Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

2485:"By his sheer insight into the role of mathematics in describing natural phenomena, this astronomer managed to bring the hay'a tradition to such unparalleled heights that could not be matched anywhere else in the world at that time neither mathematically nor astronomically. By working on the alternative mathematical models that could replace those of Ptolemy, and by scrutinizing the works of his predecessors who were all searching for unique mathematical models that could describe the physical phenomena consistently, this astronomer finally realized that all mathematical modeling had no physical truth by itself and was simply another language with which one could describe the physical observed reality. He also realized that the specific phenomena that were being described by the Ptolemaic models did not have unique mathematical solutions that were subject to the same restraints. Rather there were several mathematical models that could account for the Ptolemaic observations, yield identical predictive results at the same critical points used by Ptolemy to construct his own models (thus accounting for the observations as perfectly as Ptolemy could) and still meet the consistency requirement that was imposed by the Aristotelian cosmology which was adopted by the writers in the 1157:"I have seen the astrolabe called Zuraqi invented by Abu Sa'id Sijzi. I liked it very much and praised him a great deal, as it is based on the idea entertained by some to the effect that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky. By my life, it is a problem difficult of solution and refutation. For it is the same whether you take it that the Earth is in motion or the sky. For, in both cases, it does not affect the Astronomical Science. It is just for the physicist to see if it is possible to refute it." 4246: 2455:. In the 15th century, the influence of Aristotelian physics and natural philosophy was declining due to religious opposition. Al-Qushji thus rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely empirical and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationery Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth. He elaborated on al-Tusi's argument and concluded, on the basis of 4146: 3297: 3683: 847: 973: 3437: 3117: 1948: 2127: 1676:"Ptolemy assumed an arrangement that cannot exist, and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement, for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist." 2057:.... I have explained to you that these difficulties do not concern the astronomer, for he does not profess to tell us the existing properties of the spheres, but to suggest, whether correctly or not, a theory in which the motion of the stars and planets is uniform and circular, and in agreement with observation." 887:

in 830. The work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. The work is significant as it introduced Indian and Ptolemaic concepts into Islamic sciences. This work also marked the turning point in Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had

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kings for use in reckoning the lapse of time between known astronomical events and fixed dates. In addition to its relevance to calculating accurate calendars, it linked far and foreign cultures together by a common interest in the stars and astrology. The work of Ptolemy was replicated and refined

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This is the period of stagnation, when the traditional system of astronomy continued to be practised with enthusiasm, but with decreasing innovation. It was believed there was no innovation of major significance during this period, but this view has been questioned by historians of astronomy in

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A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering approximately 10,000 manuscripts scattered throughout the world, many of which have not been read or cataloged. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.

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Muslims made many improvements to instruments already in use before their time, such as adding new scales or details, and invented many of their own new instruments. Their contributions to astronomical instrumentation are abundant. Many of these instruments were often invented or designed for

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thought in this field. The foundations of Islamic astronomy closely parallels the genesis of other Islamic sciences in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science that was essentially Islamic. These include

1585:"For each heavy body of a known weight positioned at a certain distance from the centre of the universe, its gravity depends on the remoteness from the centre of the universe. For that reason, the gravities of bodies relate as their distances from the centre of the universe." 2381:, Nizam al-Din al-Nisaburi (c. 1311), al-Sayyid al-Sharif al-Jurjani (1339-1413), Ali al-Qushji (d. 1474), and Abd al-Ali al-Birjandi (d. 1525). Al-Tusi was the first to present empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation, using the location of 3135:

Modern knowledge of the instruments used by Muslim astronomers primarily comes from two sources. First the remaining instruments in private and museum collections today, and second the treatises and manuscripts preserved from the Middle Ages.

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made tables for these instruments which considerably shortened the time needed to make specific calculations. Muslim sundials could also be observed from anywhere on the Earth. Sundials were frequently placed on mosques to determine the

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rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory. Ali al-Qushji also improved on al-Tusi's planetary model and presented an alternative planetary model for

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spheres are not excluded by him. I have not heard it from his pupils; and even if it be correct that he discovered such a system, he has not gained much by it, for eccentricity is likewise contrary to the principles laid down by

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Another impetus came from Islamic religious observances, which presented a host of problems in mathematical astronomy. In solving these religious problems the Islamic scholars went far beyond the Greek mathematical methods.

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adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge. Al-Khwarizmi's work marked the beginning of non-traditional methods of study and calculations.

