planets for four years from 1088 to 1092, as well as many other related tables. A
3812:
3507:(910?-1005) as the chief official to take charge of the government observatory. After compiling several important astrological works, including the
1532:
in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star. He says that the object was two to three times as large as the disc of
15046:
12698:
8612:
3525:
794:'s theory of the complex lunar motion was tolerably accurate near the time of the new moon, it specified the moon's path only with respect to the
622:
and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationery Earth, as he explored the idea of a
13613:
9601:
Benno van Dalen (2002), "Islamic and Chinese Astronomy under the Mongols: a Little-Known Case of Transmission", in Yvonne Dold-Samplonius (ed.),
5104:
of the observer and could be used anywhere on the Earth. The basic idea for a latitude-independent astrolabe was conceived in the 9th century by
4192:
in the 14th century, but recent studies have shown that there were several significant advances in planetary theory through to the 16th century.
3897:
who translated and developed the astronomical concepts brought from Islamic Spain. Other Arabic astronomical texts translated into Latin include
3183:
However, it remains a fact that the Maragha school never made the big leap to heliocentrism. In addition, the influence of the Maragha school on
1359:
of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the earth. The books were widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into
5942:. 21 such globes were produced, and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes. These Mughal metallurgists developed the method of
3083:
did in the 16th century. Unlike previous astronomers before him, Ibn al-Shatir was not concerned with adhering to the theoretical principles of
14848:
13431:
12327:
Kennedy, Edward S. (1950), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Manateq" I. Motion of the Sun and Moon in Longitude",
4491:
treatises using these observatories. The Islamic observatory was the first specialized astronomical institution with its own scientific staff,
11633:
King, David A. (1974), "An analog computer for solving problems of spherical astronomy: The Shakkaziya quadrant of Jamal al-Din al-Maridini",
6915:
4379:, who attempted to revive the Islamic tradition of astronomy in India. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called
3095:
observations. For example, it was Ibn al-Shatir's concern for observational accuracy which led him to eliminate the epicycle in the Ptolemaic
2393:
from astronomy, free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. The model also propounded the
1758:
12901:
6283:, Muslim astronomers "developed the quadrant to all conceivable limits; it virtually replaced the astrolabe in Syria and Egypt in Mamluk and
4300:
fractions used by his contemporaries and predecessors. He also invented a variety of astronomical instruments, including accurate mechanical
1373:... , as recorded by Ptolemy, was changing." Among other things, he worked on timing the first appearance of the moon's crescent following a
7556:
7078:
2854:
13340:
4375:
were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, however, it was a Hindu king,
4251:
3690:
3588:
3508:
1668:, presented the first such argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. His arguments were adopted by many most notably;
155:
5742:. This was later known in Europe as the "Navicula de Venetiis", which was considered the most sophisticated timekeeping instrument of the
15061:
6769:
5252:
5128:
4927:, Fazari made several improvements to the device, such as the introduction of angular scales to the astrolabe, adding circles indicating
4054:, is seen as a late example of innovation in Islamic theoretical astronomy and it is believed he may have possibly had some influence on
3694:
3592:
11522:
Sabra, A. I. & Hogendijk, J. P. (2003), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, pp. 85-118, ISBN 0262194821
3025:(d. 1266) was the first of the Maragheh astronomers to develop a non-Ptolemaic model, and he proposed a new theorem, the "Urdi lemma".
1836:'s light strikes." In order to prove that "light is emitted from every point of the moon's illuminated surface," he built an "ingenious
13406:
7792:
7777:
7719:
1235:
The period throughout the ninth, tenth and early eleventh centuries was one of vigorous investigation, in which the superiority of the
7704:
7517:
6348:, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements.
3439:
as 23.52 degrees, which remains the most accurate measurement to date. It was more accurate than later measurements by Copernicus and
2416:
15051:
14853:
14677:
14557:
13272:
5707:. Muslim astronomers and engineers were the first to write instructions on the construction of vertical sundials and polar sundials.
4760:. The remains of the observatory were excavated in 1908 by Russian teams. Ulugh Beg, alongside his team of researchers that included
3654:, which was largely accepted at Kublai's court. These possible influences include a pseudo-geometrical method for converting between
2957:
after the work of Ibn al-Shatir. The Maragha Revolution was thus characterized by a shift away from the philosophical foundations of
6186:
and which was later known as the "Quadrans Vetus" (Old Quadrant) in medieval Europe from the 13th century. It could be used for any
3736:
in the 15th century. The tradition of Chinese-Islamic astronomy survived in Korea for even longer, up until the early 19th century.
15073:
13044:
12355:
11216:
11191:
6565:
6510:
6164:
6137:
6114:
5045:
3866:
3789:
3759:
3336:, which entails the existence of vacant space in which the atoms move, combine and separate. He discussed more on the issue of the
1305:
1273:
4106:, rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely
3168:
relevant to the Earth as evidence, which al-Qushji elaborated on with further empirical observations while rejecting Aristotelian
2901:
Some have described their achievements in the 13th and 14th centuries as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "
1198:
was a particularly unifying work for its exhaustive lists of astronomical phenomena. He drew up a list of chronological tables of
14989:
14330:
11881:
11662:
10631:
8662:
7990:
5629:." This was the first clock to measure time in seconds, and he used it for astronomical purposes, specifically for measuring the
4171:) horizon. This point moves with the motion of the Earth and thus there will be no difference in place of fall of the two rocks."
3015:
grounds by Ibn al-Shatir, and the development of a non-Ptolemaic model by Ibn al-Shatir that was mathematically identical to the
790:
Predicting just when the crescent moon would become visible is a special challenge to Islamic mathematical astronomers. Although
248:
in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science with
106:
15056:
14085:
3785:
3763:
728:
in that direction. Thus they need to determine the direction of Mecca from a given location. Another influencing factor is the
363:. Both communities had confronted the fact that the approximately 29.5-day lunar months are not commensurable with the 365-day
273:
12646:
King, David A.; Cleempoel, Koenraad Van; Moreno, Roberto (2002), "A Recently Discovered Sixteenth-Century Spanish Astrolabe",
9741:
van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in Ansari, S. M. Razaullah (ed.),
9663:
van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in Ansari, S. M. Razaullah (ed.),
8282:
Aulie, Richard P. (March 1994), "Al-Ghazali Contra Aristotle: An Unforeseen Overture to Science In Eleventh-Century Baghdad",
7430:
van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in Ansari, S. M. Razaullah (ed.),
15068:
15011:
14106:
13856:
9120:
9074:
9034:
8268:
8153:
8116:
5067:
2764:
264:
in particular, which were translated and built upon. In turn, Islamic astronomy later had a significant influence on Indian,
4823:
were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Hindu king
4555:
were undertaken. One of these early observatories in Baghdad was the Al-Shammisiyyah observatory, where between 825 to 835,
4102:
in astronomy, opening up possibilities for an astronomy unrestrained by philosophy. Under this influence, Al-Qushji, in his
3164:(d. 1525). Al-Tusi was the first to present empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation, using the location of
1706:
The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states:
13265:
11876:
9458:
8297:
8318:
A. I. Sabra, "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy,"
4422:, Jai Singh states: "telescopes were constructed in my kingdom and using them a number of observations were carried out."
3160:, Nizam al-Din al-Nisaburi (c. 1311), al-Sayyid al-Sharif al-Jurjani (1339–1413), Ali al-Qushji (d. 1474), and Abd al-Ali
2909:". An important aspect of this revolution included the realization that astronomy should aim to describe the behavior of
2459:
2422:
618:(d. 1474) rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated it from astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely
14631:
13810:
8543:
8350:
6359:
5877:(Geber) was "the first to design a portable celestial sphere to measure and explain the movements of celestial objects."
4793:
4781:
4687:
4265:
3117:
82:
37:
10141:
10087:
3630:
shortly afterwards resemble the style of instrumentation built at Maragheh. In particular, the "simplified instrument" (
14600:
13993:
13755:
12778:
12615:
King, David A. (2004), "Reflections on some new studies on applied science in Islamic societies (8th-19th centuries)",
10382:
10354:
6723:
6363:
5606:
4789:
4261:
3793:
3781:
2202:
2194:
1239:
of astronomy was accepted and significant contributions made to it. Astronomical research was greatly supported by the
978:
Historians point out several factors that fostered the growth of Islamic astronomy. The first was the proximity of the
269:
13927:
13067:(1994a), "Early Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Cosmology: A Ninth-Century Text on the Motion of the Celestial Spheres",
2876:
545:"An eclipse is a phenomenon of nature. It is foolish to attribute such things to the death or birth of a human being."
418:
it was possible to solve one of the six sides, but only if the other five sides were known. To tell the time from the
14747:
12974:(1998), "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy",
12815:
12549:
12234:
12054:
10744:
8177:
7939:
7389:
5811:. No early Islamic armillary spheres survive, but several treatises on “the instrument with the rings” were written.
3639:
2303:
plausible ... description of what actually took place in the heavens." While maintaining the physical reality of the
477:
than was common in the preceding Greek civilization" which inspired Muslims to place a greater emphasis on empirical
179:
163:
8788:"Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation"
8755:"Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation"
7000:
5469:
5180:
5165:
5063:
5026:
3836:
2166:
2085:
2039:
1909:
541:'s death, and rumours began spreading about this being God's personal condolence. Muhammad is said to have replied:
460:
Other influences of the Qur'an on Islamic astronomy included its "insistence that the Universe is ruled by a single
14994:
14934:
14833:
13957:
13947:
10469:
10440:
10411:
9870:
9832:
9791:
9746:
9668:
9507:
9487:
7435:
4912:
4188:
It was traditionally believed that Islamic astronomers made no more advances in planetary theory after the work of
3188:
between the two models, it is more likely that Copernicus could have taken the ideas found in the Tusi couple from
6062:(Alhazen). His descriptions were fundamental to the development of the telescope and helped set the parameters in
2050:
of astronomy, developed non-Ptolemaic planetary models within a geocentric context that were later adapted by the
1596:(b. 973) discussed the possibility of whether the Earth rotated about its own axis and around the Sun, but in his
14962:
12423:
9302:
9277:
4458:, written in 1838 by the Indian astronomer Ghulam Hussain Jaunpuri (1760–1862) and printed in 1855, dedicated to
4446:
of God, who is not confined to a single universe. Hussain's idea of a universe resembles the modern concept of a
818:
from the known sides and angles. A way of finding the time of day, for example, is to construct a triangle whose
71:
26:
10877:
7529:
Ahmad, I. A. (1995), "The impact of the Qur'anic conception of astronomical phenomena on Islamic civilization",
6505:: The shadow square was an instrument used to determine the linear height of an object, in conjunction with the
6246:. The term "almucantar" is itself derived from Arabic. The almucantar quadrant was originally modified from the
2092:. Their reasons for refuting astrology were often due to both scientific (the methods used by astrologers being
13815:
13750:
13220:
13207:
Wickens, G. M. (1976), "The Middle East as a world Centre of science and medicine", in Savory, Roger M. (ed.),
13096:
12914:
12786:
12683:
12637:
12571:
12274:
12256:
12133:
11946:
11856:
10805:
10777:
10725:
10477:
10448:
10419:
10390:
10362:
10331:
9754:
9676:
9643:
9610:
9515:
8572:
7443:
7344:
7060:
6674:
5205:
is one in which he describes the linear astrolabe, sometimes called the "staff of al-Tusi", which he invented.
4841:
4697:
4487:
as was the case in ancient times) being first introduced by medieval Muslim astronomers, who produced accurate
4167:). And this perpendicular is away from the tangent point of the Earth’s sphere and the plane of the perceived (
4067:
3943:
3495:), Islamic astronomer and astrologist who worked as the chief official of the astronomical observatory for the
3157:
3026:
2882:
2850:
2795:
2190:
2043:
9137:, "The Andalusian Revolt Against Ptolemaic Astronomy: Averroes and al-Bitrûjî", in Mendelsohn, Everett (ed.),
4143:(d. 1528), who in his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were moving, develops a hypothesis similar to
4123:. This is considered to be a "conceptual revolution" that had no precedent in European astronomy prior to the
3382:
were claimed to have been observed by medieval Islamic astronomers. In the 11th century, the Persian polymath
15154:
14828:
14670:
13866:
11212:
4159:"The small or large rock will fall to the Earth along the path of a line that is perpendicular to the plane (
3651:
3011:
from astronomy by Ibn al-Shatir and al-Qushji, the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than
2672:), included a list of objections to Ptolemic astronomy. This marked the beginning of the Andalusian school's
9418:
5202:
2555:
are not identical. Al-Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than
15089:
14765:
13983:
13891:
13770:
9724:
8203:
897:
has divided the history of Islamic astronomy into the four following distinct time periods in its history:
798:. To predict the first visibility of the moon, it was necessary to describe its motion with respect to the
13355:
12096:
11170:
Silvio A. Bedini, Francis R. Maddison (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi",
8856:
8346:
6395:: The alhidade was invented in the Islamic world, while the term "alhidade" is itself derived from Arabic.
2397:
about its axis, and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like
2299:) of physical orbs and spheres each of which turning uniformly about its own axis," thereby producing "a
1393:. Around the same time, Yahya Ibn Abi Mansour carried out extensive observations and tests, and wrote the
1320:
in Baghdad, where he estimated a number of geographic and astronomical values. He compiled his results in
1087:
998:
during the ninth century. This process was enhanced by the tolerance towards scholars of other religions.
15159:
15034:
14984:
14967:
14924:
14919:
14823:
14775:
14546:
14425:
14299:
13345:
12840:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2001b), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science",
12023:
11058:
11018:
5378:
3569:
3421:
in the early 15th century, the observatory made considerable progress in observational astronomy. In the
1430:
11973:
11531:
O. S. Marshall (1950). "Alhazen and the Telescope", Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets 6, p. 4
11352:
10575:
7848:
5021:
were invented in the Muslim world, and were perfected by Ibn Samh (c. 1020). One such device with eight
4716:
over a period of 50 years. The observations of al-Tusi and his team of researchers were compiled in the
1808:) some time before 1021. This was the first attempt successful at combining mathematical astronomy with
14867:
14722:
13800:
13790:
13411:
13301:
13212:
13020:
12932:
12832:
12560:
World-maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science
12285:
World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science
12248:
12226:
12146:
11886:
11841:
10717:
10694:
10301:
10272:
10051:
9700:
9142:
8370:
6404:: A compendium was a multi-purpose astronomical instrument, first constructed by the Muslim astronomer
5341:
5116:
5105:
4556:
3659:
2736:
2323:
grounds, and for relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles:
2027:
1567:
1313:
1165:
was incorrect, even in premise, it remained a standard astronomical text in both the Islamic world and
13421:
11736:
9482:
Sally P. Ragep (2007), "Ibn Sīnā: Abū ʿAlī al‐Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Sīnā", in Thomas Hockey (ed.),
5494:
invented the Plate of Conjunctions, a computing instrument used to determine the time of day at which
4919:, (927/8 CE). The first person credited for building the Astrolabe in the Islamic world is reportedly
4196:, for example, improved on al-Tusi's planetary model and presented an alternative planetary model for
3271:), and it is established as well by evidence that God Most High has power over all contingent beings (
1897:." Ibn al-Haytham refuted this by making the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's
598:
and suggested these may be "merely the abstract orbit traced by the stars." Later in the century, the
497:
alone as being sufficient to understanding nature. The Qur'an's insistence on observation, reason and
14067:
13648:
13532:
13088:
11901:
11896:
11891:
11871:
11657:
11047:"State, Science and Economy in Traditional Societies: Some Problems in Weberian Sociology of Science"
10855:
10626:
9565:
Richard Bulliet, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup.
7365:
7147:
3623:, which did not exist in Chinese astronomy at the time, and for its accurate prediction of eclipses.
3596:
3394:
reported observing "the two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun." In the 13th century, the
3224:
526:
316:
10939:
Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents",
10277:
Cite error: The named reference "Tekeli" was defined multiple times with different content (see the
8589:"Popularisation of Optical Phenomena: Establishing the First Ibn Al-Haytham Workshop on Photography"
7864:
Henry C. King, Harold Spencer Jones, Courier Dover Publications, 2003 ISBN 0486432653, 9780486432656
7415:
Cite error: The named reference "Saliba" was defined multiple times with different content (see the
3247:
verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds." He raises the question of whether the term "
3003:
Other achievements of the Maragha school include the first empirical observational evidence for the
1563:
1339:"). The book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy's
14957:
14663:
13881:
13775:
13653:
13416:
13376:
12891:
12774:
11740:
11667:
11635:
Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences (International Archives on the History of Science)
11375:
10636:
8667:
8657:
7995:
7555:
Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), "The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study",
6280:
5680:
5073:
4924:
4796:. This was on the same scale as those in Maragha and Samarkand as well as that of his contemporary
4523:
The first systematic observations in Islam are reported to have taken place under the patronage of
4308:
4234:
3514:
Ma Yize might have consulted many works of Islamic mathematical astronomy into Chinese, including:
3112:
3016:
2894:
2051:
1875:
1669:
1615:
883:
257:
13871:
7661:
6694:
4761:
4341:
techniques. While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Muslim and
3267:
It is established by evidence that there exists beyond the world a void without a terminal limit (
1901:, and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it was very remote from the
1793:
observations and experimental techniques by Muslim astronomers from the eleventh century onwards.
13886:
13835:
13497:
13487:
13426:
13179:
13109:
12745:
12512:
King, David A. (1997), "Two Iranian World Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca",
12004:
11144:
10957:
10900:
10797:
10769:
9635:
8881:
7836:
6198:
after the astrolabe. One of its main purposes in the Islamic world was to determine the times of
4692:
The more influential observatories, however, were established beginning in the 13th century. The
4350:
4201:
4116:
3978:
3311:) for establishing that the world is one are weak, flimsy arguments founded upon feeble premises.
1742:
1297:
78:
33:
8422:
Craig, William Lane (June 1979), "Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past",
3934:, translated various Arabic books on astronomy, including for example the works of Abu Ma'shar,
2973:
in general, as exemplified in the works of Ibn al-Shatir, al-Qushji, al-Birjandi and al-Khafri.
1986:
of astronomy. Most of these criticisms, however, continued to follow the Ptolemaic astronomical
865:; their knowledge was what they observed regarding the rising and setting of stars. The rise of
670:
There are several rules in Islam which lead Muslims to use better astronomical calculations and
14838:
14304:
14264:
14078:
14019:
13978:
13805:
13785:
13704:
13582:
7985:
7565:
7091:
6883:
6855:
6821:
6311:
6303:
6216:
6099:
5935:
5293:
5014:
4971:
4596:
4588:
4152:
3647:
3061:
2107:
1506:
1472:
1426:
1065:
647:
407:
12854:
12202:
10986:
10740:
10698:
10665:
L. C. Martin (1923), "Surveying and navigational instruments from the historical standpoint",
9861:
Yunli Shi (January 2003), "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables",
9823:
Yunli Shi (January 2003), "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables",
9782:
Yunli Shi (January 2003), "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables",
9235:
6340:
constructed the Fakhri sextant, which had a radius of approximately 36 meters. Constructed in
5377:, an observational instrument and mechanical analog computer device used to transform between
2755:
to be made up of many stars but that it appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of
1421:, which described more than a thousand stars in detail and gave the first descriptions on the
1080:
used in Hellenistic mathematics. Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for
610:, which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God's will, rejected the
367:. To solve the problem, Christians and Jews had adopted a scheme based on a discovery made in
14571:
14365:
14279:
13952:
13765:
13734:
13679:
13467:
12864:
12218:
12198:
12184:
12161:
10871:
10595:
9283:
8634:
6871:
6829:
6817:
6604:
6434:
6133:
6110:
6095:
6079:
5976:(Albatenius) (853-929), and the first exact description of the observation tube was given by
5950:
5495:
5226:
4966:
first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as astronomy,
4824:
4753:
4733:
4683:
4572:
4559:
conducted various observations and estimated a number of geographic and astronomical values.
4411:
4376:
4124:
3803:, who translated 87 books from Arabic to Latin. The astronomical texts he translated include
3406:
3357:
3259:, or to many other universes or a multiverse beyond this known universe." In volume 4 of the
3022:
2988:
2902:
2846:
2827:
2760:
2732:
2692:
2617:
1870:
matter, and that the heavens are less dense than the air. These views were later repeated by
1459:(964). He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud" now known as the
1438:
1174:
894:
12421:
Kennedy, Edward S. (1961), "Al-Kashi's Treatise on Astronomical Observational Instruments",
10195:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2004), "Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks",
10121:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2004), "Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks",
10064:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2004), "Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks",
9632:
The history of the relations between the Low Countries and China in the Qing era (1644-1911)
7959:
7662:"Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on Physics and the Nature of the Physical World: A Preliminary Survey"
5738:. It was used for accurate timekeeping by the Sun and Stars, and could be observed from any
3708:”), which was published in China a number of times until the early 18th century, though the
2295:
tradition was concerned with accommodating mathematical hypotheses within "a configuration (
14929:
14780:
14707:
14590:
14564:
14405:
14375:
13780:
13760:
13451:
13350:
13335:
11851:
11187:
10557:
Micheau, Francoise, "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East", pp. 992–3
10172:
F. Jamil Ragep (2004), "Copernicus and His Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks",
7893:
6833:
6752:
6552:
5863:
5499:
5230:
5115:
The first known universal astrolabe to be constructed was by Ali ibn Khalaf al-Shakkaz, an
4693:
4679:
4631:
4543:
degrees were measured, solar parameters were established, and detailed observations of the
4540:
4492:
4277:
4213:
4128:
This is more of a possibility considering "the remarkable coincidence between a passage in
4119:. His work was an important step away from Aristotelian physics and towards an independent
4087:
4031:
3931:
3751:
3580:
3576:
3395:
3220:
3194:
2950:
2819:
2807:
2209:
2047:
1661:
1370:
1125:
1043:
835:
611:
574:
562:
538:
415:
193:
13257:
12808:
12047:
11085:
Lorch, R. P. (1976), "The Astronomical Instruments of Jabir ibn Aflah and the Torquetum",
10050:
Edith Dudley Sylla, "Creation and nature", in Arthur Stephen McGrade (2003), pp. 178-179,
9582:
Rufus, W. C. (May 1939), "The Influence of Islamic Astronomy in Europe and the Far East",
2022:" ...—the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the
1832:
and correctly concluded that it "emits light from those portions of its surface which the
1343:
based on findings of earlier Iranian astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the
1105:
ran parallel to the interest in mathematics. Especially noteworthy in this regard was the
8:
14875:
14712:
14531:
14370:
14350:
14284:
14269:
14140:
14099:
13820:
13795:
13482:
13401:
13115:
12595:
12101:
11653:
11087:
11000:
10648:
10622:
10323:
10269:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
8653:
8060:
8032:
7981:
6615:
5862:
of stars could be calculated with these by inputting the location of the observer on the
5834:
5819:
5150:
4920:
4406:
4285:
4238:
4208:
also studied the works of a 16th century astronomer, Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550), a
4059:
4055:
4023:
3961:
3667:
3432:
3399:
3173:
3153:
3080:
3038:
3004:
2966:
2962:
2914:
2858:
2708:
2502:
2491:
2446:
2394:
2221:
2182:
2162:
2019:
1766:
1731:
1645:
1629:
1583:
1455:
1417:
765:
702:
623:
57:
13446:
12148:
Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering
7468:
7260:, as well as a number of other stars. Some of these names originated in the pre-Islamic
6437:
used for various astronomical and timekeeping purposes from the 10th century introduced
6105:
5336:, paper constructions with rotating parts. It is considered an early example of a paper
4405:
astronomers to his observatory, who had bought back the astronomical tables compiled by
14949:
14843:
14727:
14595:
14536:
14214:
14166:
14024:
13577:
13371:
13194:
12860:
12716:
12675:
12533:
12067:
11990:
11866:
11684:
11100:
10982:
9370:
Y. M. Faruqi (2006). "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise",
8073:
8045:
7811:
7754:
7732:
7586:
7018:
6751:
word. The modern almanac differs from earlier astronomical tables (such as the earlier
6538:
5838:
5614:
5581:
5561:
5420:
5408:
5296:
4496:
4480:
4426:
4338:
4301:
4083:
4063:
4035:
4019:
3942:(who was of Byzantine Greek descent but raised in a Persian culture), Al-Khwārizmī and
3898:
3894:
3379:
3169:
3084:
3008:
2563:
2390:
2031:
1446:
1069:
1039:
854:
803:
783:
501:("see", "think" and "contemplate"), on the other hand, led Muslims to develop an early
482:
454:
403:
360:
332:
213:
12608:
6034:
onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up."
5381:. It was designed to take and convert measurements made in three sets of coordinates:
5096:
The first astrolabe instruments were used to read the rise of the time of rise of the
3049:. Al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī (d. 1277), who also worked at the Maragheh observatory, in his
1853:
onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up."
1548:
later corroborated bin Ridwan's observations as to magnitude and location in the sky.
1481:
observed more than 10,000 entries for the sun's position for many years using a large
1061:, a collection of astronomical tables compiled in Sassanid Persia over two centuries.
14790:
14785:
14757:
14626:
14621:
14495:
14355:
13896:
13830:
13825:
13542:
13252:
13216:
13092:
12910:
12878:
12795:
12782:
12736:
12692:
12679:
12633:
12567:
12545:
12270:
12252:
12230:
12129:
12034:
11960:
11942:
11861:
11339:
11135:
10973:
10891:
10801:
10773:
10721:
10685:
10678:
10562:
10498:
10473:
10444:
10415:
10386:
10379:
The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India
10358:
10351:
The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India
10327:
9882:
9844:
9803:
9750:
9707:
9672:
9639:
9606:
9511:
9296:
8872:
8606:
8568:
8186:
8173:
7824:
7542:
7439:
7383:
7340:
7261:
6534:
5919:
5888:
5289:
4967:
4576:
4289:
4006:
3982:
3927:
3919:
3800:
3777:
3452:
3232:
3215:
2830:. Like their Andalusian predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the
2711:. Averroes wrote the following criticism of the Ptolemaic model of planetary motion:
2534:
2213:
2186:
2067:
2023:
1913:
1863:
1813:
1770:
1677:
1637:
1609:
1593:
1557:
1545:
819:
595:
502:
439:
277:
265:
21:
12020:
To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo
8638:
8586:
7229:
7213:
6194:
of the Sun. This was the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the
4620:
3832:
3029:(1201–1274) resolved significant problems in the Ptolemaic system by developing the
1754:
14892:
14815:
14636:
14605:
14480:
14470:
14400:
14259:
14219:
14204:
14127:
14092:
14072:
14014:
13937:
13922:
13917:
13643:
13492:
13381:
13140:
13131:(2000), "Arabic versus Greek Astronomy: A Debate over the Foundations of Science",
13053:
13001:
12960:
12936:
12725:
12655:
12629:
12604:
12563:
12521:
12489:
12458:
12432:
12410:
12386:
12364:
12338:
12316:
12173:
11999:
Dallal, Ahmad (1999), "Science, Medicine and Technology", in Esposito, John (ed.),
11846:
11096:
11062:
11022:
10674:
10511:
10507:
10018:
9874:
9836:
9795:
9168:
Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy",
8799:
8766:
8505:
8431:
8069:
8058:
Langermann, Y. Tzvi (1985), "The Book of Bodies and Distances of Habash al-Hasib",
8041:
8030:
Langermann, Y. Tzvi (1985), "The Book of Bodies and Distances of Habash al-Hasib",
7538:
7458:
African Cultural Astronomy By Jarita C. Holbrook, R. Thebe Medupe, Johnson O. Urama
7369:
6859:
6792:
6786:
6648:
6315:
6213:
6091:
6071:
5943:
5804:
5789:
5676:
5533:
5030:
4916:
4655:
4484:
4346:
4334:
4320:
4197:
4151:", which he described in the following observational test (as a response to one of
4091:
3873:(also containing trigonometric tables) were translated by Robert of Chester and by
3854:
3824:
3820:
3733:
3682:
3643:
3608:
3375:
3333:
3236:
3053:, wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, though he later abandoned the idea.
2984:
2930:
2886:
2787:
2768:
2661:
2510:
2463:
2402:
2304:
2131:
2003:
1983:
1966:). Muslim scholars developed a program of seeking a physically real configuration (
1894:
1685:
1621:
1493:'s investigations on the motion of the moon, while his other observations inspired
1460:
1422:
1236:
1073:
1047:
913:
875:
815:
779:
733:
678:
599:
578:
550:
281:
261:
241:
13247:
12296:
Iqbal, Muzaffar; Berjak, Rafik (2003), "Ibn Sina–Al-Biruni correspondence",
11543:(University of Illinois), Best Idea; Eyes Wide OpenNew York Times, April 18, 1999.
9453:
4752:, himself an astronomer and mathematician, founded another large observatory, the
4268:
in 1577, where he carried out astronomical observations until 1580. He produced a
3744:
3626:
Some of the astronomical instruments constructed by the famous Chinese astronomer
2494:
on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems.
697:
The other issue is moon sighting. Islamic months do not begin at the astronomical
15126:
14742:
14686:
14541:
14475:
14239:
14194:
13724:
13598:
13567:
13517:
13502:
13330:
13199:
11371:
11122:
9139:
Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences: Essays in honor of I. Bernard Cohen
8694:
7161:
6748:
6459:
6276:
6049:
5927:
5891:
5874:
5855:
5851:
5808:
5630:
5370:
5356:
5337:
5299:
5248:
5214:
5188:
4713:
4600:
4144:
4099:
3990:
3907:
3890:
3874:
3804:
3769:
3717:
3599:, who previously worked at Maragha observatory, presented Kublai Khan with seven
3316:
2942:
2835:
2700:
2625:
2398:
2198:
1879:
1762:
1665:
1636:
developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning (see
1030:
1019:
879:
691:
687:
651:
644:
570:
253:
245:
217:
62:
13557:
13085:
A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam
12445:
The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory
8217:
6386:
Various other astronomical instruments were also invented in the Islamic world:
6242:
quadrant was invented in the medieval Islamic world, and it employed the use of
5428:
4647:
3172:
altogether. Both of their arguments were similar to the arguments later used by
640:
15121:
14979:
14737:
14717:
14385:
14360:
14146:
14009:
13663:
13638:
13623:
13608:
13572:
13441:
13144:
12992:
12823:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context",
12541:
12480:
12449:
12377:
12329:
12307:
12142:
11906:
11825:
11540:
11009:
10009:
8496:
7117:
6965:
6482:
6284:
6178:
The universal horary quadrant was an ingenious mathematical device invented by
6075:
6054:
6015:
5696:
5276:
4777:
4663:
4643:
4324:
4257:
4079:
4043:
4015:
3986:
3923:
3849:
3844:
3729:
3678:
3460:
3456:
3134:
2958:
2926:
2823:
2272:
2248:
2077:
1858:
1797:
1713:"The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition."
1521:
1468:
1220:
1207:
1203:
1077:
1015:
991:
983:
958:
839:
827:
615:
566:
506:
411:
13155:
12940:
12659:
12525:
12409:(2), Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 46, No. 2: 123,
12177:
11603:
Elly Dekker (1995), "An unrecorded medieval astrolabe quadrant from c. 1300",
11116:
9878:
9840:
9799:
8539:
6066:
for the later advances in telescopic technology. His additional work in light
5671:
Muslims made several important improvements to the theory and construction of
3557:
3405:
The astronomical tradition established by the Maragha school continued at the
1738:
1257:
became the centers of such activity. The caliphs not only supported this work
15143:
14939:
14732:
14505:
14415:
14289:
14159:
14152:
13851:
13719:
13633:
13151:
13128:
13105:
13080:
13064:
13031:
13012:
12987:
10240:
9979:
9886:
9848:
9807:
9231:
7265:
7209:
7157:
7104:
6773:
6714:
6681:
6501:
6425:
6405:
6190:
on Earth and at any time of the year to determine the time in hours from the
5981:
5757:
5712:
5704:
4828:
4804:
4770:
4718:
4616:
4431:
4389:
4380:
4330:
4205:
4189:
4011:
3994:
3948:
3537:
Kitab Aqdar al- Ittisalat, On the Quantities of the Astrological Applications
3428:
3423:
3361:
3203:
3068:
3046:
3012:
2980:
2910:
2866:
2862:
2813:
2791:
2645:
2506:
2442:
2375:
2331:
Ibn al-Haytham developed a physical structure of the Ptolemaic system in his
2055:
2007:
1943:
1939:
1721:
1641:
1490:
1464:
1382:
1154:
706:
607:
498:
427:
380:
209:
13694:
12580:
King, David A. (2002), "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus",
10714:
The mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: a sourcebook
10515:
8435:
8386:, 24 (1971): 59–81; reprinted in David A. King and Mary Helen Kennedy, ed.,
8237:
4704:
in the 13th century. Here, al-Tusi supervised its technical construction at
4337:, where Islamic observational techniques and instruments were combined with
2401:'s model centuries later. Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of
1471:
astronomers, very probably before 905 AD. The first recorded mention of the
15111:
14335:
14229:
13942:
13876:
13729:
13472:
13436:
12766:
12015:
11298:
10599:
9530:
7185:
7181:
6442:
6429:
6243:
6179:
5954:
5895:
5684:
5472:'s mechanical calendar computer. Abi Bakr's geared astrolabe uses a set of
5412:
5146:
4639:
4524:
4459:
4383:
in order to rival the famous Samarkand observatory, and in order to update
4120:
4027:
3974:
3840:
3709:
3674:
3627:
3564:
to Persia in 1210 and studied their calendar for use in the Mongol Empire.
3561:
3553:
3496:
3482:
3100:
2657:
2586:
2544:
2475:
2430:
2358:
In 1038, Ibn al-Haytham described the first non-Ptolemaic configuration in
2352:
2264:
2158:
1817:
1774:
1653:
1211:
979:
930:
Stagnation, where few significant contributions were made (1450—1900
530:
461:
233:
225:
205:
5691:. One of the most striking examples was built in the 14th century by the
5108:
in Baghdad and the topic was later discussed in the early 11th century by
2537:
from the central Earth, computed according to the principles of Ptolemy's
1789:"past observations by means of new ones". This led to the use of exacting
923:
Flourishing of a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy (1025—1450
14805:
14694:
14510:
14500:
14465:
14274:
14254:
14133:
13973:
13709:
13658:
13618:
13386:
13052:(2), Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 101, No. 2: 219–221,
12971:
12062:
Gautier, Antoine (December 2005), "L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane",
10850:
10001:
The Astronomical Works of Gregory Chioniades, Volume I: The Zij al- Ala'i
9134:
7249:
6887:
6479:
6446:
6418:
6375:
6195:
6145:
6118:
5984:, they "enabled an observer to focus on a part of the sky by eliminating
5911:
5859:
5743:
5688:
5654:
5578:
5424:
5333:
5184:
5161:
4888:
4797:
4709:
4701:
4508:
4476:
4443:
4442:), each with their own planets and stars, and that this demonstrates the
4297:
4293:
4281:
4140:
3957:
3912:
3584:
3565:
3474:
3440:
3161:
3107:
than any previous model, and was also the first that permitted empirical
3104:
3030:
2992:
2938:
2906:
2890:
2870:
2842:
2649:
2487:
2471:
2429:
related to astronomical phenomena, and he introduced the analysis of the
2316:
2170:
2093:
1995:
1991:
1982:
tradition, Muslim astronomers began questioning technical details of the
1971:
1935:
1681:
1541:
1317:
1133:, but after it had come to be used as a text in astronomy, it was called
1035:
931:
924:
917:
906:
887:
843:
770:
729:
671:
478:
221:
13236:
13038:
Geschichte des arabischen Schriftiums. Band VI: Astronomie bis ca. 430 H
9914:
For a list of Gerard of Cremona's translations see: Edward Grant (1974)
8798:(1), Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 91, No. 1: 96–103 ,
8588:
6474:
engraved on them were produced primarily for the purpose of finding the
6205:
5609:
invented the "observational clock", which he described as "a mechanical
5036:
3918:
In addition to the Arabic-Latin translation movement in Western Europe,
3431:
as 365 5 49 15, which has an error of +25, making it more accurate than
2744:
and planets is uniform and circular, and in agreement with observation."
2118:
arguments in astronomy in order to refute the practice of astrology and
2072:
The study of astrology was refuted by several Muslim writers, including
705:
as the sun and is therefore invisible; instead they begin when the thin
573:
philosophy. For example, the Ash'ari doctrine influenced the theologian
569:
in astronomy, opening up possibilities for an astronomy unrestrained by
14455:
14445:
14435:
14340:
14320:
14244:
13912:
13861:
13699:
13689:
13527:
13522:
13507:
12867:
discussion; astronomy is discussed in the first fifteen-minute segment)
12848:(Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64 & 66–71
8765:(1), Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 91, No. 1: 96–103,
7731:
Syed Mohammad Hussain Tabatabai, "Volume 3: Surah Baqarah, Verse 189",
7042:
6805:
6777:
6656:
6637:
6438:
6399:
6345:
6239:
6224:
6067:
6019:
5973:
5939:
5907:
5303:
5256:
5244:
5124:
5120:
5082:
4820:
4765:
4666:
to date. A modern version of this calendar is still in official use in
4626:
4612:
4372:
4193:
4139:
In the 16th century, the debate on the Earth's motion was continued by
4095:
3939:
3886:
3773:
3699:
3546:
3542:
3519:
3436:
3414:
3391:
3387:
3329:
3320:
3240:
3184:
3122:
3108:
2918:
2783:
2756:
2724:
2720:
2688:
2680:
2676:
against Ptolemaic astronomy, sometimes called the "Andalusian Revolt".
2653:
2641:
2637:
2629:
2598:
2552:
2438:
2426:
2367:
2320:
2260:
2119:
1917:
1890:
1837:
1786:
1689:
1510:
1378:
1352:
1344:
1328:
902:
655:
603:
586:
558:
554:
486:
387:
364:
312:
229:
12363:(1), Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 71, No. 1: 13–21,
10493:
9282:, From Medieval to Modern in the Islamic World, Sawyer Seminar at the
7480:
6902:
instrument he invented, and a small armillary sphere incorporating an
6489:. One of the two instruments, produced by Muhammad Husayn, also had a
5814:
4090:
and natural philosophy was declining due to religious opposition from
3435:' estimate which had an error of +30. Beg also determined the Earth's
2602:
2521:
In 1031, al-Biruni completed his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia
1716:".•. The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite."
14999:
14702:
14490:
14430:
14209:
13988:
13932:
13603:
13537:
13512:
13396:
12923:
Rashed, Roshdi (2007), "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham",
12906:
12125:
12080:
11046:
11004:
10711:
9770:
Li, Qi, and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China
9463:
9279:
The Interplay of Science and Theology in the Fourteenth-century Kalam
7169:
6891:
6707:
6624:
6471:
6341:
6337:
6319:
6307:
6247:
6220:
6209:
6027:
5993:
5977:
5972:
The first reference to an "observation tube" is found in the work of
5574:
5517:
5458:
5404:
5374:
5352:
5260:
5259:, probably around 1015 CE. It is a mechanical device for finding the
5078:
5049:
5041:
5000:
4975:
4939:
4900:
4859:
4757:
4749:
4737:
4729:
4608:
4592:
4415:
4384:
4107:
4047:
3935:
3748:
3713:
3478:
3418:
3410:
3244:
3145:
3138:
3092:
3088:
2922:
2839:
2749:
2704:
2559:'s estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded annular eclipses.
2505:
about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the
2467:
2406:
2363:
2312:
2229:
2143:
2115:
2097:
2073:
1963:
1921:
1886:
1846:
1790:
1529:
1482:
1478:
1281:
1258:
1183:
1102:
1064:
Fragments of text during this period indicate that Arabs adopted the
1054:
905:
of earlier Hellenistic, Indian and Sassanid astronomy (700—825
862:
775:
745:
682:
619:
471:
449:
344:
296:
12990:(1979), "The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School",
12964:
12729:
12414:
9629:
8362:
Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham",
6854:, which described a variety of different instruments, including the
4923:. Though the first astrolabe to chart the stars was invented in the
4200:. He also rejected the Aristotelian notion of the planets moving in
4180:
3889:. Adelard associated with other scholars in Western England such as
3534:
Kitab Matali' al-Buruj, On the Ascensions of the Signs of the Zodiac
3099:
model and all the eccentrics, epicycles and equant in the Ptolemaic
2818:
The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the
1463:. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic
171:
No issues specified. Please specify issues, or remove this template.
14515:
14485:
14450:
14440:
14380:
14199:
13714:
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13628:
13562:
13552:
13477:
13391:
13057:
13024:
13005:
12671:
12493:
12462:
12436:
12390:
12368:
12342:
12320:
12008:
11506:
Regis Morelon, "General Survey of Arabic Astronomy", pp. 9-10, in (
11118:[[Ancient Discoveries]], Episode 11: Ancient Robots
11066:
11026:
10022:
8803:
8770:
8509:
7584:
Michene, James A. (May 1955), "Islam: The Misunderstood Religion",
6903:
6899:
6867:
6847:
6409:
6391:
6191:
6187:
6160:
6031:
6023:
5784:
5739:
5700:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5513:
5491:
5465:
5390:
5329:
5222:
5218:
5142:
5109:
5101:
4816:
4705:
4563:
4532:
4504:
4435:
4368:
4051:
3828:
3697:, a Chinese scholar-official. These tables came to be known as the
3620:
3383:
3252:
3239:
within the universe and "explores the notion of the existence of a
3149:
3144:
An area of active discussion in the Maragheh school, and later the
3130:
3126:
3072:
2684:
2613:
2567:
2543:. The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the
2539:
2498:
2386:
2378:
2371:
2255:
tradition of astronomy, presented the first critique and reform of
2212:
participated in the debate among Islamic scholars over whether the
2089:
2081:
2015:
2011:
1987:
1947:
1898:
1850:
1842:
1825:
1673:
1633:
1625:
1390:
1374:
1348:
1254:
1246:
1107:
1011:
987:
944:
831:
795:
698:
660:
582:
522:
423:
372:
356:
304:
237:
14655:
12948:
12707:
12398:
9603:
From China to Paris: 2000 years transmission of mathematical ideas
4333:, the 16th and 17th centuries saw a synthesis between Islamic and
1749:(the minaret in the background was used for astronomical purposes)
1540:, and that the star was low on the southern horizon. Monks at the
15094:
14912:
14907:
14420:
14410:
14345:
14294:
14234:
14224:
14189:
13547:
13161:
13035:
12350:
12027:
11494:
Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use
10791:
10763:
9434:
Claudia Kren, "The Rolling Device of Naṣir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī in the
8787:
8754:
7233:
7197:
6895:
6879:
6863:
6825:
6744:
6506:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6413:
6371:
6183:
6141:
6059:
5903:
5769:
5765:
5735:
5731:
5672:
5650:
5477:
5454:
5386:
5382:
5315:
5275:, without calculation using a geometrical model to represent the
4963:
4943:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4904:
4808:
4604:
4580:
4552:
4536:
4360:
4209:
4148:
4075:
3878:
3670:
in the calculation of the irregularity in the planetary motions.
3663:
3655:
3612:
3504:
3488:
3470:
3325:
3189:
2954:
2696:
2664:. Like Ibn al-Haytham's critique, the anonymous Andalusian work,
2621:
2556:
2449:
on its axis would be consistent with his astronomical parameters.
2308:
2256:
2244:
1975:
1959:
1895:
region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions
1809:
1746:
1649:
1575:
1571:
1525:
1494:
1486:
1386:
1277:
1250:
1240:
1199:
1112:
834:. The time is then given by the angle at the intersection of the
799:
791:
753:
737:
534:
391:
308:
90:
Knowledge:Good article reassessment/Astronomy in medieval Islam/1
51:
Knowledge:Good article reassessment/Astronomy in medieval Islam/1
12187:(May 1991), "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East",
7111:
A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory
6324:
On the obliquity of the ecliptic and the latitudes of the cities
6279:
for solving problems of spherical astronomy. By the time of the
4725:
4527:, and the first Islamic observatories were built in 9th century
3370:
An Arabic manuscript from the 13th century depicting Astronomers
3177:
3077:
A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory
2965:
and towards a greater emphasis on the empirical observation and
2609:
2351:, he insisted that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the
2018:
and later, are known to have accepted what Kuhn has called the "
1710:"An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition."
1269:
1057:
in 770. The most notable Middle Persian text translated was the
947:
to determine the lunar months especially Ramadan and holy days.
628:
15116:
15104:
15099:
14863:
14770:
14395:
14390:
12505:
12305:
Kennedy, Edward S. (1947), "Al-Kashi's Plate of Conjunctions",
11334:
King, David A., "Astronomy and Islamic society", pp. 163–8
10601:
Islam's Contribution to Human Civilization: Science and Culture
9696:
9569:. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005. ISBN 0-618-42770-8
9052:
8594:. The Education and Training in Optics and Photonics Conference
8404:
8133:
7225:
7217:
7205:
7177:
7165:
7124:
Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy
7098:
The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens
6063:
6045:
5992:-speaking Europe, where they influenced the development of the
5931:
5899:
5716:
5626:
5622:
5529:
5476:-wheels and is the oldest surviving complete mechanical geared
5416:
5272:
4947:
4851:
4741:
4447:
4402:
4229:
4104:
Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy
3784:, were slowly being reconquered by Christians. This led to the
3635:
3345:
3337:
3256:
3043:
The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens
3034:
2996:
2970:
2934:
2831:
2779:
2775:
2752:
2673:
2652:
is credited to have introduced the early astronomical works of
2594:
2590:
2575:
2382:
2233:
2177:"The attraction of all things towards the centre of the earth."
2146:
2127:
1928:
1924:
1871:
1829:
1769:. He was the first to hypothesize that the heavenly bodies and
1699:"An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite."
1450:
1412:
1408:
1356:
1243:
1224:
1166:
1120:
1051:
1046:
in 777. Sources indicate that the text was translated after an
995:
951:
912:
Vigorous investigation, and acceptance and modification to the
823:
749:
725:
518:
505:
based on these principles, particularly empirical observation.
494:
466:
445:
352:
300:
12120:
Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005),
5930:'s reign; another was produced in 1070 AH (1659-60 CE) by the
5156:
4846:
4623:
indicate the use of sophisticated instruments for their time.
3251:" in this verse refers to "multiple worlds within this single
3091:, but rather to produce a model that was more consistent with
1005:
14972:
14902:
14885:
14460:
14325:
14249:
12959:(1), Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 46, No. 1: 13–31,
11930:
11395:
Jones, Lawrence (December 2005), "The Sundial And Geometry",
8587:
Hamid-Eddine Bouali, Mourad Zghal, Zohra Ben Lakhdar (2005).
8137:
7788:
7773:
7715:
7700:
7513:
7245:
7201:
7193:
7173:
6840:
6781:
6569:
6475:
6467:
6463:
6453:
6272:
6251:
6199:
6007:
5989:
5988:
interference." These observation tubes were later adopted in
5985:
5915:
5867:
5773:
5658:
5610:
5549:
5191:. The astrolabe was a predecessor of the modern planisphere.
4987:
4983:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4908:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4812:
4462:. The treatise incorporated the heliocentric system into the
4430:
he wrote a Persian treatise on astronomy. He wrote about the
4364:
4342:
4071:
3725:
3604:
3500:
3466:
3248:
3165:
2941:
showed that linear motion could also be produced by applying
2731:"I have heard that Abu Bakr discovered a system in which no
2648:
introduced various works and used various instruments. Later
2548:
2526:
2434:
2410:
2276:
2101:
1902:
1867:
1778:
1657:
1533:
1517:
1360:
866:
811:
807:
721:
717:
664:
590:
490:
376:
327:
249:
12245:
The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West
9391:
The rise of early modern science: Islam, China, and the West
5347:
4595:, Iran where he is known to have constructed the first huge
3469:
in order to work on calendar making and astronomy since the
3198:. Another possible source for Copernicus's knowledge is the
2976:
14897:
14880:
14800:
14795:
13287:
12122:
Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia
9049:
History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations
8401:
History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations
7806:
7730:
7257:
7253:
7241:
7237:
7221:
7189:
7153:
6875:
6370:, a framed sextant with cords for the determination of the
6074:, as well as the creation of other instruments such as the
6011:
5761:
5634:
5618:
5593:
5589:
5525:
5473:
5462:
5440:
5436:
5432:
5311:
5307:
5264:
5022:
5018:
4979:
4863:
4855:
4667:
4584:
4548:
4528:
2741:
2123:
1931:
1821:
1725:
1537:
1442:
1216:
1081:
954:
870:
858:
741:
710:
602:
Adud al-Din al-Iji (1281–1355), under the influence of the
474:
399:
395:
288:
9957:
M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 440-3
9772:, p. 105. Mineola: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41445-0.
9553:, (New York: Springer-Verlag), p. 194, ISBN 0-387-94107-X.
5906:, is considered to be one of the most remarkable feats in
5894:
invented by Muslim metallurgists and instrument-makers in
4434:
model, and argued that there exists an infinite number of
4280:
that were more accurate than those of his contemporaries,
4000:
3366:
1702:".•. An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist."
1485:
with a diameter of nearly 1.4 meters. His observations on
60:
to this revision, which may differ significantly from the
14118:
12194:
11911:
8293:
8143:
6764:. The earliest known almanac in this modern sense is the
6756:
6528:
5938:
with Arabic and Persian inscriptions during the reign of
5596:. His largest astronomical clock was the "castle clock".
5585:
5521:
5268:
5097:
4651:
4642:
who established the first large observatory, probably in
4571:
of astronomers such as Ibn al-Alam. The great astronomer
4544:
4488:
4355:
4269:
3953:
3686:
3492:
3096:
3056:
2845:. The most important of the Maragha astronomers included
2723:, wrote the following on the planetary model proposed by
2547:
of the planets, and first states that the motions of the
2181:
Al-Biruni also discovered that gravity exists within the
1833:
1396:
1289:
1024:
419:
348:
292:
9982:(1964), "Gregory Chioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy",
4962:), and over a thousand other uses. In the 10th century,
4531:
under his patronage. In many private observatories from
4288:. Taqi al-Din was also the first astronomer to employ a
3739:
3642:
show traces of Islamic influence. While formulating the
3103:. His model was thus in better agreement with empirical
3007:
on its axis by al-Tusi and al-Qushji, the separation of
1300:, the first major original Muslim work of astronomy was
13243:
The Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences (AUASS)
13242:
12478:
King, David A. (1983), "The Astronomy of the Mamluks",
11955:
Baker, A.; Chapter, L. (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences",
11111:
11109:
10245:
Arabic planetary theories after the eleventh century AD
10005:
An Eleventh-Century Manual of Arabo-Byzantine Astronomy
8858:[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
8130:
23rd Annual Conference on the History of Arabic Science
6784:
translation and adaptation of the work appeared as the
5649:
Muslim astronomers and engineers invented a variety of
4256:
Another notable 16th century Muslim astronomer was the
3981:
in the Islamic tradition continued in the three Muslim
2152:
2134:
is the smallest planet known to them, and thus argued:
13111:
Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?
10462:
10433:
10404:
10267:
Sevim Tekeli, "Taqi al-Din", in Helaine Selin (1997),
9500:
6322:
measurements, which he described his in his treatise,
5029:
in 996. These can be considered as an ancestor of the
3443:, and matches the currently accepted value precisely.
2834:
problem and produce alternative configurations to the
1970:) of the universe, that would be consistent with both
1916:
into astronomy and was the first to conduct elaborate
1316:
conducted various observations at the Al-Shammisiyyah
982:
to the world of ancient learning. Much of the ancient
470:, the unity of God", as well its "greater respect for
406:
was a clumsy one devised late in the first century by
12753:
Marshall, O. S. (1950), "Alhazen and the Telescope",
12471:
Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World
9948:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. xi.
9933:
Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages
9159:, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971), pp. 6-14.
7979:
6993:
The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets
6102:, were invented by Muslim astronomers and engineers.
6052:
used in an instrument was found in a book called the
4942:
and perfected it to be used to find the beginning of
3666:
in the underlying parameters, and the application of
2010:
in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from
1946:
on September 17, 1019, in detail, and gave the exact
1920:
related to astronomical phenomena. He discovered the
1820:. He disproved the universally held opinion that the
943:
From the beginning, Muslim community in Medina sight
577:(1149–1209) to reject the Aristotelian notion of the
433:
12082:
Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?