6974:"There is no evidence for the Hellenistic origin of the spherical astrolabe, but rather evidence so far available suggests that it may have been an early but distinctly Islamic development with no Greek antecedents." 2900:

dynasty encouraged the undertaking of extensive works in Astronomy, such as the construction of a large scale instrument with which observations were made in the year 950. We know of this by recordings made in the

1872:"Rotation of the earth would in no way invalidate astronomical calculations, for all the astronomical data are as explicable in terms of the one theory as of the other. The problem is thus difficult of solution." 2081:. Their configurations, however, were not accepted due to the numerical predictions of the planetary positions in their models being less accurate than that of the Ptolemaic model, mainly because they followed 2324:, incorporated the Urdi lemma, and eliminated the need for an equant by introducing an extra epicycle (the Tusi-couple), departing from the Ptolemaic system in a way that was mathematically identical to what 1083:

revolutions, and the only known planetary theory in which this occurs is in the heliocentric theory. His work on planetary theory has not survived, but his astronomical data was later recorded by al-Hashimi,

2643:, and assisted in the planning of scientific explorations of the Moon, including the selection of landing sites for the Apollo missions and the training of astronauts in lunar observations and photography. 4281:

among other things. Al-Wafa'i developed another compendium in the 15th century which he called the "equitorial circle", which also featured a horizontal sundial. These compendia later became popular in

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and space exploration include Essam Heggy who is working in the NASA Mars Exploration Program in the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston, Ahmed Salem, Alaa Ibrahim, Mohamed Sultan, and Ahmed Noor.

2028:"To assert the existence of an eccentric sphere or an epicyclic sphere is contrary to nature. The astronomy of our time offers no truth, but only agrees with the calculations and not with what exists." 1446:, discussed whether the Earth moved and considered how this might be consistent with astronomical computations and physical systems. Several other Muslim astronomers, most notably those following the 3385:

of the observer, and could be used anywhere on the Earth. This universal astrolabe instrument became known in Europe as the "Saphaea". Another astrolabe, the Zuraqi is a unique astrolabe invented by

1868:, he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem. He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters: 1057:

to be 23°32'19" (23.53°), which was a significant improvement over the Greek and Indian estimates of 23°51'20" (23.86°) and 24°, and still very close to the modern measurement of 23°26' (23.44°).

512:. Al-Sadiq argued that if the Sun is moving round the Earth for one year, it cannot suddenly change its course and go round the Earth for one day. He suggested that this could be explained with a 3638:

also invented a mechanical planetary computer which he called the Plate of Zones, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, including the prediction of the true positions in

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The Islamic observatories were similar to modern scientific research institutions, in that "group research was emphasized," and "theoretical investigations went hand in hand with observations."

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During this period, a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. Within the Greek tradition and its successors it was traditional to separate mathematical astronomy (as typified by

1173:"The most prominent of both modern and ancient astronomers have deeply studied the question of the moving earth, and tried to refute it. We, too, have composed a book on the subject called 126: 114: 4335:

to make it more convenient to find the direction and distance to Mecca at the centre from anywhere on the Earth, which may be based on cartographic grids dating back to 10th century

2831:(rather than just a location) was first introduced by medieval Muslim astronomers. The Islamic observatory was the first specialized astronomical institution with its own scientific 1773: 1856:

Abu Said Sinjari, a contemporary of al-Biruni, suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which al-Biruni did not reject. Al-Biruni agreed with the

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were used primarily for solving problems in celestial astronomy. Today, 126 such instruments remain worldwide, the oldest from the 11th century. The altitude of the sun, or the

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and later, are known to have accepted what Kuhn has called the "two-sphere universe" ...—the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the

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by Copernicus, which was mathematically achieved by reversing the direction of the last vector connecting the Earth to the Sun. In the published version of his masterwork,

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did in the 16th century. Ibn al-Shatir's model was in better agreement with empirical observations than any previous model, was also the first that permitted empirical

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are carried out. Islamic observatories were also the first to employ enormously large astronomical instruments in order to improve the accuracy of their observations.

6509: 6453: 4420:, Najm al-Din al-Misri (c. 1325) wrote a treatise describing over 100 different types of scientific and astronomical instruments, many of which he invented himself. 1762:, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the 1484:

in the 11th century, though he himself refuted astrology in another work. The study of astrology was also refuted by other Muslim astronomers at the time, including

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in 9th century Baghdad, center of the development of quadrants. It was used to determine time (especially the times of prayer) by observations of the Sun or stars.

7988: 7966: 1113:"God has placed the Sun at the center of the Universe just as the capital of a country is placed in its middle and the ruler's palace at the center of the city." 1888:), in which he recorded his astronomical findings and formulated astronomical tables. In it he presented a geocentric model, tabulating the distance of all the 7067:

David A. King (December 2003). "14th-Century England or 9th-Century Baghdad? New Insights on the Elusive Astronomical Instrument Called Navicula de Venetiis",

3029:, as well as a library and mosque. Some of the top astronomers of the day gathered there, and from their collaboration resulted important modifications to the 1145:'s followers assigned the first movement from east to west to the Earth and a second movement from west to east to the fixed stars. Al-Biruni also wrote that 4556: 918: 3930:. Muslim astronomers and engineers were the first to write instructions on the construction of horizantal sundials, vertical sundials, and polar sundials. 707:

had previously done with geometrical works, all extant knowledge in the field of astronomy that was known to the author. This work was originally known as

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The period of assimilation and syncretisation of earlier Hellenistic, Indian and Sassanid astronomy occurred during the eighth and early ninth centuries.