11988:
Covington, Richard, "Rediscovering Arabic science",
11106:
10081:
10079:
7812:
http://www.almizan.org/Tafseer/Volume2/Baqarah32.asp
7483:. Islamic Crescents' Observation Project. 2007-05-01
4768:, compiled the results of their observations in the
3799:
One of the most productive translators in Spain was
3446:
1467:. This "cloud" was apparently commonly known to the
12853:Ragep, F. Jamil; Teresi, Dick; Hart, Roger (2002),
12670:, Harvard Dissertations in the History of Science,
12645:
11620:
10494:"The Astronomical Manuscripts of Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī"
10139:
10085:
6318:sextant that achieved a high level of accuracy for
4163:) of the horizon; this is witnessed by experience (
4062:. Before al-Qushji, the only astronomer to present
12706:Marmura, Michael E.; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1965),
12668:Ibn al-Haytham's On the Configuration of the World
12403:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
12119:
11786:
11773:
11329:
11327:
11325:
11172:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
10133:
9047:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975).
8537:
8399:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975).
6852:Treatise on Astronomical Observational Instruments
6559:Az-Zij al-Mahlul min as-Sindhind li-Darajat Daraja
6026:of the light-spot formed by the projection of the
5448:Mechanical astrolabe with geared calendar computer
4394:Mughal India is the seamless celestial globe (see
4245:
4216:. Saliba wrote the following on al-Khafri's work:
3491:(ca. 910 - 1005) was an important Chinese Muslim (
2861:(1236–1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (c. 1347),
2366:, as he developed a systematic study of celestial
1845:of the light-spot formed by the projection of the
759:
12771:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines
11980:Sharif, M. M., "A History of Muslim Philosophy",
11651:
11496:, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
10820:
10818:
10816:
10620:
10552:
10550:
10076:
8651:
8424:The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science
7558:Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity
3817:On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions
2925:. The Maragha astronomers also realized that the
2875:
2415:
2381:. His reformed model was the first to reject the
2374:. This in turn led to innovative developments in
1119:was a landmark work in its field, assembling, as
1086:
701:, defined as the time when the moon has the same
15141:
12949:"The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres"
12532:King, David A. (1999a), "Islamic Astronomy", in
10536:
10534:
10532:
10530:
7134:The complement to the explanation of the memento
6408:in the 13th century. His compendium featured an
5544:of the Sun. The instrument also incorporated an
5427:. Another innovative feature of the clock was a
5066:invented and wrote the earliest treatise on the
3587:in Persia. One of these Chinese astronomers was
3033:as an alternative to the physically problematic
2995:, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and
2873:(d. 1525) and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550).
2570:, proposed a non-Ptolemaic configuration in his
2441:are not identical, discussed the possibility of
1264:
802:, and this problem demands a more sophisticated
216:(8th-15th centuries), and mostly written in the
13015:(1980), "Al-Biruni", in Strayer, Joseph (ed.),
12852:
11322:
11044:
10033:
10031:
9946:Adelard of Bath, Conversations with His Nephew,
9600:
9405:Encyclopaedia of Islamic science and scientists
8727:
8218:"Observatoire de Paris (Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi)"
7363:
7264:, but many came later, some as translations of
6509:, for angular observations. It was invented by
6233:Astrolabic/Almucantar quadrant (Quadrans Vetus)
3922:also translated Arabic texts on astronomy into
3473:period the first major introduction of Islamic
3344:. He argued that God has the power to fill the
2917:language, and should not remain a mathematical
2433:of planets, discovered that the motions of the
2311:'s astronomical system, which he criticized on
2038:Some Muslim astronomers, however, most notably
2030:, concentrically envelops the other, where the
1962:) from philosophical cosmology (as typified by
1724:in his thesis of the first antimony concerning
842:through the zenith and the pole) and the sun's
11681:Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia
11005:"On the Origin of Polyalphabetic Substitution"
10813:
10712:Victor J. Katz & Annette Imhausen (2007),
10547:
10294:The British Journal for the History of Science
10171:
9481:
9187:
9185:
9183:
9181:
7752:
6953:Elements of astronomy on the celestial motions
6816:) which has seven parts describing different
5398:Castle clock with programmable analog computer
5340:. The volvelle can be traced back to "certain
5310:-wheels. This was an early example of a fixed-
4708:. The facility contained resting quarters for
4673:
3689:, a task that was carried out by the scholars
2953:to one based on an empirical and mathematical
2893:, which later played an important role in the
1785:(Albatenius) (853-929) introduced the idea of
716:Muslims are also expected to pray towards the
464:" which was "rooted in the Islamic concept of
220:. These developments mostly took place in the
14671:
13273:
12902:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
12898:
12351:"An Islamic Computer for Planetary Latitudes"
11571:
11569:
11567:
11553:
11551:
11549:
11507:
11358:
10959:VOLVELLES! Early Paper Astronomical Computers
10581:
10527:
10250:
10116:
10114:
9630:Willy vande Walle & Noël Golvers (2003),
9073:harv error: no target: CITEREFCovington2007 (
8781:
8779:
8628:
8025:
8023:
5183:invented and wrote the first treatise on the
5141:The Zuraqi is a unique astrolabe invented by
4894:
4314:
3572:and an institution for astronomical studies.
3275:). Therefore He the Most High has the power (
3235:and astronomy. He criticizes the idea of the
3176:in 1543 to explain the Earth's rotation (see
2679:In the 12th century, under the influence of
2239:
1551:
1261:, but endowed the work with formal prestige.
1177:. Ptolemy also produced other works, such as
489:who expressed a general distrust towards the
13030:
12769:(1st edition in 1964, 2nd edition in 1993),
12755:Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets
12697:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
12666:Langermann, Y. Tzvi, ed. and trans. (1990),
11954:
11491:
11470:Emilie Savage-Smith (1993). "Book Reviews",
10664:
10028:
9736:
9734:
9658:
9656:
9654:
9561:
9559:
9545:
9543:
9484:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
9063:
9061:
9015:
8611:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
8382:E. S. Kennedy, "Al-Bīrūnī's Masudic Canon",
8267:harv error: no target: CITEREFZaimeche2002 (
8152:harv error: no target: CITEREFZaimeche2002 (
7876:
7874:
7872:
7870:
7802:
7800:
7339:, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., pp. 8–10,
7317:
7315:
7313:
6517:
5953:which was considered an unsurpassed feat in
4650:with many other collaborators constructed a
4252:Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire
4184:A manuscript written during the Abbasid Era.
2279:as Alhazen), began what has been called the
1536:and about one-quarter the brightness of the
1149:and it has since been known to the world as
244:. It closely parallels the genesis of other
12712:by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]"
12705:
12295:
12164:(1985), "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar",
11241:
11239:
10873:[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
10627:"Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi"
10593:
9451:
9275:
9178:
9033:harv error: no target: CITEREFMarmura1965 (
8816:
8695:"Arabic Models for outer Planets and Venus"
8284:Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith
8257:
8255:
8253:
7904:This book is not related to al-Khwarizmi's
7311:
7309:
7307:
7305:
7303:
7301:
7299:
7297:
7295:
7293:
7268:descriptions and others of unknown origin.
6832:, the astrolabe, and instruments involving
6799:
4879:purposes, such as the determination of the
3650:may have also been partially influenced by
2636:In the 11th-12th centuries, astronomers in
2574:. In his work, he indicated the so-called "
2453:
2061:
1994:framework. As the historian of astronomy,
1453:and drawings for each constellation in his
1006:Ancient influences and translation movement
164:Learn how and when to remove these messages
14678:
14664:
13280:
13266:
12665:
11564:
11546:
11518:
11516:
10999:
10792:John Brian Harley, David Woodward (1992),
10764:John Brian Harley, David Woodward (1992),
10491:
10313:
10311:
10263:
10261:
10259:
10111:
9818:
9816:
9157:Al-Biţrūjī: On the Principles of Astronomy
9119:harv error: no target: CITEREFSaliba1981 (
8895:
8785:
8776:
8752:
8533:
8531:
8057:
8029:
8020:
7366:"The Zij as-Sanjari of Gregory Chioniades"
7359:
7357:
7355:
6445:and markings that are identical to modern
6173:Universal horary quadrant (Quadrans Novus)
5332:, also called a wheel chart, is a type of
4603:also established a similar observatory in
3575:Several Chinese astronomers worked at the
3351:
3152:observatories, was the possibility of the
2343:, which became an influential work in the
2333:Treatise on the configuration of the World
533:in general. An example of this is when an
410:. It involved setting up two intersecting
12399:"A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables"
12094:
10344:
10342:
9903:A History of Mathematics: An Introduction
9860:
9822:
9781:
9740:
9731:
9662:
9651:
9625:
9623:
9621:
9577:
9575:
9556:
9540:
9068:
9058:
8658:"Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni"
8624:
8622:
8538:Josep Puig Montada (September 28, 2007).
8485:
8483:
7867:
7797:
7659:
7633:
7631:
7629:
7627:
7625:
7623:
7621:
7429:
7322:
6943:Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī
4827:built several large observatories called
3861:'s astronomical and trigonometrical work
3813:Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī
3541:It is possible that Ma was influenced by
3243:in the context of his commentary" on the
2822:and continuing with astronomers from the
2100:) and religious (conflicts with orthodox
1812:and the earliest attempt at applying the
1732:Physical cosmology, kinematic astronomy,
1475:was also given by Abd Al-Rahman al-Sufi.
1441:(Azophi) carried out observations on the
180:Learn how and when to remove this message
13045:Journal of the American Oriental Society
12752:
12724:(4), Speculum, Vol. 40, No. 4: 744–746,
12356:Journal of the American Oriental Society
11440:
11438:
11436:
11236:
11217:Museum of the History of Science, Oxford
11192:Museum of the History of Science, Oxford
9973:
9922:, 14 (2001): at 249-288, at pp. 275-281.
9897:
9895:
9535:Six Millennium Catalog of Venus Transits
9529:
9385:
9383:
9353:
9351:
9236:"Seeking the Origins of Modern Science?"
9051:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd,
9010:
9008:
8792:Journal of the American Oriental Society
8759:Journal of the American Oriental Society
8490:Toomer, G. J. (December 1964), "Review:
8417:
8415:
8413:
8403:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd,
8262:
8250:
8170:The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Volume 1
8147:
7681:
7655:
7653:
7651:
7649:
7647:
7607:
7605:
7603:
7601:
7599:
7597:
7409:
7407:
7405:
7403:
7401:
7399:
7290:
6588:Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī
6204:
6104:
5813:
5783:
5772:for the purpose of finding the times of
5346:
5155:
5072:
5046:Whipple Museum of the History of Science
5035:
4845:
4776:
4724:
4625:
4228:
4179:
4086:. By the 15th century, the influence of
4058:due to similar arguments concerning the
4010:
3853:). The astronomical works translated by
3760:Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe
3743:
3712:had officially abandoned the science of
3615:, which was later known in China as the
3365:
3279:) to create a thousand thousand worlds (
3209:
3121:, Copernicus also cites the theories of
3055:
2975:
2608:
2585:
2409:hypotheses that cannot be observed from
2283:tradition of Islamic astronomy with his
2243:
1978:principles. Within the context of this
1783:Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī
1737:
1628:had an infinite past with no beginning,
1407:
1367:Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī
1268:
846:(the arc through the sun and the pole).
769:
694:and they thus had to develop a new one.
639:
47:
13289:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
13237:"How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs"
13206:
13079:
13063:
12899:Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996),
12468:
12442:
12420:
12396:
12374:
12348:
12326:
12304:
12061:
11994:(May-June 2007 ed.), pp. 2–16
11882:List of Iranian scientists and scholars
11812:
11663:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
11513:
11291:
11272:
11259:
11246:
11230:
10632:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
10541:
10398:
10308:
10256:
9999:King, David A. (March 1991), "Reviews:
9813:
9762:
9329:
9263:
9218:
9192:
9028:
8740:
8692:
8663:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
8562:
8528:
8448:
8112:
7991:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
7913:
7583:
7352:
7284:
6478:. These instruments were engraved with
6159:The first horary quadrant for specific
5657:, and for determining the times of the
5540:of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the
4001:Astronomical physics and Earth's motion
3178:Astronomical physics and Earth's motion
3141:were also known in Europe at the time.
3064:depicting an epicyclic planetary model.
2933:in the universe being only circular or
2034:of earth, water, air, and fire reside."
1950:of the stars during the lunar eclipse.
1905:and did not belong to the atmosphere."
1874:and had a significant influence on the
1562:Due to the scientific dominance of the
1170:
659:showing various historical figures and
629:Astronomical physics and Earth's motion
70:Revision as of 21:57, 9 August 2010 by
69:
14:
15142:
14086:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
13432:Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi
13193:
13188:Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber
13173:
13150:
13127:
13104:
13011:
12986:
12922:
12886:Italic or bold markup not allowed in:
12839:
12822:
11998:
11297:
10955:
10339:
10317:
10227:
10214:
10038:
10003:by Gregory Chioniades, David Pingree;
9618:
9572:
9342:
9230:
9205:
9114:
8986:
8973:
8960:
8947:
8934:
8921:
8619:
8489:
8480:
8388:Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences,
8230:
8167:
8099:
8086:
8014:
7962:. The Internet Encyclopedia of Science
7881:
7638:
7618:
7612:
7334:
7152:Many of the modern names for numerous
5960:
5764:device incorporating both a universal
5555:
4907:world, often as an aid to finding the
4518:
3960:, which later appeared in the work of
3764:Latin translations of the 12th century
3706:Muslim System of Calendrical Astronomy
3348:with an infinite number of universes.
3307:). The arguments of the philosophers (
3037:introduced by Ptolemy. Tusi's student
2251:(Alhacen) was a pioneer of the Muslim
1603:
869:is claimed to have provoked increased
322:
274:Latin translations of the 12th century
14659:
14107:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries
14045:
13299:
13261:
13185:
12970:
12946:
12557:
12531:
12282:
12264:
12014:
11987:
11936:
11924:
11798:Robert E. Hall (1973). "al-Khāzinī",
11710:
11697:
11591:
11433:
11394:
11316:
11285:
11084:
10933:
10831:
10376:
10348:
10291:
10194:
10140:Emilie Savage-Smith (November 2008),
10120:
10086:Emilie Savage-Smith (November 2008),
10063:
9892:
9863:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
9825:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
9784:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
9581:
9419:"Copernicus and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi"
9380:
9348:
9101:
9005:
8908:
8842:
8829:
8714:
8680:
8522:
8421:
8410:
8331:
8281:
8210:
7986:"Abu Said Sinan ibn Thabit ibn Qurra"
7753:Khalid Shaukat (September 23, 1997).
7644:
7594:
7554:
7528:
7501:
7396:
5584:which displayed moving models of the
5560:The Muslims constructed a variety of
5225:of the Sun, the time of day at which
5217:devices were invented to compute the
5033:developed by later Muslim engineers.
4425:Following the arrival of the British
4070:(d. 1274), who used the phenomena of
3740:Islamic astronomy in Christian Europe
3340:in greater detail in volume 5 of the
3156:. Supporters of this theory included
2885:resolved significant problems in the
1429:. The constellation pictured here is
1401:, in which he completely revised the
448:to find ways of using the stars. The
394:'s way to calculate the place of the
359:, whose timing was determined by the
44:
25:
14056:
13209:Introduction to Islamic Civilization
13069:Journal for the History of Astronomy
12765:
12623:
12614:
12592:
12582:Journal for the History of Astronomy
12579:
12511:
12499:
12477:
12443:Kennedy, Edward S. (1962), "Review:
12242:
12217:
12183:
12160:
12078:
11877:List of Arab scientists and scholars
11760:
11723:
11632:
11575:
11558:
11458:
11445:
11427:
11414:
11158:
10927:
10838:
10825:
10149:Journal for the History of Astronomy
10095:Journal for the History of Astronomy
9998:
9459:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
9423:Journal for the History of Astronomy
9358:
9316:
9088:
8999:
8474:
8461:
8322:6.3 (1998): 288–330, at pp. 317–18:
8161:
7926:
7688:
7141:
6381:
5822:was invented by Islamic astronomers.
5373:(Geber) (c. 1100-1150) invented the
5342:Arabic treateses on humoral medicine
4935:. The Arabs then took it during the
3881:1116-1142), who also translated the
2581:
2362:. His reform was not concerned with
2153:Astrophysics and celestial mechanics
2026:made up of a special element called
1761:, made significant contributions to
1337:A compendium of the science of stars
1284:and a Persian Astronomer, wrote the
1022:. The most notable of the texts was
736:the proper times for the prayers at
585:and instead propose the notion of a
129:
17:
14685:
13176:A Short History of Scientific Ideas
10695:Transactions of the Optical Society
10667:Transactions of the Optical Society
10556:
10276:
9690:
9454:"al-Razi, Fakhr al-Din (1149-1209)"
8544:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
8351:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
8172:, Willmann-Bell, Inc., p. 18,
7414:
6916:Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir
6360:Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din
6010:is emitted from every point of the
5431:which traveled across the top of a
5284:Mechanical geared calendar computer
5221:of the Sun, Moon, and planets, the
5208:
4782:Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din
4688:Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din
4591:also constructed an observatory in
4266:Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din
4175:
4098:who opposed to the interference of
3570:Beijing to construct an observatory
3518:Kitab al-Zij, 880, by Abu'Abdallah
3465:Muslim astronomers were brought to
3427:, Beg determined the length of the
3118:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
2425:was the first to conduct elaborate
1759:Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir
1509:relatively accurately computed the
1489:were still used centuries later in
402:. The method Ptolemy used to solve
127:
96:
14551:
13195:Tabatabaei, Seyyed Muhammad Husayn
13157:Lecture at SOAS, London - Part 3/7
12779:State University of New York Press
12141:
11979:
11927:La science chez les Turcs ottomans
11800:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
11101:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1976.tb00214.x
10914:
10383:State University of New York Press
10355:State University of New York Press
10239:
8326:concentrically envelops the other.
8074:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1985.tb00831.x
8046:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1985.tb00831.x
6001:Experimental device with apertures
5946:in order to produce these globes.
5675:, which they inherited from their
5279:'s mean and anomalistic position.
4811:built a personal observatory near
4503:, and building where astronomical
4363:built a personal observatory near
3595:. In 1267, the Persian astronomer
3133:as influences, while the works of
2628:and instead argued for a strictly
1841:in an experiment showing that the
1696:"An actual infinite cannot exist."
1503:Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn
561:, who opposed the interference of
434:Islamic attitude towards astronomy
128:
15171:
13230:
12609:10.1111/j.1600-0498.2003.450117.x
12283:Iqbal, Muzaffar (2003), "Review:
11621:King, Cleempoel & Moreno 2002
10745:University of Southern California
10320:Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy
10142:"Islamic Influence on Copernicus"
10088:"Islamic Influence on Copernicus"
9916:A Source Book in Medieval Science
9133:
7807:Syed Mohammad Hussain Tabatabai,
7364:Joseph Leichter (June 27, 2009).
7337:Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy
7130:Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1525)
6976:On the Configuration of the World
6828:, a "triangular instrument", the
6117:. This illustration was drawn by
5569:Water-powered astronomical clocks
3926:during this time. In particular,
3786:Arabic-Latin translation movement
3640:Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory
3447:Islamic astronomy in the Far East
3223:(1149–1209), in dealing with his
2801:
2786:(1029–1087) wrote further on the
1862:(1021), also maintained that the
1640:). This view was inspired by the
1187:, and some suggest he also wrote
1018:texts were first translated into
732:. Muslims need to determine from
303:, and astronomical terms such as
145:This article has multiple issues.
56:. The present address (URL) is a
14854:Reception in early modern Europe
14849:Contributions to Medieval Europe
14181:
13313:
12197:
11937:Ajram, K. (1992), "Appendix B",
11818:
11805:
11792:
11787:Glick, Livesey & Wallis 2005
11779:
11774:Glick, Livesey & Wallis 2005
11766:
11753:
11729:
11716:
11703:
11690:
11673:
11645:
11626:
11613:
11597:
11584:
11578:Islamic Astronomical Instruments
11534:
11525:
11500:
11485:
11464:
11451:
11420:
11407:
11388:
11364:
11333:
11309:
11278:
11265:
11252:
11223:
11205:
11180:
11164:
11151:
11078:
11038:
10993:
10949:
10920:
10907:
10863:
10844:
10785:
10757:
10733:
10705:
10658:
10642:
10614:
10587:
10485:
10456:
10427:
10370:
10285:
10233:
10220:
10207:
10188:
10165:
10057:
10044:
9992:
9960:
9951:
9938:
9925:
9908:
9854:
9775:
9684:
9594:
9523:
9494:
9475:
9445:
9428:
9411:
9397:
9364:
9335:
9322:
8567:, Penerbit UTM, pp. 49–50,
7079:Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī
7037:Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy
6522:
5564:for use in their observatories.
5468:movement based on the design of
5025:-wheels was also constructed by
4500:
4469:
4401:Jai Singh also invited European
3790:knowledge from the Islamic world
3788:, which saw the assimilation of
3601:Persian astronomical instruments
3600:
3193:Commentary on the First Book of
2987:, showing the multiplication of
2983:'s model for the appearances of
2877:
2855:Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī
2790:. His works were carried out by
2763:, citing his observation of the
2670:Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy
2417:
2307:, he was the first to criticize
2142:Al-Jawziyya also recognized the
1938:, he observed and described the
1908:Also in the early 11th century,
1322:The Book of Bodies and Distances
1088:
1010:During this period, a number of
635:
525:also show that he was generally
252:characteristics. These included
134:
13811:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi
13300:
12953:Journal of the History of Ideas
12856:Ancient Roots of Modern Science
12773:(2nd ed.), 1st edition by
12424:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
12223:Islamic Science And Engineering
10741:"Islam, Knowledge, and Science"
10463:S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002),
10434:S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002),
10405:S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002),
9747:Springer Science+Business Media
9669:Springer Science+Business Media
9501:S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002),
9488:Springer Science+Business Media
9372:International Education Journal
9309:
9269:
9256:
9224:
9211:
9198:
9162:
9149:
9127:
9107:
9094:
9081:
9041:
9021:
8992:
8979:
8966:
8953:
8940:
8927:
8914:
8901:
8888:
8848:
8835:
8822:
8809:
8746:
8733:
8720:
8707:
8686:
8673:
8645:
8631:"Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni"
8580:
8556:
8515:
8467:
8454:
8441:
8393:
8376:
8356:
8340:
8312:
8275:
8122:
8105:
8092:
8079:
8051:
8007:
7973:
7952:
7932:
7919:
7898:
7887:
7855:
7782:
7767:
7746:
7724:
7709:
7694:
7577:
7548:
7522:
7507:
7494:
7436:Springer Science+Business Media
6894:observatory, a double quadrant
6265:Universal quadrant (Shakkāzīya)
5498:will occur, and for performing
5229:will occur, and for performing
4790:Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf
4246:Ottoman observational astronomy
3770:Islamic-ruled regions of Europe
3685:translation and compilation of
3583:in 1259 under the patronage of
3045:, discussed the possibility of
2418:File:Al-Biruni Afghan stamp.jpg
1927:to be a collection of numerous
1753:In the 9th century, the eldest
1445:and described their positions,
760:Necessity of spherical geometry
153:or discuss these issues on the
14300:Schema for horizontal sundials
13816:Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi
13341:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
12925:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
12538:Astronomy before the telescope
12502:Islamic mathematical astronomy
12095:Gingerich, Owen (April 1986),
11941:, Knowledge House Publishers,
11857:Inventions in the Muslim world
11397:North American Sundial Society
11045:Bryan S. Turner (March 1987),
10318:Sharma, Virendra Nath (1995),
8492:Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik
8364:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
8168:Kepple, George Robert (1998),
7755:"The Science of Moon Sighting"
7473:
7469:The Timbuktu Astronomy Project
7462:
7451:
7423:
7335:Sharma, Virendra Nath (1995),
7328:
7277:
6926:Book on the motion of the orbs
6909:
6566:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
6511:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
6165:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
6138:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
6115:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
6094:, including several different
6018:(Alhazen) built an "ingenious
5926:in 998 AH (1589-90 CE) during
5807:had similar applications to a
5601:Mechanical observational clock
4903:were developed in much of the
4842:Inventions in the Muslim world
4835:
4353:and produced nearly a hundred
4349:continued to make advances in
3227:and the physical world in his
2002:"All Islamic astronomers from
1137:. The Islamic world called it
13:
1:
13253:History of Islamic Astrolabes
13017:Dictionary of the Middle Ages
11917:
11492:Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985),
9743:History of Oriental Astronomy
9665:History of Oriental Astronomy
9332:, pp. 254 & 256-257)
9221:, pp. 245, 250, 256–257)
9195:, pp. 233–234 & 240)
8728:Ragep, Teresi & Hart 2002
8238:"Observatoire de Paris (LMC)"
7432:History of Oriental Astronomy
7388:: CS1 maint: date and year (
7287:, pp. 245, 250, 256–257)
7067:Al-Tadhkirah fi'ilm al-hay'ah
5149:planetary model in which the
5091:Universal astrolabe (Saphaea)
4579:, who systematically revised
4066:for the Earth's rotation was
3930:, who had visited the famous
3611:, as well as an astronomical
3017:heliocentric Copernical model
2748:Ibn Bajjah also proposed the
2490:and others consider that the
2193:views of them not having any
1734:and astronomical observations
1684:(Saadia ben Joseph); and the
1574:wrote a scathing critique of
1265:Early observational astronomy
1227:astronomers and astrologers.
338:
15090:Arab Agricultural Revolution
14558:Constantinople (Taqi al-Din)
12066:monthly magazine created by
11051:British Journal of Sociology
10878:Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.
10604:, CIC's annual Ottawa dinner
10492:Ute Ballay (November 1990),
8786:Livingston, John W. (1971),
8753:Livingston, John W. (1971),
7894:What is the Hijrah Calendar?
7862:The history of the telescope
7543:10.1016/0083-6656(95)00033-X
6959:Kitab fi Jawami Ilm al-Nujum
6890:, the Fakhri sextant at the
6790:in the 12th century and the
6772:(Latinized as Azarqueil) in
6770:Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī
6314:in 994. It was a very large
6085:
5730:This was a universal horary
5379:spherical coordinate systems
5253:Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī
5129:Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī
3967:
3646:in 1281, Shoujing's work in
2921:, which would only save the
2771:(1106/1107 AD) as evidence.