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An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina

2447:'s claim that a stationery Earth can be determined through observation alone. Al-Tusi, however, accepted that the Earth was stationery on the basis of 1937:" problem of the Ptolemic model, and proposed a solution for the problem. He claimed that his teacher Avicenna had also worked out the equant problem. 1978:

took up the challenge earlier posed by Ibn al-Haytham, namely to develop an alternate non-Ptolemaic configuration that evaded the errors found in the

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E. S. Kennedy (1952), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's Tabaq al-Maneteq II: Longitudes, Distances, and Equations of the Planets",

3720:. It was an Islamic variation of the astrolabe and the armillary sphere, of which only one complete instrument, from the 14th century, has survived. 4727: 7993: 907:

based on findings of earlier Arab astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the

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accurately observed more than 10,000 entries for the sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1.4 metres.

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of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the earth. The books were widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into

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in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science that was essentially

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from astronomy, free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. The model also propounded the

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After the 16th century, there were no more significant astronomical innovations from the Islamic world until the 20th century, when Muslim

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Emilie Savage-Smith (1988), "Gleanings from an Arabist's Workshop: Current Trends in the Study of Medieval Islamic Science and Medicine",

3952:. This was later known in Europe as the "Navicula de Venetiis", which was considered the most sophisticated timekeeping instrument of the 504:'s theory of the sun having two movements, one going around the Earth in one year and the other going round the earth in 24 hours causing 8008: 3487: 2162:. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and 6916:

E. S. Kennedy (1950), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's Tabaq al-Manateq I. Motion of the Sun and Moon in Longitude",

2266:(d. 1266) was the first of the Maragheh astronomers to develop a non-Ptolemaic model, and he proposed a new theorem, the "Urdi lemma". 817:

The period throughout the ninth, tenth and early eleventh centuries was one of vigorous investigation, in which the superiority of the

4214:, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements. 7998: 7800: 7624: 1220:, unlike the ancients who believed that the celestial spheres followed their own set of physical laws different from that of Earth. 8020: 6883: 6867: 4534: 4355: 4043: 4017: 3305: 1594: 1244: 884: 850: 2196:

Some have described their achievements in the 13th and 14th centuries as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "

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grounds by Ibn al-Shatir, and the development of a non-Ptolemaic model by Ibn al-Shatir that was mathematically identical to the

118: 8003: 2166:, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with 1101: 8015: 7958: 3352: 5464: 4068:

and later known as the "Quadrans Vetus" (Old Quadrant) in medieval Europe from the 13th century. It could be used for any

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Roberto Moreno, Koenraad Van Cleempoel, David King (2002). "A Recently Discovered Sixteenth-Century Spanish Astrolabe",

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On the Configuration of the World, Harvard Dissertations in the History of Science, (New York: Garland, 1990), pp. 25-34

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S. Pines (September 1964). "The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni",

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The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the achievements of the "Maragha school", an astronomical tradition beginning in the

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Richard P. Aulie (1994), "Al-Ghazali Contra Aristotle: An Unforeseen Overture to Science In Eleventh-Century Baghdad",

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of astronomy was accepted and significant contributions made to it. Astronomical research was greatly supported by the

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Historians point out several factors that fostered the growth of Islamic astronomy. The first was the proximity of the

6047:(1998), "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy", 3702:. No early Islamic armillary spheres survive, but several treatises on “the instrument with the rings” were written. 2101: 453:"An eclipse is a phenomenon of nature. It is foolish to attribute such things to the death or birth of a human being." 7694: 7488:(1998). "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy," 6729: 5795:(1998), "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy", 5564:(1994). "Early Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Cosmology: A Ninth-Century Text on the Motion of the Celestial Spheres", 5275: 5194: 3180:, corresponding to 927-8CE). The first person credited for building the Astrolabe in the Islamic world is reportedly 2385:

relevant to the Earth as evidence, which al-Qushji elaborated on with further empirical observations while rejecting

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of thought, developed non-Ptolemaic computational models within a geocentric context that were later adapted in the

1439: 1290: 1085: 449:'s death, and rumours began spreading about this being God's personal condolence. Muhammad is said to have replied: 7941: 7881: 7780: 3173: 7541:(NPR discussion of intercultural scientific contacts; astronomy is discussed in the first fifteen-minute segment). 2423:, is seen as a late example of innovation in Islamic astronomy and it is believed he may have had an influence on 7909: 5495: 88: 37: 4138:. The term "almucantar" is itself derived from Arabic. The Almucantar quadrant was originally modified from the 1267:

matter, and he also discovered that the heavens are less dense than the air. These views were later repeated by

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Don't those who reject faith see that the heavens and the earth were a single entity then We ripped them apart?

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David A. King, "Reflections on some new studies on applied science in Islamic societies (8th-19th centuries)",

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is one in which he describes the linear astrolabe, sometimes called the "staff of al-Tusi", which he invented.

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In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, there have also been a number of Muslim astronauts, the first being

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of bodies vary depending on their distances from the centre of the Earth. This phenomenon was not proven until

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The shadow square was an instrument used to determine the linear height of an object, in conjunction with the

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from astronomy by Ibn al-Shatir and al-Qushji, the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than

7562: 5123: 3859:. This is considered one of the most important innovations in 16th century practical astronomy, as previous 3404: 2477:

studied the works of the 16th century astronomer Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550), a commentator on earlier

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are not identical. Al-Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than

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A. Baker and L. Chapter (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy",

1181:), in which we think we have surpassed our predecessors, if not in the words, at all events in the matter." 957:." Around the same time, Yahya Ibn Abi Mansour carried out extensive observations and tests, and wrote the 307:

has divided the history of Islamic astronomy into the four following distinct time periods in its history:

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Silvio A. Bedini, Francis R. Maddison (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi",

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only. Other achievements of the Maragha school include the first empirical observational evidence for the

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about its axis, and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like

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during the ninth century. This process was enhanced by the tolerance towards scholars of other religions.