1953:
1885:Ibn al-Haytham also refuted
1145:(greatest) with the article
1131:The Mathematical Composition
351:observed holy days, such as
7:
14547:University of al-Qarawiyyin
13751:Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi
13248:King Abdul Aziz Observatory
12469:Kennedy, Edward S. (1998),
12397:Kennedy, Edward S. (1956),
12349:Kennedy, Edward S. (1951),
12024:University of Chicago Press
12001:The Oxford History of Islam
11835:
11019:University of Chicago Press
9693:The "Mongol Atlas" of China
9403:N.K. Singh,M. Zaki Kirmani,
9301:: CS1 maint: date format (
9276:Dallal, Ahmad (2001–2002),
9155:Bernard R. Goldstein, ed.,
8565:Great Muslim Mathematicians
6738:
6290:
5179:In the early 11th century,
5008:Mechanical geared astrolabe
4815:in the 16th century, while
4674:Late medieval observatories
4395:
3693:, a Muslim astronomer, and
3687:Islamic astronomical tables
2767:of Jupiter and Mars in 500
1796:In the early 11th century,
1230:
1111:(c. 150) of the astronomer
994:texts were translated into
806:. Finding the direction of
315:, are still referred to by
24:of this page, as edited by
10:
15176:
14046:
13791:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi
13213:Cambridge University Press
13145:10.1162/106361400753373713
12933:Cambridge University Press
12833:Cambridge University Press
12814:CS1 maint: date and year (
12249:Cambridge University Press
12227:Edinburgh University Press
12053:CS1 maint: date and year (
11939:Miracle of Islamic Science
11887:List of Muslim astronomers
11842:Arab and Persian astrology
11472:Journal of Islamic Studies
11213:"History of the Astrolabe"
10794:The history of cartography
10766:The history of cartography
10718:Princeton University Press
10679:10.1088/1475-4878/24/5/302
10302:Cambridge University Press
10273:Kluwer Academic Publishers
10052:Cambridge University Press
9701:Fu Jen Catholic University
9143:Cambridge University Press
8963:, pp. 20 & 32-33)
8743:, pp. 60 & 67-69)
8525:, pp. 19–20 & 21)
8390:Beirut, 1983, pp. 573–595.
8371:Cambridge University Press
7145:
6526:
6227:, during the 15th century.
6022:device" showing "that the
5837:was first produced in the
5106:Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi
4895:Astrolabes and planisphere
4839:
4677:
4557:Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi
4318:
4315:Islamic astronomy in India
4249:
4004:
3757:
3603:, including a terrestrial
3450:
3355:
3213:
2811:
2805:
2240:Beginning of hay'a program
2208:Also in the 12th century,
2065:
1942:on April 8, 1019, and the
1613:
1607:
1566:in Islamic astronomy, the
1555:
1552:Rejection of Heliocentrism
1513:to be 23°32'19" (23.53°).
1314:Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi
973:
965:
950:In approximately 638 A.D,
938:
849:
763:
437:
212:, particularly during the
15082:
15042:Geography and cartography
15010:
14948:
14862:
14814:
14756:
14748:Influences on Western art
14693:
14632:Medieval European science
14614:
14583:
14524:
14313:
14180:
14116:
14063:
14052:
14041:
14002:
13966:
13905:
13892:Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar
13844:
13743:
13672:
13649:Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli
13591:
13460:
13364:
13323:
13312:
13308:
13295:
13089:New York University Press
12941:10.1017/S0957423907000355
12660:10.1080/00033790110095813
12544:Press, pp. 143–174,
12526:10.1080/03085699708592859
12473:, Brookfield, VT: Ashgate
12269:, Pelanduk Publications,
12178:10.1080/00033798500200141
11902:Science in medieval Islam
11897:Physics in medieval Islam
11892:List of Muslim scientists
11872:List of Arabic star names
11508:Rashed & Morelon 1996
11359:Rashed & Morelon 1996
10856:The Story of Civilization
10582:Rashed & Morelon 1996
10251:Rashed & Morelon 1996
9879:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z
9841:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z
9800:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z
9567:The Earth and Its Peoples
8563:Mohamed, Mohaini (2000),
7164:names. Examples include:
7148:List of Arabic star names
7033:Al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus
7007:Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi
6981:Doubts concerning Ptolemy
6545:Az-Zij ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab
6518:List of notable treatises
6014:'s illuminated surface,"
5779:
4575:was patronised by prince
4562:In the 10th century, the
4483:(as opposed to a private
4046:(d. 1474), who worked at
3883:Introduction to Astrology
3837:Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam
2666:al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus
2523:Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi
2464:Indian planetary theories
2445:, and suggested that the
2259:'s model, and introduced
2126:are much larger than the
2122:. He recognized that the
1499:Obliquity of the Ecliptic
1385:years, the prediction of
1153:or, after popular use in
1141:prefixing the Greek work
782:book. It shows different
557:school, most prominently
481:, in contrast to ancient
457:today have Arabic names.
343:In the 7th century, both
208:developments made in the
13882:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri
13776:Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi
13417:Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi
13160:, Muslim Heritage &
12775:Harvard University Press
12558:King, David A. (1999b),
12265:Ilyas, Mohammad (1997),
11925:Adnan, Abdulhak (1939),
11741:National Maritime Museum
11668:University of St Andrews
11376:National Maritime Museum
11372:"History of the sundial"
11303:The Observatory in Islam
10637:University of St Andrews
9968:The Crest of the Peacock
9605:, Franz Steiner Verlag,
9016:Baker & Chapter 2002
8668:University of St Andrews
7996:University of St Andrews
7271:
6987:The Resolution of Doubts
6882:instrument of Urdi, the
6800:Treatises on instruments
6368:mushabbaha bi'l manattiq
6078:, also helped spark the
6006:In order to prove that "
5957:until the 19th century.
5882:Seamless celestial globe
5734:invented in 9th century
5715:was aware that "using a
5644:
5292:also invented the first
5070:astrolabe in the 1000s.
5058:Orthographical astrolabe
5040:An 18th century Persian
4925:Hellenistic civilization
4501:astronomical instruments
4309:Copernican heliocentrism
4132:(I.8) and one in Ṭūsī’s
3794:Western European science
3662:, the systematic use of
2719:Averroes' contemporary,
2703:to be inconsistent with
2693:epicycles and eccentrics
2454:Early alternative models
2360:The Model of the Motions
2205:of the heavenly bodies.
2189:, and he criticized the
2062:Refutations of astrology
2006:in the ninth century to
1806:On the Light of the Moon
1773:are subject to the same
1670:early Muslim philosopher
1616:Early Islamic philosophy
1588:The Model of the Motions
1389:, and the phenomenon of
589:consisting of countless
537:occurred during his son
287:A significant number of
13984:Baha' al-din al-'Amili
13958:'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i
13836:Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati
13756:Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili
13180:Oxford University Press
13133:Perspectives on Science
13021:Charles Scribner's Sons
12976:Perspectives on Science
12905:, vol. 1 & 3,
12744:URL–wikilink conflict (
12624:King, David A. (2005),
12500:King, David A. (1986),
12005:Oxford University Press
11576:King, David A. (1987),
11143:URL–wikilink conflict (
10899:URL–wikilink conflict (
10798:Oxford University Press
10770:Oxford University Press
10516:10.1163/157005890X00050
9768:Ho, Peng Yoke. (2000).
9636:Leuven University Press
9266:, pp. 42 & 80)
8937:, pp. 20 & 53)
8880:URL–wikilink conflict (
8855:"Nicolaus Copernicus",
8817:Iqbal & Berjak 2003
8320:Perspectives on Science
7160:are derived from their
7053:Treatise on Instruments
6936:The Force of Attraction
6814:Treatise on Instruments
6513:in 9th century Baghdad.
6362:between 1577 and 1580,
6048:research to describe a
5924:Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman
4794:observatory in Istanbul
4732:, founder of the large
4700:under the patronage of
4351:observational astronomy
4278:astronomical catalogues
4212:commentator on earlier
4202:uniform circular motion
4147:'s notion of "circular
4117:uniform circular motion
3979:observational astronomy
3796:, including astronomy.
3673:Around 1384 during the
3503:(r. 960-976) appointed
3352:Observational astronomy
3269:khala' la nihayata laha
3060:Medieval manuscript by
2878:File:Al-Tusi Nasir.jpeg
2460:Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
2271:Between 1025 and 1028,
1990:, remaining within the
1856:Ibn al-Haytham, in his
1743:Mustansiriya University
1620:In contrast to ancient
1298:observational astronomy
1084:by Muslim astronomers.
677:The first issue is the
648:manuscript illumination
14265:Navigational astrolabe
14020:Al Achsasi al Mouakket
13786:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
13705:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi
13654:Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani
13583:Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi
12947:Rosen, Edward (1985),
12803:Check date values in:
12204:Mechanical Engineering
12042:Check date values in:
11679:Josef W. Meri (2006),
11482:
10598:) (October 15, 2001),
10377:Baber, Zaheer (1996),
10349:Baber, Zaheer (1996),
8629:Dr. A. Zahoor (1997).
8494:by Matthias Schramm",
8337:Qadir (1989), p. 5–10.
8328:
7566:Al Akhawayn University
7092:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
6818:scientific instruments
6631:Zij al-Kabir al-Hakimi
6312:Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi
6261:
6228:
6122:
5936:Muhammad Salih Tahtawi
5823:
5793:
5496:planetary conjunctions
5360:
5227:planetary conjunctions
5169:
5086:
5053:
4913:earliest known example
4867:
4785:
4745:
4656:Persian solar calendar
4635:
4589:Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi
4242:
4227:
4185:
4173:
4153:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
4080:Aristotelian cosmology
4039:
3755:
3648:spherical trigonometry
3556:, The Chinese scholar
3371:
3328:, as advocated by the
3313:
3065:
3062:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
3000:
2959:Aristotelian cosmology
2898:
2796:Ibn al‐Haim al‐Ishbili
2746:
2717:
2699:. They considered the
2633:
2632:model of the universe.
2606:
2519:
2486:). Biruni stated that
2450:
2329:
2285:Al-Shuku ala Batlamyus
2268:
2179:
2169:described the Earth's
2140:
2108:Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya
2036:
1802:Maqala fi daw al-qamar
1750:
1624:who believed that the
1507:Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi
1473:Large Magellanic Cloud
1434:
1427:Large Magellanic Cloud
1293:
1098:
1093:A page from Ptolemy's
893:The science historian
787:
667:
612:Aristotelian principle
567:Aristotelian cosmology
547:
515:
408:Menelaus of Alexandria
15025:Alchemy and chemistry
14601:Hellenistic astronomy
14572:Samarkand (Ulugh Beg)
14366:Deferent and epicycle
13766:Alam al-Din al-Hanafi
13735:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
13377:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
13034:; Sezgin, F. (1981),
12865:National Public Radio
11478:
10596:Georgetown University
10326:Publ., pp. 8–9,
10007:by Alexander Jones",
9984:Dumbarton Oaks Papers
9944:Charles Burnett, ed.
9284:University of Chicago
9002:, p. 135, n. 13)
8635:Hasanuddin University
8436:10.1093/bjps/30.2.165
8323:
6804:In the 12th century,
6796:in the 13th century.
6605:Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi
6336:In the 15th century,
6257:
6250:. It was invented in
6208:
6108:
6080:Scientific Revolution
5951:Great Pyramid of Giza
5873:In the 12th century,
5817:
5787:
5756:In the 13th century,
5512:In the 15th century,
5490:In the 15th century,
5485:Plate of Conjunctions
5453:In 1235, Abi Bakr of
5435:and caused automatic
5407:invented his largest
5350:
5314:knowledge processing
5263:and positions of the
5203:Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī
5187:, which was an early
5159:
5153:rather than the sky.
5076:
5039:
4968:astrology, horoscopes
4849:
4825:Jai Singh II of Amber
4780:
4754:Ulugh Beg Observatory
4734:Ulugh Beg Observatory
4728:
4684:Ulugh Beg Observatory
4678:Further information:
4629:
4573:Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi
4412:Copernican Revolution
4377:Jai Singh II of Amber
4232:
4218:
4183:
4157:
4125:Copernican Revolution
4014:
3975:theoretical astronomy
3920:Byzantine astronomers
3747:
3407:Ulugh Beg Observatory
3369:
3358:Ulugh Beg Observatory
3356:Further information:
3315:Al-Razi rejected the
3265:
3225:conception of physics
3210:Multiversal cosmology
3059:
2979:
2937:was not true, as the
2903:Scientific Revolution
2881:
2828:Samarkand observatory
2806:Further information:
2729:
2713:
2612:
2589:
2515:
2421:
2325:
2247:
2175:
2136:
2112:Miftah Dar al-SaCadah
2000:
1741:
1662:Christian philosopher
1630:medieval philosophers
1439:Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi
1437:In the 10th century,
1411:
1377:, the lengths of the
1292:in Islamic astronomy.
1288:, the first original
1272:
1215:over the years under
1175:Copernican Revolution
1161:. though much of the
1092:
1050:visited the court of
895:Donald Routledge Hill
774:An illustration from
773:
643:
543:
511:
15155:History of astronomy
14591:Babylonian astronomy
14406:Gravitational energy
13781:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
13771:Najm al‐Din al‐Misri
13452:Yahya ibn Abi Mansur
13351:Mashallah ibn Athari
13336:Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht
13215:, pp. 111–118,
11982:Philosophia Islamica
11852:History of astronomy
11802:, Vol. VII, p. 338b.
11654:Robertson, Edmund F.
11059:Blackwell Publishing
10870:"Linear astrolabe",
10858:IV: The Age of Faith
10653:Golden Age of Persia
10623:Robertson, Edmund F.
10594:Prof. Bakar, Osman (
10584:, pp. 985–1007)
9452:John Cooper (1998),
8654:Robertson, Edmund F.
7982:Robertson, Edmund F.
7071:Memento in astronomy
7061:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
7019:Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani
7001:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
6766:Almanac of Azarqueil
6675:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
5725:Navicula de Venetiis
5695:(timekeeper) of the
5500:linear interpolation
5470:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
5415:". It displayed the
5231:linear interpolation
5181:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
5166:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
5085:dating back to 1067.
5064:Abu Rayhan al-Biruni
5027:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
4954:), the direction of
4698:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
4694:Maragheh observatory
4680:Maragheh observatory
4662:, the most accurate
4646:. It was here where
4632:Maragheh observatory
4420:Zij-i Muhammad Shahi
4121:astronomical physics
4088:Aristotelian physics
4068:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
4032:Aristotelian physics
4028:astronomical physics
3944:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
3932:Maragheh observatory
3809:Elementa astronomica
3768:During this period,
3724:was also studied in
3660:ecliptic coordinates
3581:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
3577:Maragheh observatory
3568:brought Iranians to
3481:occurred during the
3309:dala'il al-falasifah
3221:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
3158:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
3041:(1236–1311), in his
3027:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
2969:of astronomy and of
2951:Aristotelian physics
2883:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
2851:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
2820:Maragheh observatory
2808:Maragheh observatory
2687:and the astronomer,
2564:Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani
2370:that was completely
2349:Epitome of Astronomy
2234:prophetic traditions
2210:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
2167:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
2110:(1292–1350), in his
2086:Abu Rayhan al-Biruni
2044:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
2040:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
1910:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
1800:(Alhazen) wrote the
1644:shared by the three
1312:Between 825 to 835,
1135:The Great Astronomer
1101:Islamic interest in
1038:, and translated by
575:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
563:Aristotelian physics
539:Ibrahim ibn Muhammad
527:opposed to astrology
194:history of astronomy
45:21:57, 9 August 2010
14935:Early social change
14834:Early social change
14532:Al-Azhar University
14351:Celestial mechanics
14141:Book of Fixed Stars
14100:The Book of Healing
14079:Aja'ib al-Makhluqat
13821:Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi
13796:Zakariya al-Qazwini
13407:Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf
13402:Abu Hanifa Dinawari
13174:Singer, C. (1959),
13116:Columbia University
12617:Islam & Science
12534:Walker, Christopher
12298:Islam & Science
12289:Islam & Science
12287:by David A. King",
12243:Huff, Toby (2003),
12189:Scientific American
12102:Scientific American
12097:"Islamic astronomy"
11826:"Arabic Star names"
11815:, pp. 104–107)
11763:, pp. 238–239)
11652:O'Connor, John J.;
11561:, pp. 237–238)
11461:, pp. 547–548)
11361:, pp. 128–184)
11188:"Astrolabe gearing"
10841:, pp. 135–136)
10649:Richard Nelson Frye
10621:O'Connor, John J.;
10324:Motilal Banarsidass
10275:, ISBN 0792340663.
9749:, pp. 19–32 ,
9691:Zhu, Siben (1946),
9671:, pp. 19–32 ,
9442:62 (1971): 490-498.
9438:of Nicole Oresme,"
9104:, pp. 305–306)
8652:O'Connor, John J.;
8347:Nicolaus Copernicus
7980:O'Connor, John J.;
7666:Islam & Science
7531:Vistas in Astronomy
7481:"Arabic Star Names"
6906:which he invented.
6768:written in 1087 by
6616:Book of Fixed Stars
6306:was constructed in
5961:Optical instruments
5835:spherical astrolabe
5828:Spherical astrolabe
5820:spherical astrolabe
5582:astronomical clocks
5577:devised monumental
5562:astronomical clocks
5556:Astronomical clocks
4654:and formulated the
4519:Early observatories
4407:Philippe de La Hire
4339:Hindu computational
4304:from 1556 to 1580.
4302:astronomical clocks
4286:Nicolaus Copernicus
4239:Nicolaus Copernicus
4235:heliocentric system
4214:Maragha astronomers
4092:Islamic theologians
4056:Nicolaus Copernicus
3993:of Persia, and the
3962:Nicolaus Copernicus
3871:Astronomical tables
3827:, and the works of
3732:during the time of
3720:translation of the
3668:cubic interpolation
3652:Islamic mathematics
3433:Nicolaus Copernicus
3400:Qotb al-Din Shirazi
3200:Questiones de Spera
3174:Nicolaus Copernicus
3081:Nicolaus Copernicus
3039:Qotb al-Din Shirazi
2963:Ptolemaic astronomy
2859:Qotb al-Din Shirazi
2709:homocentric spheres
2683:, the philosopher,
2618:eccentric deferents
2163:celestial mechanics
2020:two-sphere universe
1914:experimental method
1814:experimental method
1767:celestial mechanics
1646:Abrahamic religions
1604:Universal cosmology
1456:Book of Fixed Stars
1418:Book of Fixed Stars
1070:Indian trigonometry
855:Pre-Islamic Arabian
766:Islamic mathematics
703:celestial longitude
551:Islamic theologians
493:and instead viewed
404:spherical triangles
386:On the other hand,
323:Islam and astronomy
236:, and later in the
103:← Previous revision
15160:Islamic Golden Age
14596:Egyptian astronomy
14537:House of Knowledge
14215:Astronomical clock
14025:Muhammad al-Rudani
13422:Banū Mūsā brothers
13372:Abu Ali al-Khayyat
13239:by De Lacy O'Leary
13186:Suter, H. (1902),
12861:Talk of the Nation
12842:Osiris, 2nd Series
12825:Science in Context
12447:by Aydin Sayili",
12068:Camille Flammarion
11991:Saudi Aramco World
11867:Islamic Golden Age
11687:, ISBN 0415966914.
11685:Taylor and Francis
11580:, London: Variorum
11305:, pp. 289–305
10443:, pp. 133–4,
10385:, pp. 89–90,
10253:, pp. 58–127)
10197:Filozofski vestnik
10174:Filozofski vestnik
10123:Filozofski vestnik
10066:Filozofski vestnik
10054:, ISBN 0521000637.
9920:Science in Context
9715:Unknown parameter
9490:, pp. 570–572
9425:, 4 (1973): 128-30
9417:I. N. Veselovsky,
9389:Toby E.Huff(1993):
8717:, pp. 317–18)
8194:Unknown parameter
7660:Adi Setia (2004),
7438:, pp. 19–32,
6872:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi
6539:Muhammad al-Fazari
6458:: In 17th century
6238:The astrolabic or
6229:
6163:, was invented by
6123:
6058:(1021) written by
6030:through two small
5824:
5794:
5659:five daily prayers
5507:Planetary computer
5409:astronomical clock
5361:
5297:lunisolar calendar
5170:
5087:
5054:
4868:
4786:
4746:
4740:, honored on this
4636:
4630:Current status of
4481:research institute
4456:Zij-i Bahadurkhani
4427:East India Company
4243:
4186:
4084:natural philosophy
4064:empirical evidence
4040:
4036:natural philosophy
4020:empirical evidence
3899:Muhammad al-Fazari
3895:Walcher of Malvern
3756:
3644:Shoushili calendar
3380:transit of Mercury
3372:
3263:, Al-Razi states:
3237:Earth's centrality
3170:natural philosophy
3113:heliocentric model
3085:natural philosophy
3066:
3023:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi
3009:natural philosophy
3001:
2899:
2847:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi
2761:Earth's atmosphere
2634:
2624:. He rejected the
2607:
2605:in the year 976.AD
2451:
2391:natural philosophy
2347:tradition. In his
2269:
1866:do not consist of
1849:through two small
1751:
1678:Jewish philosopher
1622:Greek philosophers
1568:Muslim astronomers
1449:, brightness, and
1435:
1294:
1171:Maragha Revolution
1115:(c. 100-178). The
1099:
1040:Muhammad al-Fazari
804:spherical geometry
788:
784:phases of the moon
668:
600:Islamic theologian
579:Earth's centrality
483:Greek philosophers
455:navigational stars
361:phases of the moon
333:spherical geometry
317:their Arabic names
214:Islamic Golden Age
172:
15150:Islamic astronomy
15137:
15136:
15105:elementary school
14723:Geometric pattern
14653:
14652:
14649:
14648:
14645:
14644:
14627:Chinese astronomy
14622:Byzantine science
14496:Temporal finitism
14426:Islamic cosmology
14356:Celestial spheres
14176:
14175:
14068:Arabic star names
14037:
14036:
14033:
14032:
13897:Fathullah Shirazi
13831:Al-Ashraf Umar II
13543:Ibrahim ibn Sinan
13346:Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
12777:, 2nd edition by
12648:Annals of Science
12267:Islamic Astronomy
12166:Annals of Science
12079:Gill, M. (2005),
11968:Missing or empty
11862:Islamic astrology
11605:Annals of Science
11594:, pp. 167–8)
11347:Missing or empty
11319:, pp. 168–9)
10941:Turk J Elec Engin
10800:, pp. 28–9,
10570:Missing or empty
10357:, pp. 82–9,
10230:, pp. 152–3)
9584:Popular Astronomy
9319:, pp. 217–8)
9145:, pp. 233–53
8898:, pp. 25–34)
8832:, pp. 294–5)
8683:, pp. 293–8)
8300:. 1001 Inventions
7984:(November 1999),
7940:"Greek Astronomy"
7843:Missing or empty
7262:Arabian Peninsula
7142:Arabic star names
6920:Mohammed Ben Musa
6663:Az-Zij as-Sanjarī
6535:Ibrahim al-Fazari
6466:instruments with
6382:Other instruments
6219:, constructed in
6092:mural instruments
6072:parabolic mirrors
5639:Sidrat al-muntaha
5534:elliptical orbits
5457:invented a brass
5302:which employed a
5290:Abu Rayhan Biruni
5201:A famous work by
5031:mechanical clocks
4454:treatise was the
4130:De revolutionibus
4030:independent from
4026:and developed an
4007:Islamic cosmology
3983:gunpowder empires
3928:Gregory Choniades
3911:and the works of
3863:De motu stellarum
3801:Gerard of Cremona
3778:Emirate of Sicily
3530:The Sabian Tables
3453:Chinese astronomy
3295:) and the earth (
3281:alfa alfi 'awalim
3233:Islamic cosmology
3216:Islamic cosmology
2949:reality based on
2794:and confirmed by
2582:Andalusian Revolt
2535:celestial spheres
2511:geocentric models
2289:Doubts on Ptolemy
2230:divine revelation
2214:celestial spheres
2195:levity or gravity
2187:celestial spheres
2068:Islamic astrology
1864:celestial spheres
1816:to astronomy and
1771:celestial spheres
1686:Muslim theologian
1638:Temporal finitism
1610:Islamic cosmology
1594:Abu Rayhan Biruni
1580:Doubts on Ptolemy
1558:Islamic cosmology
1089:File:Almagest.jpg
1072:) instead of the
1048:Indian astronomer
1034:and the works of
957:introduced a new
901:Assimilation and
886:works which were
724:and orient their
658:
596:celestial spheres
503:scientific method
440:Islamic cosmology
416:Menelaus' theorem
379:. In the 19-year
278:Chinese astronomy
198:Islamic astronomy
190:
189:
182:
170:
168:
15167:
15012:Medieval science
14680:
14673:
14666:
14657:
14656:
14637:Indian astronomy
14606:Indian astronomy
14574:
14567:
14560:
14481:Sublunary sphere
14471:Specific gravity
14371:Earth's rotation
14260:Mural instrument
14205:Armillary sphere
14128:Alfonsine tables
14093:Tabula Rogeriana
14073:Islamic calendar
14061:
14060:
14054:
14053:
14043:
14042:
13938:Sibt al-Maridini
13923:Jamshid al-Kashi
13644:Said al-Andalusi
13447:Thābit ibn Qurra
13382:Abu Said Gorgani
13356:Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq
13310:
13309:
13297:
13296:
13282:
13275:
13268:
13259:
13258:
13225:
13203:
13190:
13182:
13170:
13169:
13168:
13147:
13124:
13123:
13122:
13101:
13076:
13060:
13027:
13008:
12983:
12967:
12943:
12919:
12895:
12889:
12888:|publisher=
12884:
12882:
12874:
12873:
12872:
12849:
12836:
12819:
12812:
12806:
12801:
12799:
12791:
12762:
12749:
12742:
12740:
12732:
12702:
12696:
12688:
12662:
12642:
12630:Brill Publishers
12619:
12611:
12603:(1–4): 204–226,
12589:
12576:
12564:Brill Publishers
12554:
12528:
12508:
12496:
12474:
12465:
12439:
12417:
12393:
12371:
12345:
12323:
12300:
12291:
12279:
12261:
12239:
12213:
12212:
12211:
12192:
12180:
12157:
12156:
12155:
12143:Hassan, Ahmad Y.