7981: 7931: 7914: 7871: 7866: 7770: 7722: 2717: 986: 77: 26: 6416: 6369:, "Arabic planetary theories after the eleventh century AD", in Rushdī Rāshid and Régis Morelon (1996), 3281:

were invented in the Muslim world, and were perfected by Ibn Samh (c. 1020). One such device with eight

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was one of the most important key figures in early space exploration. He was one of the founders of the

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World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science

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World-maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science

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F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science",

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F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science",

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grounds, and for relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles:

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was incorrect, even in premise, it remained a standard astronomical text in both the Islamic world and

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invented the Plate of Conjunctions, a computing instrument used to determine the time of day at which

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it. But as soon as you stop the rotation, the stone will fall down on the ground. In the same way the

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Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents",

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model of the universe. He wrote the following criticism on the Ptolemaic model of planetary motion:

903:"). The book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy's 7904: 7610: 7208: 6710: 6436: 5331: 5225: 3902: 3185: 2858:

The first systematic observations in Islam are reported to have taken place under the patronage of

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observations and experimental techniques by Muslim astronomers from the eleventh century onwards.

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The more influential observatories, however, were established beginning in the 13th century. The

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David A. King (1997). "Two Iranian World Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca",

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constructed the "Fakhri Sextant", which had a radius of approximately 36 meters. Constructed in

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constructed the first universal astrolabe which, unlike its predecessors, did not depend on the

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of astronomy. Most of these criticisms, however, continued to follow the Ptolemaic astronomical

275:; their knowledge was what they observed regarding the rising and setting of stars. The rise of 7785: 5321: 4877: 4460: 4432: 4402: 4386: 4187: 4179: 4156: 3540: 3324: 3274: 3231: 2756: 2283: 2186: 2131: 1076: 1050: 639: 7532: 7009: 6726: 6495: 6454:"Muslim Scientists and Space Exploration - Farouk El-Baz: With Apollo to the Moon - Interview" 1500:. Their reasons for refuting astrology were both due to the methods used by astrologers being 654:

used in Hellenistic mathematics. Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for

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G. M. Wickens, "The Middle East as a world Centre of science and medicine", in R. M. Savory,

4573: 4448: 4398: 4290: 4131: 4102: 4057: 4035: 4003: 3617: 3461: 2906: 2263: 2197: 2174: 2074: 2066: 2045: 2009: 1955: 304: 5295: 3948:. It was used for accurate timekeeping by the Sun and Stars, and could be observed from any 7876: 7727: 7654: 6863: 6510:"Muslim Scientists and Space Exploration - Essam Heggy: Into the Heart of Mars - Interview" 6344:, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions, p. 49-64, 66-71. 5053: 4521: 4262:

was invented in the Islamic world, while the term "alhidade" is itself derived from Arabic.

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degrees were measured, solar parameters were established, and detailed observations of the

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Ptolemaic Astronomy, Islamic Planetary Theory, and Copernicus's Debt to the Maragha School

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ran parallel to the interest in mathematics. Especially noteworthy in this regard was the

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Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures

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Edith Dudley Sylla, "Creation and nature", in Arthur Stephen McGrade (2003), p. 178-179,

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of stars could be calculated with these by inputting the location of the observer on the

3713: 3181: 2788: 2518: 2428: 2424: 2393: 2374: 2325: 2245: 2213: 1857: 1850: 1803: 1751: 1547: 1527: 1240: 1205: 1126: 1015: 981: 752: 517: 84: 63: 33: 7461:, ed. Christopher Walker. British Museum Press, (1999), pp. 143-174. ISBN 0-7141-2733-7 6802:

Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering

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used for various astronomical and timekeeping purposes from the 10th century introduced

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was a multi-purpose astronomical instrument, first constructed by the Muslim astronomer

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E. S. Kennedy (1961), "Al-Kashi's Treatise on Astronomical Observational Instruments",

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Y. M. Faruqi (2006). "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise",

5068: 4803: 4507: 3848: 3794: 3774: 3754: 3717: 3543: 3188:, al-Fazari made several improvements to the device. The Arabs then took it during the 2828: 2784: 2748: 2681: 2651: 2448: 2389: 2249: 1922: 1747: 1431: 1096: 643: 613: 473: 311:

Assimilation and syncretisation of earlier Hellenistic, Indian and Sassanid astronomy (

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The first astrolabe instruments were used to read the rise of the time of rise of the

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observed more than 10,000 entries for the sun's position for many years using a large

635:, a collection of astronomical tables compiled in Sassanid Persia over two centuries. 7737: 7732: 7704: 7577: 6673: 6486: 5073: 4503: 3227: 3089: 3085: 2582: 2557: 2522: 2154:. Like their Andalusian predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the 1889: 1551: 1473: 1423: 1294: 1260: 1209: 21: 5842:

To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo

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of the Sun. This was the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the

2942: 2270:(1201-1274) resolved significant problems in the Ptolemaic system by developing the 1193: 7839: 7762: 7514:(2000). "Arabic versus Greek Astronomy: A Debate over the Foundations of Science", 7260: 6612: 6131:

Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy",

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Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy",

6083: 5593: 5058: 4604: 4436: 4153: 3999: 3898: 3828: 3695: 3687: 3655: 3290: 3177: 3030: 2965: 2689: 2542: 2461: 2229: 2111: 1979: 1865: 1822: 1759: 1653: 1407: 1387: 1370:). Muslim scholars developed a program of seeking a physically real configuration ( 1134: 1080: 1035:'s investigations on the motion of the moon, while his other observations inspired 926: 818: 621: 572: 533: 477: 323: 285: 206: 7592: 7587: 7572: 7557: 4241:(d. 1296). This was the first reference to the compass in astronomical literature. 2501:

in 1577, where he carried out astronomical observations until 1580. He produced a

2302:, wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, though he later abandoned the idea. 1853:

on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems.

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and swing it round your head. The stone will stay in the sling so long as you are

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Various other astrononmical instruments were also invented in the Islamic world:

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first described over 1000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as

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reported of Iranian plans to construct a "world class" facility with a 2.0 metre

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astronomy can also be traced back to Ibn al-Haytham, due to the influence of his

1563: 1276: 604: 595: 289: 210: 198: 178: 145: 68: 6534:

The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory

6264:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

6206:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

6177:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

5727:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

5230:

Imam Jafar Ibn Muhammad As-Sadiq A.S. The Great Muslim Scientist and Philosopher

4245: 3040:, himself an astronomer and mathematician, founded another large observatory in 2957: 2392:

altogether. Both of their arguments were similar to the arguments later used by

2208:

included the realization that astronomy should aim to describe the behaviour of

925:

was changing, which in modern astronomy is equivalent to the Earth moving in an

8068: 7926: 7684: 7664: 7222: 7148: 7102: 6897: 6797: 6780: 6538: 6284: 4750: 4332: 3919: 3511: 3335: 2973: 2953: 2662: 2628: 2355: 1998: 1633: 1613: 1489: 1477: 1255: 1250: 1165:, al-Biruni briefly refers to his work on the refutation of heliocentrism, the 802: 789: 785: 651: 591: 380: 372: 7176:

Elly Dekker (1995), "An unrecorded medieval astrolabe quadrant from c. 1300",

7035:

David A. King (1996), "Astronomy and Islamic society", in Roshdi Rashed, ed.,

4084:. One of its main purposes in the Islamic world was to determine the times of 3893:

Muslims made several important improvements to the theory and construction of

3184:. Though the first primitive astrolabe to chart the stars was invented in the 1121:

had met several Indian scholars who believed in a heliocentric system. In his

839:

became the centers of such activity. The caliphs not only supported this work

8090: 7886: 7679: 7511: 7498: 7454: 7444: 7140: 6678: 6366: 6279: 6259: 6226:

F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context",

6201: 6172: 6028: 5722: 5561: 5480: 5476: 4940: 4890: 4670: 4637: 4270: 4072:

on Earth and at any time of the year to determine the time in hours from the

3967: 3927: 3417: 3094: 3044:, the remains of which were excavated in 1908 by Russian teams. And finally, 2938: 2910: 2811: 2740: 2725: 2677: 2612: 2590: 2570: 2474: 2305: 2291: 2253: 2209: 2190: 1915: 1861: 1799: 1732: 1680:

Ibn al-Haytham developed a physical structure of the Ptolemaic system in his

1455: 1411: 1332: 1320: 1072: 1032: 938: 732: 529: 513: 190: 170: 3021:

in the 13th century. Here, al-Tusi supervised its technical construction at

2193:(1304-1375), Ali al-Qushji (c. 1474), and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550). 1758:'s model centuries later. Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of 1105:, in which a heliocentric view of the universe is expressed in a section on 8058: 7317:

David A. King (2002). "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus",

7124:

David A. King (2002). "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus",

6559: 6155: 5953: 5541: 5515: 5258:

David A. King (2002). "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus",

4964: 4298: 4135: 4114: 4110: 4061: 3971: 3906: 3594:'s mechanical calendar computer. Abi Bakr's geared astrolabe uses a set of 3390: 2949: 2859: 2744: 2624: 2553: 2549: 2546: 2386: 2163: 2049: 1899: 1834: 1787: 1743: 1715:

In 1038, Ibn al-Haytham described the first non-Ptolemaic configuration in

1701: 1523: 1336: 1213: 1201: 793: 438: 421:

And the heavens We did create with Our Hands, and We do cause it to expand.