12138:
12116:
12115:
12114:
12091:
12090:
12089:
12075:
12058:
12051:
12045:
12040:
12038:
12030:
12011:
11995:
11984:
11977:
11971:
11966:
11964:
11956:
11951:
11933:
11847:Hebrew astronomy
11830:
11829:
11822:
11816:
11809:
11803:
11796:
11790:
11783:
11777:
11770:
11764:
11757:
11751:
11750:
11748:
11747:
11733:
11727:
11720:
11714:
11707:
11701:
11694:
11688:
11677:
11671:
11670:
11649:
11643:
11642:
11630:
11624:
11617:
11611:
11601:
11595:
11588:
11582:
11581:
11573:
11562:
11555:
11544:
11538:
11532:
11529:
11523:
11520:
11511:
11510:, pp. 1–19)
11504:
11498:
11497:
11489:
11483:
11468:
11462:
11455:
11449:
11442:
11431:
11424:
11418:
11411:
11405:
11404:
11392:
11386:
11385:
11383:
11382:
11368:
11362:
11356:
11350:
11345:
11343:
11335:
11331:
11320:
11313:
11307:
11306:
11295:
11289:
11282:
11276:
11269:
11263:
11256:
11250:
11243:
11234:
11227:
11221:
11220:
11209:
11203:
11202:
11200:
11199:
11184:
11178:
11168:
11162:
11155:
11149:
11148:
11141:
11139:
11131:
11130:
11129:
11113:
11104:
11103:
11082:
11076:
11075:
11074:
11073:
11042:
11036:
11035:
11034:
11033:
10997:
10991:
10990:
10979:
10977:
10969:
10967:
10966:
10953:
10947:
10937:
10931:
10924:
10918:
10911:
10905:
10904:
10897:
10895:
10887:
10886:
10885:
10867:
10861:
10848:
10842:
10835:
10829:
10822:
10811:
10810:
10789:
10783:
10782:
10761:
10755:
10754:
10752:
10751:
10737:
10731:
10730:
10709:
10703:
10702:
10691:
10689:
10681:
10662:
10656:
10646:
10640:
10639:
10618:
10612:
10611:
10610:
10609:
10591:
10585:
10579:
10573:
10568:
10566:
10558:
10554:
10545:
10538:
10525:
10524:
10523:
10522:
10508:Brill Publishers
10489:
10483:
10482:
10460:
10454:
10453:
10431:
10425:
10424:
10402:
10396:
10395:
10374:
10368:
10367:
10346:
10337:
10336:
10315:
10306:
10305:
10289:
10283:
10282:
10265:
10254:
10248:
10247:, pp. 123–4
10237:
10231:
10224:
10218:
10217:, pp. 63–4)
10211:
10205:
10204:
10192:
10186:
10185:
10169:
10163:
10162:
10161:
10160:
10146:
10137:
10131:
10130:
10118:
10109:
10108:
10107:
10106:
10092:
10083:
10074:
10073:
10061:
10055:
10048:
10042:
10035:
10026:
10025:
9996:
9990:
9977:
9971:
9964:
9958:
9955:
9949:
9942:
9936:
9929:
9923:
9912:
9906:
9899:
9890:
9889:
9858:
9852:
9851:
9820:
9811:
9810:
9779:
9773:
9766:
9760:
9759:
9738:
9729:
9728:
9722:
9718:
9717:|coauthors=
9713:
9711:
9703:
9688:
9682:
9681:
9660:
9649:
9648:
9627:
9616:
9615:
9598:
9592:
9591:
9579:
9570:
9563:
9554:
9547:
9538:
9537:
9527:
9521:
9520:
9498:
9492:
9491:
9479:
9473:
9472:
9471:
9470:
9449:
9443:
9432:
9426:
9415:
9409:
9401:
9395:
9387:
9378:
9368:
9362:
9355:
9346:
9339:
9333:
9326:
9320:
9313:
9307:
9306:
9300:
9292:
9291:
9290:
9273:
9267:
9260:
9254:
9253:
9252:
9251:
9228:
9222:
9215:
9209:
9202:
9196:
9189:
9176:
9166:
9160:
9153:
9147:
9146:
9131:
9125:
9124:
9111:
9105:
9098:
9092:
9085:
9079:
9078:
9065:
9056:
9045:
9039:
9038:
9025:
9019:
9012:
9003:
8996:
8990:
8989:, pp. 35–6)
8983:
8977:
8976:, pp. 51–2)
8970:
8964:
8957:
8951:
8950:, pp. 33–4)
8944:
8938:
8931:
8925:
8918:
8912:
8905:
8899:
8892:
8886:
8885:
8878:
8876:
8868:
8867:
8866:
8852:
8846:
8839:
8833:
8826:
8820:
8813:
8807:
8806:
8783:
8774:
8773:
8750:
8744:
8737:
8731:
8724:
8718:
8711:
8705:
8704:
8702:
8701:
8690:
8684:
8677:
8671:
8670:
8649:
8643:
8642:
8637:. Archived from
8626:
8617:
8616:
8610:
8602:
8600:
8599:
8593:
8584:
8578:
8577:
8560:
8554:
8553:
8551:
8550:
8535:
8526:
8519:
8513:
8512:
8487:
8478:
8471:
8465:
8458:
8452:
8445:
8439:
8438:
8419:
8408:
8397:
8391:
8380:
8374:
8360:
8354:
8344:
8338:
8335:
8329:
8316:
8310:
8308:
8306:
8305:
8291:
8279:
8273:
8272:
8259:
8248:
8247:
8245:
8244:
8234:
8228:
8227:
8225:
8224:
8214:
8208:
8207:
8201:
8197:
8196:|coauthors=
8192:
8190:
8182:
8165:
8159:
8157:
8141:
8126:
8120:
8109:
8103:
8096:
8090:
8083:
8077:
8076:
8055:
8049:
8048:
8027:
8018:
8011:
8005:
8004:
8003:
8002:
7977:
7971:
7970:
7968:
7967:
7956:
7950:
7949:
7947:
7946:
7936:
7930:
7923:
7917:
7902:
7896:
7891:
7885:
7878:
7865:
7859:
7853:
7852:
7846:
7840:
7834:
7830:
7828:
7820:
7819:
7818:
7804:
7795:
7786:
7780:
7771:
7765:
7764:
7762:
7761:
7750:
7744:
7743:
7742:
7741:
7728:
7722:
7713:
7707:
7698:
7692:
7685:
7679:
7678:
7677:
7676:
7657:
7642:
7635:
7616:
7609:
7592:
7591:
7581:
7575:
7574:
7573:
7572:
7563:
7552:
7546:
7545:
7526:
7520:
7511:
7505:
7498:
7492:
7491:
7489:
7488:
7477:
7471:
7466:
7460:
7455:
7449:
7448:
7427:
7421:
7420:
7411:
7394:
7393:
7387:
7379:
7377:
7376:
7370:Internet Archive
7361:
7350:
7349:
7332:
7326:
7319:
7288:
7281:
7049:Risala fi'l-alat
7045:(fl. 1115–1130)
7039:) (11th century)
7011:Canon Mas’udicus
6860:armillary sphere
6839:In 14th century
6810:Risala fi'l-alat
6793:Alfonsine tables
6787:Tables of Toledo
6755:, Ptolemaic and
6695:Jamshīd al-Kāshī
6659:(fl. 1115–1130)
6649:Tables of Toledo
6374:similar to what
6281:Mamluk Sultanate
6113:was invented by
5967:Observation tube
5944:lost-wax casting
5852:Celestial globes
5846:Celestial globes
5805:armillary sphere
5798:Armillary sphere
5790:armillary sphere
5355:was invented by
5209:Analog computers
5196:Linear astrolabe
5164:was invented by
5123:in 11th century
5117:Arabic herbalist
5017:astrolabes with
4792:founded a large
4762:Jamshīd al-Kāshī
4748:In 1420, prince
4583:'s catalogue of
4485:observation post
4335:Indian astronomy
4321:Indian astronomy
4296:rather than the
4292:notation in his
4264:, who built the
4176:Planetary theory
4060:Earth's rotation
3825:Hunayn ibn Ishaq
3821:Thabit ibn Qurra
3754:, England, 1388.
3734:Sejong the Great
3634:) and the large
3609:armillary sphere
3413:, in modern-day
3376:transit of Venus
3334:Islamic theology
3303:) and the moon (
3299:), and the sun (
3291:), the heavens (
3180:section below).
3154:Earth's rotation
3087:or Aristotelian
3005:Earth's rotation
2943:circular motions
2895:Copernican model
2887:Ptolemaic system
2879:
2788:Tables of Toledo
2531:Canon Mas’udicus
2503:Earth's rotation
2447:Earth's rotation
2419:
2395:Earth's rotation
2305:geocentric model
2222:celestial models
2102:Islamic scholars
2052:Copernican model
2024:celestial sphere
2004:Thabit ibn Qurra
1984:Ptolemaic system
1880:Tychonic systems
1676:(Alkindus); the
1584:Earth's rotation
1578:'s model in his
1564:Ptolemaic system
1528:, the brightest
1461:Andromeda Galaxy
1423:Andromeda Galaxy
1355:movement of the
1276:, the father of
1237:Ptolemaic system
1090:
1068:(inherited from
916:(825—1025
914:Ptolemaic system
890:and built upon.
816:celestial sphere
810:and the time of
734:celestial bodies
692:Hebrew calendars
679:Islamic calendar
654:
632:section below).
282:Malian astronomy
246:Islamic sciences
202:Arabic astronomy
185:
178:
160:
138:
137:
130:
115:Newer revision →
93:
86:
65:
63:current revision
55:
54:
46:
42:
41:
15175:
15174:
15170:
15169:
15168:
15166:
15165:
15164:
15140:
15139:
15138:
15133:
15078:
15006:
14995:Early sociology
14944:
14908:decision-making
14858:
14839:Early conquests
14810:
14752:
14689:
14687:Islamic studies
14684:
14654:
14641:
14610:
14579:
14570:
14563:
14556:
14542:House of Wisdom
14520:
14476:Spherical Earth
14309:
14240:Equatorial ring
14220:Celestial globe
14195:Analog computer
14172:
14167:Sullam al-sama'
14112:
14048:
14029:
13998:
13962:
13901:
13840:
13739:
13725:Jabir ibn Aflah
13668:
13599:Abu Nasr Mansur
13587:
13568:Abolfadl Harawi
13503:Ahmad ibn Yusuf
13456:
13360:
13331:Ahmad Nahavandi
13319:
13304:
13291:
13286:
13233:
13228:
13223:
13200:Tafsir al-Mizan
13166:
13164:
13120:
13118:
13099:
13019:, vol. 2,
12965:10.2307/2709773
12917:
12887:
12885:
12876:
12875:
12870:
12868:
12813:
12804:
12802:
12793:
12792:
12789:
12767:Nasr, Seyyed H.
12743:
12734:
12733:
12730:10.2307/2851429
12690:
12689:
12686:
12640:
12574:
12552:
12415:10.2307/1005726
12277:
12259:
12237:
12219:Hill, Donald R.
12209:
12207:
12199:Hill, Donald R.
12185:Hill, Donald R.
12162:Hill, Donald R.
12153:
12151:
12136:
12112:
12110:
12087:
12085:
12074:, vol. 119
12052:
12043:
12041:
12032:
12031:
11969:
11967:
11958:
11957:
11949:
11920:
11838:
11833:
11824:
11823:
11819:
11810:
11806:
11797:
11793:
11784:
11780:
11771:
11767:
11758:
11754:
11745:
11743:
11737:"Shadow square"
11735:
11734:
11730:
11721:
11717:
11708:
11704:
11695:
11691:
11678:
11674:
11650:
11646:
11631:
11627:
11618:
11614:
11602:
11598:
11589:
11585:
11574:
11565:
11556:
11547:
11539:
11535:
11530:
11526:
11521:
11514:
11505:
11501:
11490:
11486:
11469:
11465:
11456:
11452:
11443:
11434:
11425:
11421:
11412:
11408:
11393:
11389:
11380:
11378:
11370:
11369:
11365:
11348:
11346:
11337:
11336:
11332:
11323:
11314:
11310:
11296:
11292:
11283:
11279:
11270:
11266:
11257:
11253:
11244:
11237:
11228:
11224:
11211:
11210:
11206:
11197:
11195:
11186:
11185:
11181:
11169:
11165:
11156:
11152:
11142:
11133:
11132:
11127:
11125:
11123:History Channel
11115:
11114:
11107:
11083:
11079:
11071:
11069:
11043:
11039:
11031:
11029:
10998:
10994:
10980:
10971:
10970:
10964:
10962:
10954:
10950:
10938:
10934:
10925:
10921:
10912:
10908:
10898:
10889:
10888:
10883:
10881:
10869:
10868:
10864:
10849:
10845:
10836:
10832:
10823:
10814:
10808:
10796:, vol. 2,
10790:
10786:
10780:
10768:, vol. 2,
10762:
10758:
10749:
10747:
10739:
10738:
10734:
10728:
10720:, p. 519,
10710:
10706:
10692:
10683:
10682:
10663:
10659:
10647:
10643:
10619:
10615:
10607:
10605:
10592:
10588:
10571:
10569:
10560:
10559:
10555:
10548:
10539:
10528:
10520:
10518:
10490:
10486:
10480:
10472:, p. 138,
10461:
10457:
10451:
10432:
10428:
10422:
10414:, p. 141,
10403:
10399:
10393:
10375:
10371:
10365:
10347:
10340:
10334:
10316:
10309:
10290:
10286:
10266:
10257:
10238:
10234:
10225:
10221:
10212:
10208:
10193:
10189:
10180:(2): 125–142 ,
10170:
10166:
10158:
10156:
10144:
10138:
10134:
10119:
10112:
10104:
10102:
10101:(137): 538–541
10090:
10084:
10077:
10062:
10058:
10049:
10045:
10036:
10029:
9997:
9993:
9978:
9974:
9965:
9961:
9956:
9952:
9943:
9939:
9930:
9926:
9913:
9909:
9900:
9893:
9859:
9855:
9821:
9814:
9780:
9776:
9767:
9763:
9757:
9739:
9732:
9720:
9716:
9714:
9705:
9704:
9689:
9685:
9679:
9661:
9652:
9646:
9628:
9619:
9613:
9599:
9595:
9580:
9573:
9564:
9557:
9551:Early Astronomy
9549:Hugh Thurston,
9548:
9541:
9528:
9524:
9518:
9510:, p. 137,
9499:
9495:
9480:
9476:
9468:
9466:
9450:
9446:
9433:
9429:
9416:
9412:
9402:
9398:
9388:
9381:
9369:
9365:
9356:
9349:
9340:
9336:
9327:
9323:
9314:
9310:
9294:
9293:
9288:
9286:
9274:
9270:
9261:
9257:
9249:
9247:
9234:(Autumn 1999),
9229:
9225:
9216:
9212:
9203:
9199:
9190:
9179:
9167:
9163:
9154:
9150:
9132:
9128:
9118:
9112:
9108:
9099:
9095:
9086:
9082:
9072:
9066:
9059:
9046:
9042:
9032:
9026:
9022:
9013:
9006:
8997:
8993:
8984:
8980:
8971:
8967:
8958:
8954:
8945:
8941:
8932:
8928:
8919:
8915:
8906:
8902:
8896:Langermann 1990
8893:
8889:
8879:
8870:
8869:
8864:
8862:
8854:
8853:
8849:
8840:
8836:
8827:
8823:
8814:
8810:
8784:
8777:
8751:
8747:
8738:
8734:
8725:
8721:
8712:
8708:
8699:
8697:
8691:
8687:
8678:
8674:
8650:
8646:
8627:
8620:
8604:
8603:
8597:
8595:
8591:
8585:
8581:
8575:
8561:
8557:
8548:
8546:
8536:
8529:
8520:
8516:
8504:(4): 463–465 ,
8488:
8481:
8472:
8468:
8459:
8455:
8446:
8442:
8430:(2): 165–170 ,
8420:
8411:
8398:
8394:
8381:
8377:
8361:
8357:
8345:
8341:
8336:
8332:
8317:
8313:
8303:
8301:
8296:
8280:
8276:
8266:
8260:
8251:
8242:
8240:
8236:
8235:
8231:
8222:
8220:
8216:
8215:
8211:
8199:
8195:
8193:
8184:
8183:
8180:
8166:
8162:
8151:
8128:
8127:
8123:
8110:
8106:
8097:
8093:
8084:
8080:
8056:
8052:
8028:
8021:
8012:
8008:
8000:
7998:
7978:
7974:
7965:
7963:
7958:
7957:
7953:
7944:
7942:
7938:
7937:
7933:
7924:
7920:
7903:
7899:
7892:
7888:
7879:
7868:
7860:
7856:
7844:
7842:
7832:
7831:
7822:
7821:
7816:
7814:
7809:Tafsir al-Mizan
7805:
7798:
7787:
7783:
7772:
7768:
7759:
7757:
7751:
7747:
7739:
7737:
7734:Tafsir al-Mizan
7729:
7725:
7714:
7710:
7699:
7695:
7686:
7682:
7674:
7672:
7658:
7645:
7636:
7619:
7610:
7595:
7587:Reader's Digest
7582:
7578:
7570:
7568:
7561:
7553:
7549:
7527:
7523:
7512:
7508:
7499:
7495:
7486:
7484:
7479:
7478:
7474:
7467:
7463:
7456:
7452:
7446:
7428:
7424:
7413:Saliba (1999).
7412:
7397:
7381:
7380:
7374:
7372:
7362:
7353:
7347:
7333:
7329:
7320:
7291:
7282:
7278:
7274:
7162:Arabic language
7150:
7144:
6912:
6802:
6741:
6687:Ilkhanic Tables
6667:Sinjaric Tables
6580:Zij al-Sindhind
6576:) (c. 780-850)
6553:Yaqūb ibn Tāriq
6531:
6525:
6520:
6497:attached to it.
6384:
6293:
6277:analog computer
6182:in 9th century
6154:Horary quadrant
6140:in 9th century
6088:
6050:magnifying lens
6039:Magnifying lens
5963:
5928:Akbar the Great
5898:, specifically
5892:celestial globe
5875:Jabir ibn Aflah
5856:Right Ascension
5809:celestial globe
5782:
5768:and a magnetic
5647:
5631:right ascension
5617:which show the
5558:
5371:Jabir ibn Aflah
5357:Jabir ibn Aflah
5338:analog computer
5249:analog computer
5215:analog computer
5211:
5189:analog computer
5151:Earth is moving
4995:Large astrolabe
4946:, the hours of
4897:
4844:
4838:
4714:Ptolemaic model
4696:was founded by
4690:
4676:
4660:jalali calendar
4601:Sharaf al-Daula
4521:
4495:, astronomical
4472:
4345:astronomers in
4327:
4317:
4254:
4248:
4233:A model of the
4178:
4155:'s arguments):
4145:Galileo Galilei
4100:Aristotelianism
4009:
4003:
3991:Safavid dynasty
3970:
3908:Surya Siddhanta
3875:Adelard of Bath
3855:Plato of Tivoli
3847:(including the
3819:, the works of
3805:Jabir ibn Aflah
3766:
3742:
3558:Yeh-lu Chu'tsai
3463:
3449:
3364:
3354:
3218:
3212:
3071:(1304–1375) of
2967:mathematization
2911:physical bodies
2836:Ptolemaic model
2824:Damascus mosque
2816:
2810:
2804:
2701:Ptolemaic model
2691:, rejected the
2662:Ptolemaic model
2626:Ptolemaic model
2584:
2480:Ta'rikh al-Hind
2456:
2399:Johannes Kepler
2353:laws of physics
2261:experimentation
2242:
2203:innate property
2199:circular motion
2183:heavenly bodies
2155:
2070:
2064:
1956:
1912:introduced the
1775:laws of physics
1736:
1733:
1666:John Philoponus
1618:
1612:
1606:
1586:on its axis in
1560:
1554:
1333:Kitab fi Jawani
1267:
1233:
1044:Yaqūb ibn Tāriq
1031:Surya Siddhanta
1028:, based on the
1025:Zij al-Sindhind
1008:
976:
968:
941:
852:
768:
762:
652:twelfth century
638:
442:
436:
412:right triangles
341:
325:
272:astronomy (see
218:Arabic language
186:
175:
174:
139:
135:
126:
125:
124:
123:
122:
107:Latest revision
95:
94:
87:
76:
74:
61:
48:
31:
29:
12:
11:
5:
15173:
15163:
15162:
15157:
15152:
15135:
15134:
15132:
15131:
15130:
15129:
15124:
15119:
15109:
15108:
15107:
15102:
15092:
15086:
15084:
15080:
15079:
15077:
15076:
15071:
15066:
15065:
15064:
15054:
15049:
15044:
15039:
15038:
15037:
15027:
15022:
15016:
15014:
15008:
15007:
15005:
15004:
15003:
15002:
14992:
14987:
14982:
14977:
14976:
14975:
14965:
14960:
14954:
14952:
14946:
14945:
14943:
14942:
14937:
14932:
14927:
14922:
14917:
14916:
14915:
14910:
14905:
14903:use of analogy
14895:
14890:
14889:
14888:
14883:
14872:
14870:
14860:
14859:
14857:
14856:
14851:
14846:
14841:
14836:
14831:
14829:Historiography
14826:
14820:
14818:
14812:
14811:
14809:
14808:
14803:
14798:
14793:
14788:
14783:
14778:
14773:
14768:
14762:
14760:
14754:
14753:
14751:
14750:
14745:
14740:
14735:
14730:
14725:
14720:
14715:
14710:
14705:
14699:
14697:
14691:
14690:
14683:
14682:
14675:
14668:
14660:
14651:
14650:
14647:
14646:
14643:
14642:
14640:
14639:
14634:
14629:
14624:
14618:
14616:
14612:
14611:
14609:
14608:
14603:
14598:
14593:
14587:
14585:
14581:
14580:
14578:
14577:
14576:
14575:
14568:
14561:
14549:
14544:
14539:
14534:
14528:
14526:
14522:
14521:
14519:
14518:
14513:
14508:
14503:
14498:
14493:
14488:
14483:
14478:
14473:
14468:
14463:
14458:
14453:
14448:
14443:
14438:
14433:
14428:
14423:
14418:
14413:
14408:
14403:
14398:
14393:
14388:
14386:Elliptic orbit
14383:
14378:
14373:
14368:
14363:
14361:Circular orbit
14358:
14353:
14348:
14343:
14338:
14333:
14328:
14323:
14317:
14315:
14311:
14310:
14308:
14307:
14302:
14297:
14292:
14287:
14282:
14277:
14272:
14267:
14262:
14257:
14252:
14247:
14242:
14237:
14232:
14227:
14222:
14217:
14212:
14207:
14202:
14197:
14192:
14186:
14184:
14178:
14177:
14174:
14173:
14171:
14170:
14163:
14156:
14149:
14147:Toledan Tables
14144:
14137:
14130:
14124:
14122:
14114:
14113:
14111:
14110:
14103:
14096:
14089:
14082:
14075:
14070:
14064:
14058:
14050:
14049:
14039:
14038:
14035:
14034:
14031:
14030:
14028:
14027:
14022:
14017:
14012:
14010:Yang Guangxian
14006:
14004:
14000:
13999:
13997:
13996:
13991:
13986:
13981:
13976:
13970:
13968:
13964:
13963:
13961:
13960:
13955:
13950:
13945:
13940:
13935:
13930:
13925:
13920:
13915:
13909:
13907:
13903:
13902:
13900:
13899:
13894:
13889:
13884:
13879:
13874:
13869:
13864:
13859:
13854:
13848:
13846:
13842:
13841:
13839:
13838:
13833:
13828:
13823:
13818:
13813:
13808:
13803:
13798:
13793:
13788:
13783:
13778:
13773:
13768:
13763:
13758:
13753:
13747:
13745:
13741:
13740:
13738:
13737:
13732:
13727:
13722:
13717:
13712:
13707:
13702:
13697:
13692:
13687:
13682:
13676:
13674:
13670:
13669:
13667:
13666:
13664:Ali ibn Khalaf
13661:
13656:
13651:
13646:
13641:
13639:Kushyar Gilani
13636:
13631:
13626:
13621:
13616:
13611:
13609:Ali ibn Ridwan
13606:
13601:
13595:
13593:
13589:
13588:
13586:
13585:
13580:
13575:
13573:Haseb-i Tabari
13570:
13565:
13560:
13555:
13550:
13545:
13540:
13535:
13530:
13525:
13520:
13515:
13510:
13505:
13500:
13495:
13490:
13485:
13480:
13475:
13470:
13464:
13462:
13458:
13457:
13455:
13454:
13449:
13444:
13442:Sahl ibn Bishr
13439:
13434:
13429:
13424:
13419:
13414:
13409:
13404:
13399:
13394:
13389:
13384:
13379:
13374:
13368:
13366:
13362:
13361:
13359:
13358:
13353:
13348:
13343:
13338:
13333:
13327:
13325:
13321:
13320:
13318:
13317:
13306:
13305:
13293:
13292:
13285:
13284:
13277:
13270:
13262:
13256:
13255:
13250:
13245:
13240:
13232:
13231:External links
13229:
13227:
13226:
13221:
13204:
13191:
13183:
13171:
13152:Saliba, George
13148:
13129:Saliba, George
13125:
13106:Saliba, George
13102:
13097:
13081:Saliba, George
13077:
13065:Saliba, George
13061:
13058:10.2307/601763
13032:Saliba, George
13028:
13013:Saliba, George
13009:
13006:10.1086/352344
13000:(4): 571–576,
12988:Saliba, George
12984:
12968:
12944:
12920:
12915:
12896:
12850:
12837:
12820:
12787:
12763:
12750:
12703:
12684:
12663:
12654:(4): 331–362,
12643:
12638:
12621:
12612:
12590:
12577:
12572:
12555:
12550:
12542:British Museum
12529:
12509:
12497:
12494:10.1086/353360
12488:(4): 531–555,
12475:
12466:
12463:10.1086/349558
12457:(2): 237–239,
12440:
12437:10.1086/371617
12418:
12394:
12391:10.1086/349363
12372:
12369:10.2307/595221
12346:
12343:10.1086/349146
12337:(2): 180–183,
12324:
12321:10.1086/348036
12315:(1–2): 56–59,
12302:
12293:
12280:
12275:
12262:
12257:
12240:
12235:
12215:
12181:
12158:
12139:
12134:
12117:
12092:
12076:
12064:L'Astronomie (
12059:
12018:(1908, 1969),
12012:
11996:
11985:
11952:
11947:
11934:
11921:
11919:
11916:
11915:
11914:
11909:
11907:Sufi cosmology
11904:
11899:
11894:
11889:
11884:
11879:
11874:
11869:
11864:
11859:
11854:
11849:
11844:
11837:
11834:
11832:
11831:
11817:
11804:
11791:
11778:
11765:
11752:
11728:
11715:
11702:
11689:
11672:
11644:
11625:
11623:, p. 333)
11612:
11596:
11583:
11563:
11545:
11541:Richard Powers
11533:
11524:
11512:
11499:
11484:
11477:(2): 296-299.