368: 194: 186: 3914:. One of the most striking examples was built in the 14th century by the 1892:

from the central Earth, computed according to the principles of Ptolemy's

407:(610-632) which some modern writers have interpreted as foreshadowing the 7752: 7641: 7485: 6513: 6457: 6044: 5792: 5685: 5659: 5498:(1987). "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", 4679: 4464: 4329: 4302: 4283: 4194:. It was a very large sextant that achieved a high level of accuracy for 4077: 3953: 3876: 3827:

Taqi al-Din invented the "observational clock", which he described as "a

3798: 3771: 3738: 3528: 3441: 3328: 3045: 3026: 3018: 2844: 2824: 2780: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2530: 2526: 2514: 2494: 2271: 2237: 2201: 2170: 2115: 1846: 1830: 1786:

related to astronomical phenomena, and he introduced the analysis of the

1665: 1590: 1535: 1501: 1399: 1395: 1386:

tradition, Muslim astronomers began questioning technical details of the

1375: 1316: 1236: 1130: 711:, but after it had come to be used as a text in astronomy, it was called 609: 297: 182: 6652: 6065:

Geschichte des arabischen Schriftiums. Band VI: Astronomie bis ca. 430 H

5232:, translated by Kaukab Ali Mirza, 2000. Willowdale Ont. ISBN 0969949014. 4324:

engraved on them were produced primarily for the purpose of finding the

4145: 3296: 3052:

in 1577, which was on the same scale as those in Maragha and Samarkand.

520:

on its axis and around the Sun. Al-Sadiq also wrote a theory on how the

5763:

Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence",

5609:

Edward Rosen (1985), "The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres",

4827: 4612: 4593: 4410: 4382: 4370: 4294: 4266: 4211: 4164: 4134:

was invented in the medieval Islamic world, and it employed the use of

4128: 3550: 3491: 3479: 3378: 2976:

to date. A modern version of this calendar is still in official use in

2934: 2685: 2670: 2666: 2606: 2602: 2574: 2456: 2432: 2343: 2329: 2217: 2205: 2078: 2062: 2037: 2033: 2021: 2001:

and not circular orbits, though he still followed the Ptolemaic model.

1975: 1967: 1907: 1795: 1783: 1724: 1669: 1574: 1298: 1054: 950: 934: 892: 272: 245: 7583:

Arabic models for replacing the equant for the outer planets and Venus

5145: 4479:

instrument he invented, and a small armillary sphere incorporating an

4339:. One of the two instruments, produced by Muhammad Husayn, also had a 2069:(Alpetragius), were the first to propose planetary models without any 1997:(Latinized as Arzachel) discovered that the orbits of the planets are 1876:

In 1031, al-Biruni completed his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia

7946: 7649: 7418: 7042: 6948:

E. S. Kennedy (1951), "An Islamic Computer for Planetary Latitudes",

6374: 6304: 4952: 4663: 4468: 4406: 4321: 4207: 4203: 4195: 4183: 4160: 4149: 4139: 4099: 4081: 3767: 3639: 3580: 3495: 3494:, probably around 1015 CE. It is a mechanical device for finding the 3309: 3301: 3260: 3235: 3223: 3192: 3161: 3099: 3065: 3041: 3037: 2998: 2994: 2930: 2416: 2366: 2359: 2221: 2167: 2147: 2082: 2054: 1860:

about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the

1826: 1763: 1720: 1705: 1661: 1625: 1555: 1505: 1485: 1469: 1367: 1351: 1302: 1150: 1142: 1118: 1106: 1024: 1020: 1006: 954: 858: 840: 761: 686: 676: 638:

Fragments of text during this period indicate that Arabs adopted the

628: 434: 404: 400: 229: 149: 7471:

Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham",

7056:

Studies in Astronomical Timekeeping in Medieval Islamic Civilization

6572: 6282:(1979). "The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School", 4431:, which described a variety of different instruments, including the 4117:, and later known in Europe as the "Quadrans Vetus" (New Quadrant). 2791:

in space, mainly related to the characteristics and growth of liver

7386:

Richard Covington (May-June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science",

4480: 4476: 4444: 4424: 4394: 4274: 4259: 4073: 4069: 4039: 3949: 3923: 3742: 3682: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3635: 3613: 3587: 3457: 3453: 3386: 3382: 3374: 3022: 2897: 2870: 2840: 2796: 2736: 2655: 2586: 2420: 2370: 2365:

An area of active discussion in the Maragheh school, and later the

2351: 2347: 2317: 2151: 2143: 2005: 1994: 1951: 1926: 1898:. The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the 1894: 1735: 1728: 1620:

tradition of astronomy, presented the first critique and reform of

1508:

and also due to the views of astrologers conflicting with orthodox

1497: 1493: 1419: 1415: 1391: 1344: 1146: 1089: 1079:

of the planets being given as heliocentric revolutions rather than

1002: 946: 930: 836: 828: 777: 681: 587: 568: 521: 481: 430: 412: 376: 237: 7602: 4230:

is found in a treatise on astronomical instruments written by the

3393:

planetary model in which the Earth is moving rather than the sky.