11463:
11450:
11432:
11419:
11406:
11387:
11363:
11321:
11308:
11290:
11277:
11264:
11251:
11235:
11222:
11204:
11179:
11163:
11150:
11105:
11077:
11067:10.2307/590576
11037:
11027:10.1086/352410
11003:(March 1980),
10992:
10948:
10932:
10919:
10906:
10862:
10843:
10830:
10828:, p. 533)
10812:
10806:
10784:
10778:
10772:, p. 29,
10756:
10732:
10726:
10704:
10657:
10641:
10613:
10586:
10546:
10526:
10484:
10478:
10455:
10449:
10426:
10420:
10397:
10391:
10369:
10363:
10338:
10332:
10307:
10284:
10255:
10241:Saliba, George
10232:
10219:
10206:
10187:
10164:
10132:
10110:
10075:
10056:
10043:
10027:
10023:10.1086/355661
9991:
9972:
9966:G. G. Joseph,
9959:
9950:
9937:
9924:
9907:
9891:
9853:
9812:
9774:
9761:
9755:
9730:
9683:
9677:
9650:
9644:
9638:, p. 38,
9617:
9611:
9593:
9571:
9555:
9539:
9522:
9516:
9493:
9474:
9444:
9427:
9410:
9396:
9379:
9363:
9347:
9334:
9321:
9308:
9268:
9255:
9232:Saliba, George
9223:
9210:
9208:, p. 171)
9197:
9177:
9161:
9148:
9126:
9117:, p. 219)
9106:
9093:
9091:, p. 134)
9080:
9069:Covington 2007
9057:
9040:
9020:
9004:
8991:
8978:
8965:
8952:
8939:
8926:
8913:
8900:
8887:
8847:
8845:, p. 300)
8834:
8821:
8808:
8804:10.2307/600445
8775:
8771:10.2307/600445
8745:
8732:
8719:
8706:
8685:
8672:
8644:
8641:on 2008-01-18.
8618:
8579:
8573:
8555:
8527:
8514:
8510:10.1086/349914
8479:
8477:, p. 326)
8466:
8453:
8451:, p. 116)
8440:
8409:
8392:
8375:
8355:
8339:
8330:
8311:
8274:
8249:
8229:
8209:
8178:
8160:
8140:, October 2001
8121:
8104:
8102:, p. 151)
8091:
8089:, p. 164)
8078:
8050:
8019:
8017:, p. 163)
8006:
7972:
7951:
7931:
7929:, p. 240)
7918:
7897:
7886:
7884:, p. 162)
7866:
7854:
7833:|chapter=
7796:
7781:
7766:
7745:
7723:
7708:
7693:
7691:, p. 175)
7680:
7643:
7617:
7593:
7576:
7547:
7537:(4): 395–403,
7521:
7506:
7493:
7472:
7461:
7450:
7444:
7422:
7395:
7351:
7345:
7327:
7323:Gingerich 1986
7289:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7158:constellations
7146:Main article:
7143:
7140:
7139:
7138:
7137:
7136:
7128:
7127:
7126:
7115:
7114:
7113:
7102:
7101:
7100:
7089:
7088:
7087:
7085:Hikmat al-'Ain
7076:
7075:
7074:
7058:
7057:
7056:
7040:
7030:
7029:
7028:
7025:Tarik al-Aflak
7016:
7015:
7014:
7009:(Latinized as
6998:
6997:
6996:
6990:
6984:
6978:
6968:(Latinized as
6966:Ibn al-Haytham
6963:
6962:
6961:
6956:
6945:(Latinized as
6940:
6939:
6938:
6933:
6928:
6918:(Latinized as
6911:
6908:
6866:armillary and
6801:
6798:
6740:
6737:
6736:
6735:
6734:
6733:
6721:
6720:
6719:
6705:
6704:
6703:
6692:
6691:
6690:
6672:
6671:
6670:
6654:
6653:
6652:
6644:) (1028–1087)
6640:(Latinized as
6635:
6634:
6633:
6627:(c. 950–1009)
6622:
6621:
6620:
6607:(Latinized as
6602:
6601:
6600:
6598:Az-Zij as-Sabi
6590:(Latinized as
6585:
6584:
6583:
6563:
6562:
6561:
6550:
6549:
6548:
6527:Main article:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6516:
6515:
6514:
6498:
6460:Safavid Persia
6450:
6422:
6396:
6383:
6380:
6356:
6355:
6353:Framed sextant
6334:
6333:
6331:Fakhri sextant
6300:
6299:
6292:
6289:
6268:
6267:
6236:
6235:
6176:
6175:
6157:
6156:
6136:, invented by
6130:
6129:
6087:
6084:
6076:camera obscura
6060:Ibn al-Haytham
6055:Book of Optics
6042:
6041:
6016:Ibn al-Haytham
6004:
6003:
5970:
5969:
5962:
5959:
5885:
5884:
5849:
5848:
5831:
5830:
5801:
5800:
5781:
5778:
5754:
5753:
5728:
5727:
5697:Umayyad Mosque
5689:time of prayer
5683:predecessors.
5669:
5668:
5646:
5643:
5604:
5603:
5572:
5571:
5557:
5554:
5510:
5509:
5488:
5487:
5480:in existence.
5451:
5450:
5439:to open every
5401:
5400:
5368:
5367:
5326:
5325:
5287:
5286:
5277:celestial body
5255:(Arzachel) in
5241:
5240:
5210:
5207:
5199:
5198:
5177:
5176:
5139:
5138:
5094:
5093:
5068:orthographical
5061:
5060:
5044:, kept at The
5011:
5010:
4998:
4997:
4896:
4893:
4889:times of Salah
4883:(direction to
4837:
4834:
4829:Yantra Mandirs
4675:
4672:
4664:solar calendar
4577:'Adud al-Dawla
4520:
4517:
4471:
4468:
4381:Yantra Mandirs
4325:Islam in India
4316:
4313:
4247:
4244:
4237:attributed to
4177:
4174:
4024:Earth's motion
4002:
3999:
3987:Ottoman Empire
3969:
3966:
3924:Medieval Greek
3905:(based on the
3903:Great Sindhind
3850:Book of Optics
3845:Ibn al-Haytham
3782:southern Italy
3741:
3738:
3730:Joseon Dynasty
3552:During Mongol
3539:
3538:
3535:
3532:
3526:al-Zij al-sabi
3523:
3461:Islam in Korea
3457:Islam in China
3448:
3445:
3353:
3350:
3287:), the chair (
3214:Main article:
3211:
3208:
3135:Ibn al-Haytham
3051:Hikmat al-'Ain
2803:
2802:Maragha School
2800:
2695:introduced by
2620:introduced by
2601:depicting the
2583:
2580:
2572:Tarik al-Aflak
2482:(Latinized as
2462:discussed the
2455:
2452:
2273:Ibn al-Haytham
2249:Ibn al-Haytham
2241:
2238:
2154:
2151:
2078:Ibn al-Haytham
2063:
2060:
2048:Maragha school
1955:
1952:
1882:of astronomy.
1859:Book of Optics
1798:Ibn al-Haytham
1735:
1730:
1718:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1608:Main article:
1605:
1602:
1553:
1550:
1522:Ali ibn Ridwan
1266:
1263:
1232:
1229:
1016:Middle Persian
1007:
1004:
992:Middle Persian
975:
972:
967:
964:
959:lunar calendar
940:
937:
936:
935:
928:
921:
910:
903:syncretization
851:
848:
828:celestial pole
761:
758:
637:
634:
521:attributed to
507:Muhammad Iqbal
444:Islam advised
435:
432:
414:; by applying
371:430 BC by the
340:
337:
324:
321:
204:refers to the
188:
187:
143:
142:
140:
133:
88:(delisted per
72:
58:permanent link
49:(delisted per
27:
16:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
15172:
15161:
15158:
15156:
15153:
15151:
15148:
15147:
15145:
15128:
15125:
15123:
15120:
15118:
15115:
15114:
15113:
15110:
15106:
15103:
15101:
15098:
15097:
15096:
15093:
15091:
15088:
15087:
15085:
15081:
15075:
15072:
15070:
15067:
15063:
15062:ophthalmology
15060:
15059:
15058:
15055:
15053:
15050:
15048:
15045:
15043:
15040:
15036:
15033:
15032:
15031:
15028:
15026:
15023:
15021:
15018:
15017:
15015:
15013:
15009:
15001:
14998:
14997:
14996:
14993:
14991:
14988:
14986:
14983:
14981:
14978:
14974:
14971:
14970:
14969:
14966:
14964:
14961:
14959:
14956:
14955:
14953:
14951:
14947:
14941:
14938:
14936:
14933:
14931:
14928:
14926:
14923:
14921:
14918:
14914:
14911:
14909:
14906:
14904:
14901:
14900:
14899:
14898:Jurisprudence
14896:
14894:
14891:
14887:
14884:
14882:
14879:
14878:
14877:
14874:
14873:
14871:
14869:
14865:
14861:
14855:
14852:
14850:
14847:
14845:
14842:
14840:
14837:
14835:
14832:
14830:
14827:
14825:
14822:
14821:
14819:
14817:
14813:
14807:
14804:
14802:
14799:
14797:
14794:
14792:
14789:
14787:
14784:
14782:
14779:
14777:
14774:
14772:
14769:
14767:
14764:
14763:
14761:
14759:
14755:
14749:
14746:
14744:
14741:
14739:
14736:
14734:
14731:
14729:
14726:
14724:
14721:
14719:
14716:
14714:
14711:
14709:
14706:
14704:
14701:
14700:
14698:
14696:
14692:
14688:
14681:
14676:
14674:
14669:
14667:
14662:
14661:
14658:
14638:
14635:
14633:
14630:
14628:
14625:
14623:
14620:
14619:
14617:
14613:
14607:
14604:
14602:
14599:
14597:
14594:
14592:
14589:
14588:
14586:
14582:
14573:
14569:
14566:
14562:
14559:
14555:
14554:
14553:
14552:Observatories
14550:
14548:
14545:
14543:
14540:
14538:
14535:
14533:
14530:
14529:
14527:
14523:
14517:
14514:
14512:
14509:
14507:
14506:Triangulation
14504:
14502:
14499:
14497:
14494:
14492:
14489:
14487:
14484:
14482:
14479:
14477:
14474:
14472:
14469:
14467:
14464:
14462:
14459:
14457:
14454:
14452:
14449:
14447:
14444:
14442:
14439:
14437:
14434:
14432:
14429:
14427:
14424:
14422:
14419:
14417:
14416:Heliocentrism
14414:
14412:
14409:
14407:
14404:
14402:
14399:
14397:
14394:
14392:
14389:
14387:
14384:
14382:
14379:
14377:
14374:
14372:
14369:
14367:
14364:
14362:
14359:
14357:
14354:
14352:
14349:
14347:
14344:
14342:
14339:
14337:
14334:
14332:
14329:
14327:
14324:
14322:
14319:
14318:
14316:
14312:
14306:
14303:
14301:
14298:
14296:
14293:
14291:
14290:Shadow square
14288:
14286:
14283:
14281:
14278:
14276:
14273:
14271:
14268:
14266:
14263:
14261:
14258:
14256:
14253:
14251:
14248:
14246:
14243:
14241:
14238:
14236:
14233:
14231:
14228:
14226:
14223:
14221:
14218:
14216:
14213:
14211:
14208:
14206:
14203:
14201:
14198:
14196:
14193:
14191:
14188:
14187:
14185:
14183:
14179:
14169:
14168:
14164:
14162:
14161:
14160:Zij-i Sultani
14157:
14155:
14154:
14153:Zij-i Ilkhani
14150:
14148:
14145:
14143:
14142:
14138:
14136:
14135:
14131:
14129:
14126:
14125:
14123:
14121:
14120:
14115:
14109:
14108:
14104:
14102:
14101:
14097:
14095:
14094:
14090:
14088:
14087:
14083:
14081:
14080:
14076:
14074:
14071:
14069:
14066:
14065:
14062:
14059:
14055:
14051:
14044:
14040:
14026:
14023:
14021:
14018:
14016:
14013:
14011:
14008:
14007:
14005:
14001:
13995:
13992:
13990:
13987:
13985:
13982:
13980:
13977:
13975:
13972:
13971:
13969:
13965:
13959:
13956:
13954:
13951:
13949:
13946:
13944:
13941:
13939:
13936:
13934:
13931:
13929:
13928:Kadızade Rumi
13926:
13924:
13921:
13919:
13916:
13914:
13911:
13910:
13908:
13904:
13898:
13895:
13893:
13890:
13888:
13885:
13883:
13880:
13878:
13875:
13873:
13870:
13868:
13865:
13863:
13860:
13858:
13855:
13853:
13852:Ibn al-Shatir
13850:
13849:
13847:
13843:
13837:
13834:
13832:
13829:
13827:
13826:Ibn al‐Raqqam
13824:
13822:
13819:
13817:
13814:
13812:
13809:
13807:
13804:
13802:
13799:
13797:
13794:
13792:
13789:
13787:
13784:
13782:
13779:
13777:
13774:
13772:
13769:
13767:
13764:
13762:
13759:
13757:
13754:
13752:
13749:
13748:
13746:
13742:
13736:
13733:
13731:
13728:
13726:
13723:
13721:
13720:Ibn al-Kammad
13718:
13716:
13713:
13711:
13708:
13706:
13703:
13701:
13698:
13696:
13693:
13691:
13688:
13686:
13683:
13681:
13678:
13677:
13675:
13671:
13665:
13662:
13660:
13657:
13655:
13652:
13650:
13647:
13645:
13642:
13640:
13637:
13635:
13634:Ibn al-Saffar
13632:
13630:
13627:
13625:
13622:
13620:
13617:
13615:
13612:
13610:
13607:
13605:
13602:
13600:
13597:
13596:
13594:
13590:
13584:
13581:
13579:
13576:
13574:
13571:
13569:
13566:
13564:
13561:
13559:
13556:
13554:
13551:
13549:
13546:
13544:
13541:
13539:
13536:
13534:
13531:
13529:
13526:
13524:
13521:
13519:
13516:
13514:
13511:
13509:
13506:
13504:
13501:
13499:
13496:
13494:
13491:
13489:
13486:
13484:
13481:
13479:
13476:
13474:
13471:
13469:
13466:
13465:
13463:
13459:
13453:
13450:
13448:
13445:
13443:
13440:
13438:
13435:
13433:
13430:
13428:
13425:
13423:
13420:
13418:
13415:
13413:
13410:
13408:
13405:
13403:
13400:
13398:
13395:
13393:
13390:
13388:
13385:
13383:
13380:
13378:
13375:
13373:
13370:
13369:
13367:
13363:
13357:
13354:
13352:
13349:
13347:
13344:
13342:
13339:
13337:
13334:
13332:
13329:
13328:
13326:
13322:
13315:
13314:
13311:
13307:
13303:
13298:
13294:
13290:
13283:
13278:
13276:
13271:
13269:
13264:
13263:
13260:
13254:
13251:
13249:
13246:
13244:
13241:
13238:
13235:
13234:
13224:
13218:
13214:
13210:
13205:
13202:
13201:
13196:
13192:
13189:
13184:
13181:
13177:
13172:
13163:
13159:
13158:
13153:
13149:
13146:
13142:
13138:
13134:
13130:
13126:
13117:
13113:
13112:
13107:
13103:
13100:
13094:
13090:
13086:
13082:
13078:
13074:
13070:
13066:
13062:
13059:
13055:
13051:
13047:
13046:
13041:
13040:by F. Sezgin"
13039:
13033:
13029:
13026:
13022:
13018:
13014:
13010:
13007:
13003:
12999:
12995:
12994:
12989:
12985:
12981:
12977:
12973:
12969:
12966:
12962:
12958:
12954:
12950:
12945:
12942:
12938:
12934:
12930:
12926:
12921:
12918:
12912:
12908:
12904:
12903:
12897:
12893:
12880:
12866:
12862:
12858:
12857:
12851:
12847:
12843:
12838:
12834:
12830:
12826:
12821:
12817:
12810:
12797:
12790:
12784:
12780:
12776:
12772:
12768:
12764:
12760:
12756:
12751:
12747:
12738:
12731:
12727:
12723:
12719:
12718:
12713:
12711:
12704:
12700:
12694:
12687:
12681:
12677:
12673:
12669:
12664:
12661:
12657:
12653:
12649:
12644:
12641:
12635:
12631:
12627:
12622:
12618:
12613:
12610:
12606:
12602:
12598:
12597:
12591:
12587:
12583:
12578:
12575:
12569:
12565:
12561:
12556:
12553:
12551:0-7141-2733-7
12547:
12543:
12539:
12535:
12530:
12527:
12523:
12519:
12515:
12510:
12507:
12503:
12498:
12495:
12491:
12487:
12483:
12482:
12476:
12472:
12467:
12464:
12460:
12456:
12452:
12451:
12446:
12441:
12438:
12434:
12431:(2): 98–108,
12430:
12426:
12425:
12419:
12416:
12412:
12408:
12404:
12400:
12395:
12392:
12388:
12384:
12380:
12379:
12373:
12370:
12366:
12362:
12358:
12357:
12352:
12347:
12344:
12340:
12336:
12332:
12331:
12325:
12322:
12318:
12314:
12310:
12309:
12303:
12299:
12294:
12290:
12286:
12281:
12278:
12272:
12268:
12263:
12260:
12254:
12250:
12246:
12241:
12238:
12236:0-7486-0455-3
12232:
12228:
12224:
12220:
12216:
12206:
12205:
12200:
12196:
12190:
12186:
12182:
12179:
12175:
12171:
12167:
12163:
12159:
12150:
12149:
12144:
12140:
12137:
12131:
12127:
12123:
12118:
12108:
12104:
12103:
12098:
12093:
12084:
12083:
12077:
12073:
12069:
12065:
12060:
12056:
12049:
12036:
12029:
12025:
12021:
12017:
12016:Duhem, Pierre
12013:
12010:
12006:
12002:
11997:
11993:
11992:
11986:
11983:
11975:
11962:
11953:
11950:
11944:
11940:
11935:
11932:
11928:
11923:
11922:
11913:
11910:
11908:
11905:
11903:
11900:
11898:
11895:
11893:
11890:
11888:
11885:
11883:
11880:
11878:
11875:
11873:
11870:
11868:
11865:
11863:
11860:
11858:
11855:
11853:
11850:
11848:
11845:
11843:
11840:
11839:
11827:
11821:
11814:
11808:
11801:
11795:
11789:, p. 30)
11788:
11782:
11776:, p. 29)
11775:
11769:
11762:
11756:
11742:
11738:
11732:
11726:, p. 62)
11725:
11719:
11712:
11706:
11700:, p. 17)
11699:
11693:
11686:
11682:
11676:
11669:
11665:
11664:
11659:
11658:"Al-Khujandi"
11655:
11648:
11640:
11636:
11629:
11622:
11616:
11609:
11606:
11600:
11593:
11587:
11579:
11572:
11570:
11568:
11560:
11554:
11552:
11550:
11542:
11537:
11528:
11519:
11517:
11509:
11503:
11495:
11488:
11481:
11476:
11473:
11467:
11460:
11454:
11447:
11441:
11439:
11437:
11429:
11423:
11416:
11410:
11402:
11398:
11391:
11377:
11373:
11367:
11360:
11354:
11341:
11330:
11328:
11326:
11318:
11312:
11304:
11300:
11299:Sayili, Aydin
11294:
11287:
11281:
11274:
11268:
11261:
11255:
11248:
11242:
11240:
11233:, p. 56)
11232:
11226:
11218:
11214:
11208:
11193:
11189:
11183:
11176:
11173:
11167:
11160:
11154:
11146:
11137:
11124:
11120:
11119:
11112:
11110:
11102:
11098:
11094:
11090:
11089:
11081:
11068:
11064:
11060:
11056:
11052:
11048:
11041:
11028:
11024:
11020:
11016:
11012:
11011:
11006:
11002:
10996:
10988:
10984:
10975:
10961:
10960:
10952:
10945:
10942:
10936:
10929:
10923:
10916:
10910:
10902:
10893:
10879:
10875:
10874:
10866:
10859:
10857:
10852:
10847:
10840:
10834:
10827:
10821:
10819:
10817:
10809:
10803:
10799:
10795:
10788:
10781:
10775:
10771:
10767:
10760:
10746:
10742:
10736:
10729:
10723:
10719:
10715:
10708:
10700:
10696:
10687:
10680:
10676:
10672:
10668:
10661:
10654:
10650:
10645:
10638:
10634:
10633:
10628:
10624:
10617:
10603:
10602:
10597:
10590:
10583:
10577:
10564:
10553:
10551:
10543:
10537:
10535:
10533:
10531:
10517:
10513:
10509:
10505:
10501:
10500:
10495:
10488:
10481:
10475:
10471:
10467:
10459:
10452:
10446:
10442:
10438:
10430:
10423:
10417:
10413:
10409:
10401:
10394:
10388:
10384:
10380:
10373:
10366:
10360:
10356:
10352:
10345:
10343:
10335:
10329:
10325:
10321:
10314:
10312:
10303:
10299:
10295:
10288:
10280:
10274:
10270:
10264:
10262:
10260:
10252:
10246:
10242:
10236:
10229:
10223:
10216:
10210:
10203:(2): 125–142
10202:
10198:
10191:
10184:
10179:
10175:
10168:
10155:(4): 538–541
10154:
10150:
10143:
10136:
10129:(2): 125–142
10128:
10124:
10117:
10115:
10100:
10096:
10089:
10082:
10080:
10072:(2): 125–142
10071:
10067:
10060:
10053:
10047:
10040:
10034:
10032:
10024:
10020:
10016:
10012:
10011:
10006:
10002:
9995:
9988:
9985:
9981:
9980:David Pingree
9976:
9969:
9963:
9954:
9947:
9941:
9934:
9931:D. Campbell,
9928:
9921:
9917:
9911:
9904:
9898:
9896:
9888:
9884:
9880:
9876:
9872:
9868:
9864:
9857:
9850:
9846:
9842:
9838:
9834:
9830:
9826:
9819:
9817:
9809:
9805:
9801:
9797:
9793:
9789:
9785:
9778:
9771:
9765:
9758:
9752:
9748:
9744:
9737:
9735:
9726:
9721:|author=
9709:
9702:
9698:
9694:
9687:
9680:
9674:
9670:
9666:
9659:
9657:
9655:
9647:
9641:
9637:
9633:
9626:
9624:
9622:
9614:
9608:
9604:
9597:
9590:(5): 233–238
9589:
9585:
9578:
9576:
9568:
9562:
9560:
9552:
9546:
9544:
9536:
9532:
9526:
9519:
9513:
9509:
9505:
9497:
9489:
9485:
9478:
9465:
9461:
9460:
9455:
9448:
9441:
9437:
9431:
9424:
9420:
9414:
9408:
9406:
9400:
9394:
9392:
9386:
9384:
9377:(4): 395-396.
9376:
9373:
9367:
9360:
9354:
9352:
9344:
9338:
9331:
9325:
9318:
9312:
9304:
9298:
9285:
9281:
9280:
9272:
9265:
9259:
9245:
9241:
9237:
9233:
9227:
9220:
9214:
9207:
9201:
9194:
9188:
9186:
9184:
9182:
9174:
9171:
9165:
9158:
9152:
9144:
9140:
9136:
9130:
9122:
9116:
9110:
9103:
9097:
9090:
9084:
9076:
9070:
9064:
9062:
9054:
9050:
9044:
9036:
9030:
9024:
9017:
9011:
9009:
9001:
8995:
8988:
8982:
8975:
8969:
8962:
8956:
8949:
8943:
8936:
8930:
8923:
8917:
8911:, p. 28)
8910:
8904:
8897:
8891:
8883:
8874:
8860:
8859:
8851:
8844:
8838:
8831:
8825:
8818:
8812:
8805:
8801:
8797:
8793:
8789:
8782:
8780:
8772:
8768:
8764:
8760:
8756:
8749:
8742:
8736:
8729:
8723:
8716:
8710:
8696:
8693:Dennis Duke.
8689:
8682:
8676:
8669:
8665:
8664:
8659:
8655:
8648:
8640:
8636:
8632:
8625:
8623:
8614:
8608:
8590:
8583:
8576:
8570:
8566:
8559:
8545:
8541:
8534:
8532:
8524:
8518:
8511:
8507:
8503:
8499:
8498:
8493:
8486:
8484:
8476:
8470:
8464:, p. 57)
8463:
8457:
8450:
8444:
8437:
8433:
8429:
8425:
8418:
8416:
8414:
8406:
8402:
8396:
8389:
8385:
8379:
8372:
8368:
8365:
8359:
8352:
8348:
8343:
8334:
8327:
8321:
8315:
8299:
8295:
8289:
8285:
8278:
8270:
8264:
8263:Zaimeche 2002
8258:
8256:
8254:
8239:
8233:
8219:
8213:
8205:
8200:|author=
8188:
8181:
8179:0-943396-58-1
8175:
8171:
8164:
8155:
8149:
8148:Zaimeche 2002
8145:
8139:
8135:
8131:
8125:
8118:
8114:
8108:
8101:
8095:
8088:
8082:
8075:
8071:
8067:
8063:
8062:
8054:
8047:
8043:
8039:
8035:
8034:
8026:
8024:
8016:
8010:
7997:
7993:
7992:
7987:
7983:
7976:
7961:
7955:
7941:
7935:
7928:
7922:
7915:
7911:
7907:
7901:
7895:
7890:
7883:
7877:
7875:
7873:
7871:
7863:
7858:
7850:
7838:
7826:
7813:
7810:
7803:
7801:
7794:
7790:
7785:
7779:
7775:
7770:
7756:
7749:
7736:
7735:
7727:
7721:
7717:
7712:
7706:
7702:
7697:
7690:
7684:
7671:
7667:
7663:
7656:
7654:
7652:
7650:
7648:
7640:
7634:
7632:
7630:
7628:
7626:
7624:
7622:
7614:
7608:
7606:
7604:
7602:
7600:
7598:
7589:
7588:
7580:
7567:
7560:
7559:
7551:
7544:
7540:
7536:
7532:
7525:
7519:
7515:
7510:
7503:
7497:
7482:
7476:
7470:
7465:
7459:
7454:
7447:
7441:
7437:
7433:
7426:
7418:
7410:
7408:
7406:
7404:
7402:
7400:
7391:
7385:
7371:
7367:
7360:
7358:
7356:
7348:
7342:
7338:
7331:
7324:
7318:
7316:
7314:
7312:
7310:
7308:
7306:
7304:
7302:
7300:
7298:
7296:
7294:
7286:
7280:
7276:
7269:
7267:
7266:ancient Greek
7263:
7259:
7255:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7239:
7235:
7231:
7227:
7223:
7219:
7215:
7211:
7207:
7203:
7199:
7195:
7191:
7187:
7183:
7179:
7175:
7171:
7167:
7163:
7159:
7155:
7149:
7135:
7132:
7131:
7129:
7125:
7122:
7121:
7119:
7118:Ali al-Qushji
7116:
7112:
7109:
7108:
7106:
7105:Ibn al-Shatir
7103:
7099:
7096:
7095:
7093:
7090:
7086:
7083:
7082:
7080:
7077:
7072:
7068:
7065:
7064:
7062:
7059:
7054:
7050:
7047:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7038:
7034:
7031:
7026:
7023:
7022:
7020:
7017:
7012:
7008:
7005:
7004:
7002:
6999:
6994:
6991:
6988:
6985:
6982:
6979:
6977:
6974:
6973:
6972:) (965-1039)
6971:
6967:
6964:
6960:
6957:
6954:
6951:
6950:
6948:
6944:
6941:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6931:Astral Motion
6929:
6927:
6924:
6923:
6921:
6917:
6914:
6913:
6907:
6905:
6901:
6897:
6893:
6889:
6885:
6881:
6877:
6873:
6870:armillary of
6869:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6844:
6842:
6837:
6835:
6831:
6827:
6823:
6819:
6815:
6811:
6807:
6797:
6795:
6794:
6789:
6788:
6783:
6779:
6775:
6771:
6767:
6763:
6758:
6754:
6750:
6746:
6731:
6730:Unbored Pearl
6728:
6727:
6725:
6722:
6717:
6716:
6715:Zij-i-Sultani
6712:
6711:
6709:
6706:
6702:
6699:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6688:
6684:
6683:
6682:Zij-i Ilkhani
6679:
6678:
6676:
6673:
6669:) (1115–1116)
6668:
6664:
6661:
6660:
6658:
6655:
6651:
6650:
6646:
6645:
6643:
6639:
6636:
6632:
6629:
6628:
6626:
6623:
6618:
6617:
6613:
6612:
6610:
6606:
6603:
6599:
6596:
6595:
6593:
6589:
6586:
6581:
6578:
6577:
6575:
6571:
6567:
6564:
6560:
6557:
6556:
6554:
6551:
6546:
6543:
6542:
6541:(d. 796/806)
6540:
6537:(d. 777) and
6536:
6533:
6532:
6530:
6523:Zij treatises
6512:
6508:
6504:
6503:
6502:Shadow square
6499:
6496:
6492:
6488:
6484:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6469:
6465:
6462:, two unique
6461:
6457:
6455:
6451:
6448:
6444:
6443:regular grids
6440:
6436:
6432:
6431:
6430:regular grids
6427:
6423:
6420:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6406:Ibn al-Shatir
6403:
6401:
6397:
6394:
6393:
6389:
6388:
6387:
6379:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6366:invented the
6365:
6361:
6354:
6351:
6350:
6349:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6332:
6329:
6328:
6327:
6325:
6321:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6298:
6297:Mural sextant
6295:
6294:
6288:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6266:
6263:
6262:
6260:
6256:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6241:
6234:
6231:
6230:
6226:
6222:
6218:
6215:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6181:
6174:
6171:
6170:
6169:
6166:
6162:
6155:
6152:
6151:
6150:
6147:
6143:
6139:
6135:
6128:
6127:Sine quadrant
6125:
6124:
6120:
6116:
6112:
6107:
6103:
6101:
6097:
6093:
6083:
6081:
6077:
6073:
6069:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6056:
6051:
6047:
6040:
6037:
6036:
6035:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6009:
6002:
5999:
5998:
5997:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5968:
5965:
5964:
5958:
5956:
5952:
5947:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5925:
5921:
5917:
5913:
5909:
5905:
5901:
5897:
5893:
5890:
5883:
5880:
5879:
5878:
5876:
5871:
5869:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5847:
5844:
5843:
5842:
5840:
5839:Islamic world
5836:
5829:
5826:
5825:
5821:
5816:
5812:
5810:
5806:
5799:
5796:
5795:
5791:
5786:
5777:
5775:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5758:Ibn al-Shatir
5752:
5749:
5748:
5747:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5733:
5726:
5723:
5722:
5721:
5718:
5714:
5713:Ibn al-Shatir
5708:
5706:
5705:Ibn al-Shatir
5702:
5698:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5667:
5664:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5656:
5652:
5642:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5602:
5599:
5598:
5597:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5580:
5579:water-powered
5576:
5570:
5567:
5566:
5565:
5563:
5553:
5551:
5547:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5508:
5505:
5504:
5503:
5501:
5497:
5493:
5486:
5483:
5482:
5481:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5449:
5446:
5445:
5444:
5442:
5438:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5399:
5396:
5395:
5394:
5392:
5388:
5384:
5380:
5376:
5372:
5366:
5363:
5362:
5358:
5354:
5349:
5345:
5343:
5339:
5335:
5331:
5324:
5321:
5320:
5319:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5298:
5295:
5291:
5285:
5282:
5281:
5280:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5239:
5236:
5235:
5234:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5206:
5204:
5197:
5194:
5193:
5192:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5175:
5172:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5158:
5154:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5137:
5134:
5133:
5132:
5130:
5126:
5122:
5118:
5113:
5111:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5092:
5089:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5075:
5071:
5069:
5065:
5059:
5056:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5038:
5034:
5032:
5028:
5024:
5020:
5016:
5009:
5006:
5005:
5004:
5002:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4991:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4915:is dated 315
4914:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4892:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4872:
4865:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4833:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4805:Mughal Empire
4801:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4773:
4772:
4771:Zij-i-Sultani
4767:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4721:
4720:
4719:Zij-i Ilkhani
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4671:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4658:, a.k.a. the
4657:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4633:
4628:
4624:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4607:. Reports by
4606:
4602:
4598:
4597:mural sextant
4594:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4516:
4512:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4470:Observatories
4467:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4408:
4404:
4399:
4397:
4392:
4391:
4390:Zij-i-Sultani
4386:
4382:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4357:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4331:Mughal Empire
4326:
4322:
4312:
4310:
4305:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4290:decimal point
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4274:Unbored Pearl
4271:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4253:
4240:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4224:
4217:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4206:George Saliba
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4190:Ibn al-Shatir
4182:
4172:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4156:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4137:
4135:
4131:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4112:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4044:Ali al-Qushji
4037:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4016:Ali al-Qushji
4013:
4008:
3998:
3996:
3995:Mughal Empire
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3965:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3950:
3949:Zij-i Ilkhani
3946:(such as the
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3916:
3914:
3910:
3909:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3891:Peter Alfonsi
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3851:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3797:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3765:
3761:
3753:
3750:
3746:
3737:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3701:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3679:Zhu Yuanzhang
3676:
3671:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3624:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3579:, founded by
3578:
3573:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3550:
3548:
3544:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3527:
3524:
3521:
3517:
3516:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3429:sidereal year
3426:
3425:
3424:Zij-i Sultani
3420:
3417:. Founded by
3416:
3412:
3408:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3368:
3363:
3362:Zij-i Sultani
3359:
3349:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3217:
3207:
3205:
3204:Nicole Oresme
3201:
3197:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3069:Ibn al-Shatir
3063:
3058:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3047:heliocentrism
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3018:
3014:
3013:philosophical
3010:
3006:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2981:Ibn al-Shatir
2978:
2974:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2867:Ali al-Qushji
2865:(1304–1375),
2864:
2863:Ibn al-Shatir
2860:
2856:
2853:(1201–1274),
2852:
2848:
2844:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2815:
2814:Zij-i Ilkhani
2809:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2792:Ibn al-Kammad
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2772:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2751:
2745:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2728:
2726:
2722:
2716:
2712:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2677:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2646:Ibn al-Saffar
2643:
2639:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2616:rejected the
2615:
2611:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2579:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2566:, a pupil of
2565:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2495:
2493:
2492:earth rotates
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2448:
2444:
2443:heliocentrism
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2403:Occam's razor
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2377:
2376:infinitesimal
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2328:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2317:observational
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2237:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2206:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2178:
2174:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2139:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2035:
2033:
2032:four elements
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2008:Ibn al-Shatir
2005:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1944:lunar eclipse
1941:
1940:solar eclipse
1937:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1860:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1722:Immanuel Kant
1715:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1642:creation myth
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1601:
1599:
1598:Masudic Canon
1595:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1559:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1516:In 1006, the
1514:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1491:Simon Newcomb
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1465:constellation
1462:
1458:
1457:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1419:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1398:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1307:
1306:al-Khwarizimi
1303:
1299:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1157:translation,
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1109:
1104:
1096:
1091:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1066:sine function
1062:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1032:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1003:
999:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
971:
963:
960:
956:
953:
948:
946:
933:
929:
926:
922:
919:
915:
911:
908:
904:
900:
899:
898:
896:
891:
889:
885:
881:
877:
872:
868:
864:
860:
857:knowledge of
856:
847:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
785:
781:
777:
772:
767:
757:
755:
752:, and in the
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
730:time of Salah
727:
723:
719:
714:
712:
708:
707:crescent moon
704:
700:
695:
693:
689:
684:
680:
675:
673:
666:
662:
657:
653:
649:
646:
642:
636:Islamic rules
633:
631:
630:
625:
621:
617:
616:Ali al-Qushji
613:
609:
608:occasionalism
605:
601:
597:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
546:
542:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
514:
510:
508:
504:
500:
499:contemplation
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
473:
469:
468:
463:
458:
456:
451:
447:
441:
431:
429:
428:trigonometric
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
382:
381:Metonic cycle
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
336:
334:
329:
320:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
285:
283:
279:
276:) as well as
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
210:Islamic world
207:
203:
199:
195:
184:
181:
173:
167:
165:
158:
157:
152:
151:
146:
141:
132:
131:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
91:
84:
80:
75:
73:Gun Powder Ma
68:
67:
64:
59:
52:
39:
35:
30:
28:Gun Powder Ma
23:
15112:Sufi studies
15083:Other fields
15029:
14963:Contemporary
14886:consultation
14708:Architecture
14525:Institutions
14376:Eccentricity
14336:Astrophysics
14230:Compass rose
14165:
14158:
14151:
14139:
14132:
14117:
14105:
14098:
14091:
14084:
14077:
13943:Ibn al-Majdi
13918:Abd al‐Wajid
13877:Al-Wabkanawi
13872:Abū al‐ʿUqūl
13761:Jamal ad-Din
13730:Omar Khayyam
13558:Al-ʻIjliyyah
13533:Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī
13518:Ibn al-A'lam
13437:Al-Khwarizmi
13288:
13208:
13198:
13187:
13175:
13165:, retrieved
13156:
13136:
13132:
13119:, retrieved
13110:
13084:
13072:
13068:
13049:
13043:
13037:
13016:
12997:
12991:
12979:
12975:
12972:Sabra, A. I.
12956:
12952:
12928:
12924:
12900:
12869:, retrieved
12855:
12845:
12841:
12828:
12824:
12770:
12758:
12754:
12721:
12715:
12709:
12667:
12651:
12647:
12625:
12616:
12600:
12594:
12585:
12581:
12559:
12537:
12517:
12513:
12501:
12485:
12479:
12470:
12454:
12448:
12444:
12428:
12422:
12406:
12402:
12385:(1): 42–50,
12382:
12376:
12360:
12354:
12334:
12328:
12312:
12306:
12297:
12288:
12284:
12266:
12244:
12222:
12208:, retrieved
12203:
12188:
12169:
12165:
12152:, retrieved
12147:
12121:
12111:, retrieved
12106:
12100:
12086:, retrieved
12081:
12071:
12063:
12019:
12000:
11989:
11981:
11970:|title=
11938:
11926:
11820:
11813:Kennedy 1961
11807:
11799:
11794:
11781:
11768:
11755:
11744:. Retrieved
11731:
11718:
11705:
11692:
11680:
11675:
11661:
11647:
11638:
11634:
11628:
11615:
11607:
11604:
11599:
11586:
11577:
11536:
11527:
11502:
11493:
11487:
11479:
11474:
11471:
11466:
11453:
11422:
11409:
11400:
11396:
11390:
11379:. Retrieved
11366:
11349:|title=
11311:
11302:
11293:
11280:
11273:Kennedy 1951
11267:
11260:Kennedy 1952
11254:
11247:Kennedy 1950
11231:Kennedy 1947
11225:
11207:
11196:. Retrieved
11182:
11174:
11171:
11166:
11153:
11126:, retrieved
11117:
11095:(1): 11–34,
11092:
11086:
11080:
11070:, retrieved
11054:
11050:
11040:
11030:, retrieved
11021:: 122–127 ,
11014:
11008:
10995:
10963:, retrieved
10958:
10956:Nick Kanas,
10951:
10946:(1): 63-70 .
10943:
10940:
10935:
10922:
10909:
10882:, retrieved
10872:
10865:
10860:, p. 239-45.
10854:
10846:
10833:
10793:
10787:
10765:
10759:
10748:. Retrieved
10735:
10713:
10707:
10673:: 289–303 ,
10670:
10666:
10660:
10652:
10644:
10630:
10616:
10606:, retrieved
10600:
10589:
10572:|title=
10542:Kennedy 1962
10519:, retrieved
10510:: 389–392 ,
10503:
10497:
10487:
10464:
10458:
10435:
10429:
10406:
10400:
10378:
10372:
10350:
10319:
10297:
10293:
10287:
10268:
10244:
10235:
10222:
10209:
10200:
10196:
10190:
10181:
10177:
10173:
10167:
10157:, retrieved
10152:
10148:
10135:
10126:
10122:
10103:, retrieved
10098:
10094:
10069:
10065:
10059:
10046:
10017:(1): 116–8,
10014:
10008:
10004:
10000:
9994:
9986:
9983:
9975:
9967:
9962:
9953:
9945:
9940:
9932:
9927:
9919:
9915:
9910:
9902:
9901:V. J. Katz,
9866:
9862:
9856:
9828:
9824:
9787:
9783:
9777:
9769:
9764:
9742:
9723:suggested) (
9692:
9686:
9664:
9631:
9602:
9596:
9587:
9583:
9566:
9550:
9534:
9531:Fred Espenak
9525:
9502:
9496:
9483:
9477:
9467:, retrieved
9457:
9447:
9439:
9435:
9430:
9422:
9413:
9404:
9399:
9390:
9374:
9371:
9366:
9337:
9330:Saliba 1994b
9324:
9311:
9287:, retrieved
9278:
9271:
9264:Saliba 1994b
9258:
9248:, retrieved
9243:
9239:
9226:
9219:Saliba 1994b
9213:
9200:
9193:Saliba 1994b
9175:(1): 39-47 .
9172:
9169:
9164:
9156:
9151:
9138:
9135:Sabra, A. I.
9129:
9109:
9096:
9083:
9048:
9043:
9029:Marmura 1965
9023:
8994:
8981:
8968:
8955:
8942:
8929:
8916:
8903:
8890:
8863:, retrieved
8857:
8850:
8837:
8824:
8811:
8795:
8791:
8762:
8758:
8748:
8741:Saliba 1994b
8735:
8722:
8709:
8698:. Retrieved
8688:
8675:
8661:
8647:
8639:the original
8596:. Retrieved
8582:
8564:
8558:
8547:. Retrieved
8517:
8501:
8495:
8491:
8469:
8456:
8449:Saliba 1994a
8443:
8427:
8423:
8400:
8395:
8387:
8383:
8378:
8366:
8363:
8358:
8342:
8333:
8324:
8319:
8314:
8302:. Retrieved
8298:"References"
8287:
8283:
8277:
8241:. Retrieved
8232:
8221:. Retrieved
8212:
8202:suggested) (
8169:
8163:
8129:
8124:
8113:Wickens 1976
8107:
8094:
8081:
8068:: 108–128 ,
8065:
8059:
8053:
8040:: 108–128 ,
8037:
8031:
8009:
7999:, retrieved
7989:
7975:
7964:. Retrieved
7954:
7943:. Retrieved
7934:
7921:
7914:Kennedy 1956
7909:
7906:Zij al-Sindh
7905:
7900:
7889:
7861:
7857:
7845:|title=
7815:, retrieved
7808:
7784:
7769:
7758:. Retrieved
7748:
7738:, retrieved
7733:
7726:
7711:
7696:
7683:
7673:, retrieved
7669:
7665:
7585:
7579:
7569:, retrieved
7557:
7550:
7534:
7530:
7524:
7509:
7496:
7485:. Retrieved
7475:
7464:
7453:
7431:
7425:
7373:. Retrieved
7336:
7330:
7285:Saliba 1994b
7279:
7186:Baten Kaitos
7151:
7133:
7123:
7110:
7107:(1304–1375)
7097:
7094:(1236–1311)
7084:
7070:
7066:
7063:(1201–1274)
7052:
7048:
7036:
7032:
7024:
7010:
7006:
6992:
6986:
6980:
6975:
6969:
6958:
6952:
6946:
6935:
6930:
6925:
6922:) (800-873)
6919:
6851:
6845:
6838:
6813:
6809:
6803:
6791:
6785:
6765:
6761:
6742:
6729:
6726:(1526–1585)
6713:
6710:(1394–1449)
6700:
6697:(1380–1429)
6686:
6680:
6677:(1201–1274)
6666:
6662:
6647:
6641:
6630:
6614:
6611:) (903-986)
6608:
6597:
6594:) (853-929)
6591:
6579:
6573:
6558:
6544:
6500:
6480:cartographic
6452:
6424:
6398:
6390:
6385:
6378:later used.
6367:
6357:
6352:
6335:
6330:
6323:
6320:astronomical
6301:
6296:
6269:
6264:
6258:
6244:trigonometry
6237:
6232:
6180:al-Khwarizmi
6177:
6172:
6158:
6153:
6131:
6126:
6090:A number of
6089:
6053:
6043:
6038:
6020:experimental
6005:
6000:
5971:
5966:
5955:architecture
5948:
5896:Mughal India
5886:
5881:
5872:
5866:ring of the
5850:
5845:
5832:
5827:
5802:
5797:
5755:
5751:Compass dial
5750:
5729:
5724:
5709:
5692:
5685:Al-Khwarizmi
5670:
5665:
5648:
5638:
5605:
5600:
5573:
5568:
5559:
5532:in terms of
5511:
5506:
5489:
5484:
5452:
5447:
5425:lunar orbits
5413:castle clock
5402:
5397:
5369:
5364:
5327:
5322:
5288:
5283:
5251:invented by
5242:
5237:
5212:
5200:
5195:
5178:
5173:
5147:heliocentric
5140:
5135:
5114:
5095:
5090:
5062:
5057:
5012:
5007:
4999:
4994:
4898:
4873:
4869:
4802:
4787:
4769:
4747:
4717:
4691:
4659:
4648:Omar Khayyám
4640:Malik Shah I
4637:
4568:
4561:
4522:
4513:
4509:observations
4473:
4463:
4460:Bahadur Khan
4455:
4451:
4439:
4432:heliocentric
4424:
4419:
4400:
4388:
4354:
4328:
4306:
4294:observations
4273:
4255:
4222:
4219:
4187:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4158:
4138:
4133:
4129:
4113:
4103:
4042:The work of
4041:
3971:
3947:
3917:
3906:
3902:
3882:
3870:
3867:Al-Khwarizmi
3862:
3848:
3841:Abu al-Qasim
3816:
3808:
3798:
3767:
3721:
3710:Qing Dynasty
3705:
3698:
3681:ordered the
3675:Ming Dynasty
3672:
3631:
3628:Guo Shoujing
3625:
3616:
3597:Jamal ad-Din
3574:
3562:Genghis Khan
3560:accompanied
3554:Yuan Dynasty
3551:
3540:
3513:
3497:Song dynasty
3487:
3483:Song dynasty
3464:
3422:
3404:
3373:
3341:
3317:Aristotelian
3314:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3266:
3260:
3231:, discusses
3228:
3219:
3199:
3192:
3182:
3143:
3116:
3105:observations
3076:
3067:
3050:
3042:
3021:
3002:
2947:
2927:Aristotelian
2915:mathematical
2900:
2843:observations
2817:
2773:
2747:
2730:
2727:(Avempace):
2718:
2714:
2678:
2669:
2665:
2658:North Africa
2635:
2571:
2561:
2549:solar apogee
2545:acceleration
2538:
2530:
2522:
2520:
2516:
2507:heliocentric
2496:
2483:
2479:
2476:Varahamihira
2457:
2435:solar apogee
2431:acceleration
2407:cosmological
2359:
2357:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2330:
2326:
2321:experimental
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2270:
2265:astrophysics
2252:
2225:
2217:
2207:
2191:Aristotelian
2180:
2176:
2159:astrophysics
2156:
2141:
2137:
2111:
2106:
2096:rather than
2071:
2056:heliocentric
2037:
2001:
1979:
1972:mathematical
1967:
1957:
1907:
1884:
1857:
1855:
1838:experimental
1818:astrophysics
1805:
1801:
1795:
1763:astrophysics
1752:
1719:
1705:
1654:Christianity
1619:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1579:
1561:
1515:
1502:
1498:
1477:
1454:
1436:
1416:
1402:
1394:
1365:
1353:precessional
1340:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1321:
1311:
1302:Zij al-Sindh
1301:
1295:
1286:Zij al-Sindh
1285:
1274:Al-Khwarizmi
1234:
1195:
1193:
1188:
1182:
1178:
1162:
1158:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1139:The Greatest
1138:
1134:
1130:
1124:
1116:
1106:
1100:
1094:
1063:
1058:
1029:
1023:
1009:
1000:
980:Muslim world
977:
969:
949:
942:
892:
853:
826:, the north
789:
715:
696:
676:
672:observations
669:
663:in medieval
627:
624:moving Earth
606:doctrine of
571:Aristotelian
548:
544:
531:superstition
516:
512:
485:such as the
465:
459:
443:
385:
368:
342:
326:
286:
262:Indian works
234:North Africa
226:Central Asia
206:astronomical
201:
197:
191:
176:
169:
161:
154:
148:
147:Please help
144:
22:old revision
19:
18:
15052:Mathematics
14713:Calligraphy
14511:Tusi couple
14501:Trepidation
14466:Salah times
14401:Geocentrism
14275:Planisphere
14255:Graph paper
14182:Instruments
14134:Huihui Lifa
14015:Ehmedê Xanî
13974:Al-Birjandi
13953:al-Kubunani
13710:Abu al-Salt
13659:Al-Isfizari
13619:Ibn al-Samh
13498:Abu al-Wafa
13483:al-Khojandi
13387:Al-Farghani
13302:Astronomers
13139:: 328–341,
12805:|date=
12620:, June 2004
12514:Imago Mundi
12301:, June 2003
12292:, June 2003
12172:: 139–163,
12044:|date=
11610:(1): 1-47 .
10985:" ignored (
10851:Will Durant
10697:" ignored (
10228:Ragep 2001a
10215:Ragep 2001b
10039:Saliba 2000
9343:Saliba 1979
9206:Dallal 1999
9115:Saliba 1981
8987:Rashed 2007
8974:Rashed 2007
8961:Rashed 2007
8948:Rashed 2007
8935:Rashed 2007
8922:Rashed 2007
8540:"Ibn Bajja"
8369:, p. 7–55.
8115:, pp.
8100:Singer 1959
8087:Dallal 1999
8015:Dallal 1999
7882:Dallal 1999
7639:Ragep 2001b
7613:Ragep 2001a
7003:(973–1048)
6995:(1029–1039)
6949:) (d. 850)
6910:Other works
6888:al-Khujandi
6864:equinoctial
6732:(1577–1580)
6724:Taqi al-Din
6701:Khaqani Zij
6447:graph paper
6419:Renaissance
6376:Tycho Brahe
6364:Taqi al-Din
6310:, Iran, by
6196:Middle Ages
6146:graph paper
6119:Tycho Brahe
5934:Astronomer
5912:engineering
5860:Declination
5762:timekeeping
5744:Renaissance
5681:Hellenistic
5655:timekeeping
5613:with three
5607:Taqi al-Din
5334:slide chart
5185:planisphere
5174:Planisphere
5162:planisphere
5112:in Persia.
4980:timekeeping
4836:Instruments
4798:Tycho Brahe
4710:Hulagu Khan
4702:Hulegu Khan
4599:in 994 AD.
4477:observatory
4466:tradition.
4444:omnipotence
4359:treatises.
4298:sexagesimal
4282:Tycho Brahe
4262:Taqi al-Din
4260:astronomer
4141:Al-Birjandi
3958:Tusi-couple
3913:Brahmagupta
3887:Abū Ma'shar
3722:Huihui Lifa
3716:in 1659. A
3585:Hulagu Khan
3566:Kublai Khan
3475:Mathematics
3441:Tycho Brahe
3398:astronomer
3390:astronomer
3273:al-mumkinat
3162:al-Birjandi
3101:lunar model
3031:Tusi-couple
2993:Tusi-couple
2939:Tusi-couple
2907:Renaissance
2905:before the
2891:Tusi-couple
2871:al-Birjandi
2869:(c. 1474),
2857:(d. 1277),
2849:(d. 1266),
2782:astronomer
2765:conjunction
2735:occur, but
2705:Aristotle's
2650:Abu al-Salt
2488:Brahmagupta
2472:Brahmagupta
2427:experiments
2389:, separate
2337:Maqâlah fî
2216:or orbits (
2171:gravitation
2130:, and that
2104:) reasons.
2094:conjectural
1996:A. I. Sabra
1936:Afghanistan
1918:experiments
1682:Saadia Gaon
1634:theologians
1590:(c. 1038).