3060:

In modern times, many well-equipped observatories can be found in

921:(Albatenius) (853-929) discovered that the direction of the Sun's 8041: 7859: 7854: 5484: 5012: 4976: 4864: 4472: 4456: 4440: 4390: 4351: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4278: 4250: 4227: 4065: 4021: 3983: 3979: 3945: 3894: 3802: 3599: 3576: 3562: 3510:, without calculation using a geometrical model to represent the 3219: 3196: 3189: 3165: 3077: 3069: 2926: 2914: 2890: 2874: 2804: 2800: 2752: 2444: 2295: 2279: 2182: 2139: 2077:. Al-Betrugi was also the first to discover that the planets are 2013: 1982:. Like Ibn al-Haytham's critique, the anonymous Andalusian work, 1959: 1911: 1806:

on its axis would be consistent with his astronomical parameters.

1657: 1621: 1379: 1363: 1324: 1036: 1028: 994: 942: 854: 832: 822: 781: 690: 501: 446: 442: 241: 4897:

A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory

4200:

On the obliquity of the ecliptic and the latitudes of the cities

2862:, and the first Islamic observatories were built in 9th century 2775:

from ISS, determination of prayer times, and issues surrounding

2322:

A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory

1947: 1700:, he insisted that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the 846: 631:

in 770. The most notable Middle Persian text translated was the

472:

In the early eighth century, prior to the translation movement,

8063: 8051: 8046: 7810: 7717: 6560:

Islam's Contribution to Human Civilization: Science and Culture

5989: 5004: 4996: 4984: 4956: 4948: 4907:

Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy

4884:

The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens

4238: 4234: 3863:

were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes.

3844: 3840: 3790: 3651: 3598:-wheels and is the oldest surviving complete mechanical geared 3507: 3200: 3121: 3061: 3002: 2792: 2762: 2594: 2298:(d. 1277), who also worked at the Maragheh observatory, in his 2288:

The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens

2275: 2233: 2155: 2070: 1934: 1739: 1709: 1559: 1542:"The attraction of all things towards the centre of the earth." 1309: 1305: 1268: 1208:. He was the first to hypothesize that the heavenly bodies and 1010: 976: 972: 908: 825: 806: 744: 698: 625: 620:

in 777. Sources indicate that the text was translated after an

497: 426: 384: 322:

Vigorous investigation, and acceptance and modification to the

233: 7430:

Edward S. Kennedy, "A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables,"

6592: 3436: 3116: 2945:

indicate the use of sophisticated instruments for their time.

2810:

Other prominent Muslim scientists involved in research on the

1914:'s estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded the annual 7919: 7849: 7832: 5249:

see E. S. Kennedy, "A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables".

5024: 5008: 4988: 4980: 4972: 4960: 4538: 4417: 4325: 4317: 4313: 4231: 4106: 4085: 3987: 3911: 3880: 3860: 3671: 3536: 3425: 3421: 3356: 3247: 3243: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3169: 3149: 3145: 3141: 2832: 2772: 2768: 2637:

Principal Investigator of Visual Observations and Photography

2616: 2440: 2382: 2240:

showed that linear motion could also be produced by applying

2044:"I have heard that Abu Bakr discovered a system in which no 1903: 1881: 1791: 1767: 1637: 1589:

Al-Khazini was thus the first to propose the theory that the

1509: 1264: 1232: 1217: 1071:

developed a planetary model which some have interpreted as a

912: 776:

was a particularly unifying work for its exhaustive lists of

647: 564: 544: 509: 485: 276: 202: 555:"How does the movement of the stars keep them from falling?" 547:(Jabir ibn Hayyan), asked him the following question on the 7844: 7827: 7747: 7742: 7468:, Cambridge: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press. 6717:, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, 2005. 5986:

History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations

5783:, p. 7. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization. 5036: 5032: 5028: 5020: 5016: 5000: 4992: 4968: 4936: 4452: 3975: 3941: 3872: 3856: 3836: 3832: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3786: 3782: 3647: 3595: 3584: 3558: 3554: 3499: 3282: 3278: 3239: 3129: 3125: 3081: 2977: 2918: 2886: 2863: 2776: 2620: 2313: 2309: 2278:

introduced by Ptolemy, and conceived a plausible model for

1340: 1328: 1312: 998: 798: 655: 548: 493: 353: 349: 348:

Stagnation, where few significant contributions were made (

342: 338: 331: 280: 268: 221: 217:

works in particular, which were translated and built upon.

7376:, Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434. 7143:, "Islamic Astronomy", in Christopher Walker (1999), ed., 6895:

E. S. Kennedy (1947), "Al-Kashi's Plate of Conjunctions",

2513:

that were more accurate than those of his contemporaries,

1712:

studies on the later development of the modern telescope.

1624:'s model, and laid the theoretical foundations for modern 1027:

with a diameter of nearly 1.4 metres. His observations on

337:

Flourishing of a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy (

66:

to this revision, which may differ significantly from the

7002: 5461: 5421: 5401: 5376: 5098: 4497: 4191: 3778: 3643: 3503: 3370: 3073: 2961: 2952:

who established the first large observatory, probably in

2905:

of astronomers such as Ibn al-Alam. The great astronomer

2882: 2674: 2598: 2502: 2173:. The most important of the Maragha astronomers included 2126: 2036:, wrote the following on the planetary model proposed by 1902:

of the planets, and first states that the motions of the

1546:

Al-Biruni also discovered that gravity exists within the

960: 863: 505: 489: 327: 316: 312: 225: 7567: 4381:) which had seven parts describing different scientific 3144:

purposes, such as the determination of the direction of

2521:. Taqi al-Din was also the first astronomer to employ a 2248:

on its axis by al-Tusi and al-Qushji, the separation of

1990:), included a list of objections to Ptolemic astronomy. 780:

phenomena. He drew up a list of chronological tables of

7568:

The Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences (AUASS)

7427:, Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3 5418:

23rd Annual Conference on the History of Arabic Science

5206:

James A. Michene, "Islam: The Misunderstood Religion",

3871:

Muslim astronomers and engineers invented a variety of

2533:

fractions used by his contemporaries and predecessors.