1542:Benedictine
1520:astronomer
1431:Sagittarius
1399:al-Mumtahan
1329:al-Farghani
1318:observatory
1259:financially
1189:Tetrabiblon
1082:timekeeping
1059:Zij al-Shah
1036:Brahmagupta
884:Hellenistic
844:hour circle
581:within the
529:as well as
479:observation
462:set of laws
388:astronomers
375:astronomer
258:Hellenistic
222:Middle East
20:This is an
15144:Categories
15127:philosophy
15074:Psychology
15047:Inventions
15000:solidarity
14950:Philosophy
14930:Secularism
14844:Golden Age
14781:Capitalism
14728:Literature
14615:Influenced
14584:Influences
14456:Precession
14436:Multiverse
14341:Axial tilt
14321:Almucantar
14305:Triquetrum
14245:Equatorium
13994:Takiyüddin
13867:al-Battiwi
13862:Ibn Shuayb
13857:Al-Khalili
13700:Al-Khazini
13695:Al-Kharaqī
13690:Ibn Tufail
13680:Al-Bitruji
13614:Al-Zarqālī
13578:al-Majriti
13528:Al-Saghani
13523:Al-Nayrizi
13508:al-Battani
13427:Iranshahri
13412:Al-Marwazi
13316:by century
13222:052109948X
13167:2008-01-22
13121:2008-01-22
13098:0814780237
12916:0415124107
12871:2008-01-22
12788:0791415155
12685:0824000412
12639:900414188X
12573:9004113673
12276:9679785491
12258:0521529948
12210:2008-01-22
12154:2008-01-22
12135:0415969301
12113:2008-05-18
12088:2008-01-22
11948:0911119434
11918:References
11746:2008-01-22
11711:Iqbal 2003
11698:King 1999b
11592:King 1999a
11381:2008-07-02
11317:King 1999a
11286:Ajram 1992
11198:2008-01-22
11177:(5): 1-69.
11128:2008-09-06
11072:2009-10-13
11032:2009-10-13
11001:David Kahn
10965:2009-10-13
10884:2008-01-22
10807:0226316351
10779:0226316351
10750:2008-01-22
10727:0691114854
10608:2008-01-22
10521:2010-03-29
10479:1402006578
10450:1402006578
10421:1402006578
10392:0791429199
10364:0791429199
10333:8120812565
10159:2010-03-25
10105:2010-03-25
9873:: 25–60 ,
9835:: 25–60 ,
9794:: 25–60 ,
9756:1402006578
9678:1402006578
9645:9058673154
9612:3515082239
9517:1402006578
9469:2010-03-07
9289:2008-02-02
9250:2008-01-25
9102:Sabra 1998
8909:Duhem 1969
8865:2008-01-22
8843:Sabra 1998
8830:Sabra 1998
8715:Sabra 1998
8700:2008-01-22
8681:Sabra 1998
8598:2008-07-08
8574:9835201579
8549:2008-07-11
8523:Rosen 1985
8304:2008-01-22
8243:2007-04-19
8223:2007-04-19
8001:2008-01-15
7966:2008-01-15
7960:"Almagest"
7945:2008-01-15
7817:2008-01-24
7760:2008-01-24
7740:2008-01-24
7675:2010-03-02
7571:2008-01-31
7502:Ilyas 1997
7487:2008-01-24
7445:1402006578
7375:2009-10-02
7346:8120812565
7120:(d. 1474)
7081:(d. 1277)
7043:Al-Khazini
7021:(c. 1070)
6947:Alfraganus
6868:solsticial
6856:triquetrum
6850:wrote the
6834:reflection
6822:triquetrum
6808:wrote the
6806:al-Khazini
6778:Al-Andalus
6753:Babylonian
6743:The word "
6657:Al-Khazini
6638:Al-Zarqali
6472:world maps
6456:indicators
6439:orthogonal
6433:: Islamic
6426:Orthogonal
6412:and polar
6402:instrument
6400:Compendium
6346:Uzbekistan
6302:The first
6240:almucantar
6225:Uzbekistan
6068:refraction
6044:The first
5974:al-Battani
5940:Shah Jahan
5908:metallurgy
5760:devised a
5625:, and the
5528:, and the
5387:equatorial
5306:and eight
5304:gear train
5294:mechanical
5261:longitudes
5257:al-Andalus
5245:Equatorium
5238:Equatorium
5125:Al-Andalus
5121:apothecary
5083:Al-Andalus
5052:, England.
5015:mechanical
5013:The first
4972:navigation
4901:astrolabes
4840:See also:
4821:Shah Jahan
4766:Ali Qushji
4613:al-Zarqall
4416:telescopes
4373:Shah Jahan
4319:See also:
4250:See also:
4225:tradition.
4194:Ali Qushji
4096:Al-Ghazali
4074:to refute
4005:See also:
3997:of India.
3952:and other
3940:Al-Khazini
3859:Al-Battani
3835:brothers,
3774:Al-Andalus
3772:, such as
3758:See also:
3749:Astrolabic
3728:under the
3691:Mashayihei
3677:, Emperor
3656:equatorial
3617:Wannian Li
3589:Fu Mengchi
3547:Al-Hamdani
3543:Al-Battani
3520:al-Battani
3509:Yingtianli
3451:See also:
3437:axial tilt
3415:Uzbekistan
3392:Ibn Bajjah
3388:Andalusian
3332:school of
3321:Avicennian
3293:al-samawat
3289:al-kursiyy
3241:multiverse
3185:Copernicus
3123:al-Battani
2991:using the
2919:hypothesis
2812:See also:
2784:Al-Zarqali
2757:refraction
2725:Ibn Bajjah
2721:Maimonides
2689:al-Bitruji
2681:Ibn Tufail
2654:Al-Andalus
2642:Al-Majriti
2638:al-Andalus
2630:concentric
2599:Al-Andalus
2553:precession
2439:precession
2387:eccentrics
2368:kinematics
2301:physically
2120:divination
2066:See also:
1992:geocentric
1891:atmosphere
1876:Copernican
1690:Al-Ghazali
1614:See also:
1556:See also:
1511:axial tilt
1447:magnitudes
1282:algorithms
1223:and other
1169:until the
1151:Al-megiste
888:translated
764:See also:
587:multiverse
559:Al-Ghazali
487:Platonists
438:See also:
365:solar year
345:Christians
339:Background
313:almucantar
295:, such as
230:Al-Andalus
150:improve it
15122:cosmology
15117:mysticism
15095:Education
15035:cosmology
15030:Astronomy
14990:Astrology
14973:dialectic
14881:consensus
14876:Democracy
14791:Socialism
14758:Economics
14703:Arabesque
14491:Supernova
14446:Obliquity
14431:Moonlight
14331:Astrology
14210:Astrolabe
13989:Piri Reis
13979:al-Khafri
13948:al-Wafa'i
13933:Ulugh Beg
13913:Ali Kuşçu
13887:al-Jadiri
13806:al-Abhari
13604:al-Biruni
13538:Ibn Yunus
13513:Al-Qabisi
13488:al-Khazin
13397:Al-Mahani
13083:(1994b),
13075:: 115–141
13036:"Review:
12982:: 288–330
12907:Routledge
12835:: 145–163
12708:"Review:
12596:Centaurus
12588:: 237–255
12520:: 62–82,
12126:Routledge
11761:King 2002
11724:King 1997
11683:, p. 75,
11559:King 2002
11459:King 1983
11446:King 2004
11428:King 2003
11415:King 2005
11159:Hill 1991
11088:Centaurus
11061:: 1–23 ,
10928:Hill 1985
10839:Nasr 1993
10826:King 1983
10655:, p. 163.
10279:help page
9905:, p. 291.
9887:1432-0657
9849:1432-0657
9808:1432-0657
9719:ignored (
9464:Routledge
9359:Gill 2005
9317:Huff 2003
9089:Nasr 1993
9000:Nasr 1993
8475:Huff 2003
8462:Huff 2003
8384:Al-Abhath
8198:ignored (
8061:Centaurus
8033:Centaurus
7927:King 2002
7835:ignored (
7689:Huff 2003
7417:help page
7170:Aldebaran
6989:(c. 1029)
6983:(c. 1028)
6892:Samarqand
6846:In 1416,
6708:Ulugh Beg
6625:Ibn Yunus
6592:Albategni
6574:Algorismi
6570:Latinized
6555:(d. 796)
6470:-centred
6435:quadrants
6372:equinoxes
6342:Samarkand
6338:Ulugh Beg
6248:astrolabe
6221:Samarkand
6210:Ulugh Beg
6161:latitudes
6132:The sine
6096:quadrants
6086:Quadrants
6032:apertures
6028:moonlight
6024:intensity
5994:telescope
5978:al-Biruni
5776:prayers.
5575:Al-Jazari
5538:latitudes
5518:longitude
5459:astrolabe
5405:Al-Jazari
5403:In 1206,
5375:torquetum
5365:Torquetum
5353:torquetum
5219:latitudes
5079:astrolabe
5050:Cambridge
5042:astrolabe
5001:Ibn Yunus
4976:surveying
4940:Caliphate
4891:prayers.
4887:) or the
4860:astrolabe
4788:In 1577,
4758:Samarkand
4750:Ulugh Beg
4738:Samarkand
4730:Ulugh Beg
4609:Ibn Yunus
4525:al-Ma'mun
4436:universes
4418:. In the
4385:Ulugh Beg
4108:empirical
4050:and then
4048:Samarkand
4018:provided
3968:1450-1900
3936:Ibn Yunus
3857:included
3833:Banū Mūsā
3714:Astronomy
3695:Wu Bozong
3621:latitudes
3593:Fu Mezhai
3522:(858-929)
3479:Astronomy
3419:Ulugh Beg
3411:Samarkand
3190:Proclus's
3146:Samarkand
3139:al-Biruni
3093:empirical
3089:cosmology
2989:epicycles
2923:phenomena
2889:with the
2840:empirical
2750:Milky Way
2737:eccentric
2733:epicycles
2593:art from
2562:In 1070,
2527:Latinized
2497:Abu Said
2468:Aryabhata
2458:In 1030,
2423:Al-Biruni
2372:geometric
2364:cosmology
2313:empirical
2277:Latinized
2226:al-khabar
2201:being an
2144:Milky Way
2116:empirical
2098:empirical
2074:al-Farabi
2058:context.
1998:, noted:
1964:Aristotle
1954:1025-1450
1948:latitudes
1922:Milky Way
1893:, in the
1887:Aristotle
1851:apertures
1847:moonlight
1843:intensity
1824:reflects
1791:empirical
1757:brother,
1755:Banū Mūsā
1544:abbey at
1530:supernova
1524:observed
1483:astrolabe
1479:Ibn Yunus
1371:excentric
1345:obliquity
1184:Harmonica
1103:astronomy
1055:Al-Mansur
863:empirical
776:al-Biruni
746:afternoon
744:, in the
688:Christian
650:from the
620:empirical
472:empirical
297:Aldebaran
266:Byzantine
156:talk page
15057:Medicine
15020:Timeline
14968:Theology
14925:Quietism
14893:Feminism
14868:politics
14824:Timeline
14565:Maragheh
14516:Universe
14486:Sunlight
14451:Parallax
14441:Muwaqqit
14381:Ecliptic
14314:Concepts
14280:Quadrant
14200:Aperture
13715:Averroes
13685:Avempace
13629:Avicenna
13563:Nastulus
13553:al-Sijzi
13478:Al-Adami
13392:Al-Kindi
13154:(2007),
13108:(1999),
13025:New York
12935:: 7–55,
12879:citation
12796:citation
12737:citation
12717:Speculum
12693:citation
12672:New York
12221:(1993),
12109:(10): 74
12035:citation
12009:New York
11961:citation
11836:See also
11641:: 219–42
11340:citation
11301:(1991),
11136:citation
10974:citation
10892:citation
10853:(1950).
10686:citation
10563:citation
10470:Springer
10441:Springer
10412:Springer
9989:: 135-60
9970:, p. 306
9871:Springer
9833:Springer
9792:Springer
9708:citation
9508:Springer
9436:De spera
9297:citation
8873:citation
8607:cite web
8187:citation
7825:citation
7384:cite web
7013:) (1031)
6955:(c. 833)
6904:alhidade
6900:altitude
6848:al-Kashi
6830:quadrant
6762:Almagest
6747:" is an
6739:Almanacs
6689:) (1272)
6642:Arzachel
6619:(c. 964)
6582:(c. 830)
6547:(c. 750)
6410:alhidade
6392:Alhidade
6291:Sextants
6287:times."
6192:altitude
6188:latitude
6134:quadrant
6111:quadrant
6100:sextants
5889:seamless
5864:meridian
5740:latitude
5701:Damascus
5693:muwaqqit
5673:sundials
5666:Sundials
5546:alhidade
5542:ecliptic
5514:al-Kashi
5492:al-Kashi
5466:calendar
5419:and the
5391:ecliptic
5359:(Geber).
5330:volvelle
5323:Volvelle
5300:computer
5223:ecliptic
5213:Various
5143:Al-Sijzi
5110:Al-Sijzi
5102:latitude
4929:azimuths
4817:Jahangir
4784:in 1577.
4774:(1437).
4706:Maragheh
4564:Buwayhid
4541:meridian
4533:Damascus
4505:research
4499:, large
4493:director
4398:below).
4369:Jahangir
4367:, while
4134:Tadhkira
4094:such as
4052:Istanbul
4022:for the
3829:Arzachel
3752:quadrant
3664:decimals
3384:Avicenna
3305:al-qamar
3301:al-shams
3253:universe
3245:Qur'anic
3150:Istanbul
3131:Averroes
3127:Arzachel
3073:Damascus
2929:view of
2685:Averroes
2640:such as
2614:Averroes
2568:Avicenna
2551:and the
2540:Almagest
2499:al-Sijzi
2379:geometry
2341:al-‛âlam
2090:Averroes
2082:Avicenna
2016:Averroes
2012:al-Kindi
1988:paradigm
1976:physical
1929:nebulous
1899:parallax
1826:sunlight
1674:Al-Kindi
1626:universe
1546:St. Gall
1518:Egyptian
1487:eclipses
1405:values.
1403:Almagest
1391:parallax
1387:eclipses
1383:sidereal
1375:new moon
1349:ecliptic
1341:Almagest
1327:In 850,
1255:Damascus
1247:al-Mamun
1231:825-1025
1200:Assyrian
1196:Almagest
1163:Almagest
1159:Almagest
1126:Elements
1117:Almagest
1108:Almagest
1095:Almagest
1012:Sanskrit
988:Sanskrit
945:new moon
880:Sassanid
836:meridian
832:latitude
822:are the
820:vertices
796:ecliptic
699:new moon
661:scholars
583:universe
523:Muhammad
517:Several
509:writes:
430:method.
424:altitude
373:Athenian
357:Passover
305:alhidade
270:European
254:Sassanid
238:Far East
83:contribs
38:contribs
15069:Physics
14913:schools
14816:History
14806:Welfare
14786:Poverty
14776:Banking
14766:History
14743:Pottery
14718:Gardens
14421:Inertia
14411:Gravity
14346:Azimuth
14295:Sundial
14285:Sextant
14235:Dioptra
14225:Compass
14190:Alidade
13801:al-Urdi
13624:Alhazen
13548:Ma Yize
13493:al-Qūhī
13468:al-Sufi
13162:YouTube
12831:(1–2),
12676:Garland
12536:(ed.),
12191:: 64–69
12070:in 1882
12028:Chicago
10983:Mercury
10499:Arabica
9935:, p. 6.
8353:(2004).
8290:: 26–46
7912:, see (
7590:: 68–70
7234:Nashira
7198:Edasich
6970:Alhacen
6896:Azimuth
6884:sextant
6880:versine
6862:, the
6826:dioptra
6745:Almanac
6507:alidade
6495:compass
6491:sundial
6487:Baghdad
6421:Europe.
6414:sundial
6358:At the
6304:sextant
6285:Ottoman
6217:sextant
6184:Baghdad
6142:Baghdad
6046:optical
5904:Kashmir
5770:compass
5766:sundial
5736:Baghdad
5633:of the
5627:seconds
5623:minutes
5530:planets
5520:of the
5478:machine
5461:with a
5455:Isfahan
5433:gateway
5429:pointer
5411:, the "
5383:horizon
5316:machine
5273:planets
5247:was an
4990:, etc.
4964:Al-Sufi
4944:Ramadan
4937:Abbasid
4933:horizon
4931:on the
4905:Islamic
4877:Islamic
4856:Iranian
4852:Persian
4809:Humayun
4803:In the
4670:today.
4644:Isfahan
4638:It was
4621:Cordoba
4605:Baghdad
4581:Ptolemy
4553:planets
4537:Baghdad
4497:program
4361:Humayun
4329:In the
4272:(named
4258:Ottoman
4210:Safavid
4198:Mercury
4165:tajriba
4149:inertia
4076:Ptolemy
3683:Chinese
3638:at the
3613:almanac
3607:and an
3505:Ma Yize
3489:Ma Yize
3471:Abbasid
3396:Maragha
3342:Matalib
3330:Ash'ari
3326:atomism
3285:al-arsh
3261:Matalib
3229:Matalib
3109:testing
2985:Mercury
2955:physics
2759:in the
2697:Ptolemy
2622:Ptolemy
2603:Alcázar
2557:Ptolemy
2478:in his
2309:Ptolemy
2291:). The
2257:Ptolemy
2197:and of
2132:Mercury
2128:planets
2114:, used
1960:Ptolemy
1828:like a
1810:physics
1787:testing
1747:Baghdad
1650:Judaism
1576:Ptolemy
1572:Alhazen
1526:SN 1006
1495:Laplace
1469:Isfahan
1357:apogees
1347:of the
1278:algebra
1251:Baghdad
1241:Abbasid
1221:Persian
1204:Persian
1155:Western
1143:megiste
1113:Ptolemy
974:Impetus
966:700-825
939:610-700
850:History
800:horizon
792:Ptolemy
780:Persian
754:evening
738:sunrise
726:mosques
604:Ash'ari
555:Ash'ari
553:of the
535:eclipse
519:hadiths
446:Muslims
392:Ptolemy
309:azimuth
291:in the
250:Islamic
192:In the
15100:Ijazah
14980:Ethics
14771:Agency
14738:Poetry
14396:Galaxy
14391:Equant
14326:Apogee
14270:Octant
14047:Topics
13219:
13095:
12913:
12785:
12682:
12636:
12570:
12548:
12506:London
12273:
12255:
12233:
12132:
11945:
11357:, in (
11194:. 2005
10981:Text "
10915:Hassan
10880:, 2007
10804:
10776:
10724:
10693:Text "
10580:, in (
10476:
10447:
10418:
10389:
10361:
10330:
10304:: 1–28
10249:, in (
9885:
9847:
9806:
9753:
9697:Taipei
9675:
9642:
9609:
9514:
9240:BRIIFS
9053:UNESCO
8861:, 2004
8571:
8405:UNESCO
8176:
8134:Aleppo
8117:117–18
7908:. On
7791:
7776:
7718:
7703:
7516:
7442:
7343:
7256:, and
7226:Lesath
7218:Jabbah
7206:Gienah
7178:Altair
7166:Acamar
7027:(1070)
6874:, the
6820:: the
6774:Toledo
6749:Arabic
6718:(1437)
6609:Azophi
6064:Europe
5982:lenses
5932:Sindhi
5916:globes
5914:. All
5900:Lahore
5780:Globes
5717:gnomon
5677:Indian
5621:, the
5592:, and
5536:; the
5463:geared
5417:zodiac
5389:, and
5271:, and
5145:for a
5136:Zuraqi
4948:prayer
4921:Fazari
4911:. The
4899:Brass
4744:stamp.
4742:Soviet
4686:, and
4617:Toledo
4551:, and
4448:galaxy
4440:awalim
4403:Jesuit
4396:Globes
4276:) and
4072:comets
3989:, the
3985:: the
3977:, but
3843:, and
3831:, the
3780:, and
3776:, the
3718:Korean
3700:Huihui
3636:gnomon
3632:jianyi
3459:, and
3346:vacuum
3297:al-ard
3257:cosmos
3249:worlds
3195:Euclid
3166:comets
3035:equant
2997:equant
2971:nature
2945:only.
2935:linear
2931:motion
2832:equant
2780:Muladi
2776:Toledo
2753:galaxy
2674:revolt
2595:Toledo
2591:Muladi
2576:equant
2484:Indica
2383:equant
2339:hay'at
2228:) of "
2147:galaxy
2028:aether
1925:galaxy
1872:Witelo
1830:mirror
1660:. The
1451:colour
1413:Azophi
1351:, the
1331:wrote
1244:caliph
1225:Muslim
1210:, and
1179:Optics
1167:Europe
1121:Euclid
1074:chords
1052:Caliph
1020:Arabic
996:Arabic
952:Caliph
876:Indian
824:zenith
750:sunset
742:midday
683:Qur'an
681:. The
645:Arabic
591:worlds
495:reason
491:senses
467:tawhîd
450:Qur'an
353:Easter
311:, and
301:Altair
232:, and
14985:Logic
14958:Early
14940:State
14920:Peace
14801:Usury
14796:Trust
14733:Music
14461:Qibla
14250:Globe
14057:Works
11978:, in
11931:Paris
11057:(1),
11017:(1),
10506:(3),
10145:(PDF)
10091:(PDF)
9869:(1),
9831:(1),
9790:(1),
8592:(PDF)
8138:Syria
7910:zijes
7793:2:150
7789:Quran
7778:2:144
7774:Quran
7720:2:189
7716:Quran
7701:Quran
7562:(PDF)
7514:Quran
7272:Notes
7246:Rigel
7230:Mirak
7210:Hadar
7202:Furud
7194:Dabih
7182:Baham
7174:Algol
7154:stars
6841:Egypt
6782:Latin
6483:grids
6476:Qibla
6468:Mecca
6464:brass
6454:Qibla
6316:mural
6273:Syria
6252:Egypt
6214:mural
6200:Salah
6008:light
5990:Latin
5986:light
5920:seams
5868:globe
5774:Salah
5651:dials
5645:Dials
5635:stars
5619:hours
5615:dials
5611:clock
5594:stars
5550:ruler
5437:doors
5421:solar
5312:wired
5081:from
5019:gears
4988:Salah
4984:Qibla
4960:Qibla
4956:Mecca
4952:Salah
4909:qibla
4885:Mecca
4881:Qibla
4862:from
4813:Delhi
4756:, in
4585:stars
4479:as a
4365:Delhi
4347:India
4343:Hindu
4223:hay'a
4169:hissi
3726:Korea
3605:globe
3591:, or
3501:Taizu
3467:China
3277:qadir
3097:solar
3075:, in
2742:stars
2411:Earth
2345:hay'a
2335:, or
2297:hay'a
2293:hay'a
2281:hay'a
2218:falak
2124:stars
2054:in a
1980:hay'a
1968:hay'a
1934:. In
1932:stars
1903:earth
1868:solid
1779:Earth
1658:Islam
1534:Venus
1443:stars
1379:solar
1361:Latin
1212:Roman
1208:Greek
984:Greek
867:Islam
859:stars
838:(the
812:Salah
808:Mecca
748:, at
740:, at
722:Mecca
718:Kaaba
665:Islam
400:stars
390:used
377:Meton
369:circa
328:Islam
289:stars
242:India
14866:and
14695:Arts
14003:17th
13967:16th
13906:15th
13845:14th
13744:13th
13673:12th
13592:11th
13461:10th
13217:ISBN
13093:ISBN
12993:Isis
12911:ISBN
12892:help
12816:link
12809:help
12783:ISBN
12746:help
12699:link
12680:ISBN
12634:ISBN
12568:ISBN
12546:ISBN
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12450:Isis
12378:Isis
12330:Isis
12308:Isis
12271:ISBN
12253:ISBN
12231:ISBN
12130:ISBN
12055:link
12048:help
11974:help
11943:ISBN
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11145:help
11010:Isis
10987:help
10901:help
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10722:ISBN
10699:help
10576:help
10474:ISBN
10466:1997
10445:ISBN
10437:1997
10416:ISBN
10408:1997
10387:ISBN
10359:ISBN
10328:ISBN
10010:Isis
9883:ISSN
9845:ISSN
9804:ISSN
9751:ISBN
9725:help
9673:ISBN
9640:ISBN
9607:ISBN
9512:ISBN
9504:1997
9440:Isis
9303:link
9170:Isis
9121:help
9075:help
9035:help
8882:help
8613:link
8569:ISBN
8497:Isis
8269:help
8204:help
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8154:help
7849:help
7837:help
7705:9:36
7518:6:97
7440:ISBN
7390:link
7341:ISBN
7258:Vega
7254:Tarf
7250:Sadr
7242:Phad
7238:Okda
7222:Keid
7214:Izar
7190:Caph
7156:and
6878:and
6876:sine
6858:and
6493:and
6441:and
6428:and
6109:The
6098:and
6012:moon
5910:and
5902:and
5887:The
5858:and
5833:The
5818:The
5732:dial
5679:and
5653:for
5590:Moon
5548:and
5526:Moon
5524:and
5474:gear
5441:hour
5423:and
5351:The
5328:The
5308:gear
5265:Moon
5243:The
5160:The
5023:gear
4864:1208
4819:and
4764:and
4668:Iran
4619:and
4611:and
4549:Moon
4529:Iraq
4507:and
4371:and
4323:and
4284:and
4161:sath
4082:and
4034:and
3893:and
3823:and
3762:and
3702:Lifa
3658:and
3545:and
3477:and
3378:and
3374:The
3360:and
3338:void
3319:and
3148:and
3137:and
3129:and
2961:and
2826:and
2644:and
2509:and
2474:and
2437:and
2385:and
2319:and
2253:haya
2185:and
2173:as:
2161:and
2088:and
2042:and
1974:and
1878:and
1822:moon
1765:and
1726:time
1656:and
1632:and
1538:Moon
1501:and
1425:and
1381:and
1280:and
1253:and
1217:Arab
1194:The
1173:and
1042:and
1014:and
990:and
955:Umar
882:and
871:Arab
861:was
711:Hajj
565:and
475:data
398:and
396:moon
355:and
349:Jews
347:and
299:and
280:and
268:and
260:and
240:and
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111:diff
99:diff
79:talk
34:talk
14864:Law
14119:Zij
13473:Ibn
13365:9th
13324:8th
13141:doi
13054:doi
13050:101
13002:doi
12961:doi
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12726:doi
12656:doi
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12522:doi
12490:doi
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12433:doi
12411:doi
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12317:doi
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12174:doi
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11097:doi
11063:doi
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10127:XXV
10070:XXV
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