7551: 7503:

Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?

7439:

Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World

7395:

Ahmad Dallal, "Science, Medicine and Technology.", in

7101:

David A. King (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks",

6997:, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", 6779:

David A. King (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks",

6632: 6398:

Sevim Tekeli, "Taqi al-Din", in Helaine Selin (1997),

4198:

measurements, which he described his in his treatise,

3986:. He invented for the purpose of finding the times of 3289:

in 996. These can be considered as an ancestor of the

2431:. Before al-Qushji, the only astronomer to present an 2158:

problem and produce alternative configurations to the

1775:

File:Abu-Rayhan Biruni 1973 Afghanistan post stamp.jpg

1374:) of the universe, that would be consistent with both 1297:

into astronomy and was the first to conduct elaborate

879:

The first major original Muslim work of astronomy was

371:

to the world of ancient learning. Much of the ancient

5754:, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. 5315: 4778:

The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets

4006:) were invented by Muslim astronomers and engineers. 3753:

The Muslims constructed a variety of highly accurate

3195:

and perfected it to be used to find the beginning of

2787:, and is most notable for being the first to perform 1414:

in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from

1301:

related to astronomical phenomena. He discovered the

7419:

Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?

6305:

Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?

6035:, Vol. 2, p. 249. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 5853:

O. S. Marshall (1950). "Alhazen and the Telescope",

2061:

Later in the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah's successors,

169:

refers to the astronomical developments made in the

8097:

Articles with dead external links from January 2008

7432:

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,

3519:

Planisphere and mechanical geared calendar computer

2493:Another notable 16th century Muslim astronomer was 2415:The work of Ali al-Qushji (d. 1474), who worked at 1149:also believed the Earth was moving and invented an 500:are orbiting around it. He was the first to refute 7563:"Scientific American" article on Islamic Astronomy 7466:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, 7031: 7029: 7027: 6849:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 6099:Owen Gingerich (April 1986). "Islamic astronomy", 5984:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). 4528:Az-Zij al-Mahlul min as-Sindhind li-Darajat Daraja 4429:Treatise on Astronomical Observational Instruments 3570:Mechanical astrolabe with geared calendar computer 2724:, the first woman to travel to ISS and the fourth 2481:. Saliba wrote the following on al-Khafri's work: 2189:(1236-1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (c. 1347), 1723:, as he developed a systematic study of celestial 7531:Dick Teresi, Jamil Ragep, and Roger Hart (2002). 7192: 5546:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines 5520:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines 3080:, and other Arab states are also active as well. 2987: 2224:. The Maragha astronomers also realized that the 2142:observatory and continuing with astronomers from 2100: 1772: 1738:. His reformed model was the first to reject the 1731:. This in turn led to innovative developments in 1652:). While maintaining the physical reality of the 1606: 1200:(9th century), made significant contributions to 1187:Beginning of astrophysics and celestial mechanics 697:was a landmark work in its field, assembling, as 660: 8088: 7410:, in L'Astronomie, (Monthly magazine created by 4917:The complement to the explanation of the memento 4273:in the 13th century. His compendium featured an 4060:, an ingeniuous mathematical device invented by 3801:. Another innovative feature of the clock was a 3666:of the Sun. The instrument also incorporated an 3527:invented and wrote the earliest treatise on the 3351:invented and wrote the earliest treatise on the 2274:as an alternative to the physically problematic 1929:, proposed a non-Ptolemaic configuration in his 1798:are not identical, discussed the possibility of 7024: 6562:, CIC's annual Ottawa dinner, October 15, 2001. 6434:Betty Blair (1995), "Behind Soviet Aeronauts", 4354:, for angular observations. It was invented by 3789:. His largest astronomical clock displayed the 2589:), and responsible for the launch of the first 2332:. His rectified model was later adapted into a 2216:language, and should not remain a mathematical 1790:of planets, discovered that the motions of the 1660:'s astronomical system, which he criticised on 1438:Some Muslim astronomers, however, most notably 1430:, concentrically envelops the other, where the 1366:) from philosophical cosmology (as typified by 7558:"Tubitak Turkish National Observatory Antalya" 7240:Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia 6168: 6166: 6164: 5844:, p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 5159: 4738:Elements of astronomy on the celestial motions 3557:-wheels. This was an early example of a fixed- 3025:. The facility contained resting quarters for 2983: 2771:in a low-gravity environment, the location of 2581:, one of the lead architects behind the first 2118:, which later played an important role in the 1231:, Muhammad ibn Musa proposed that there was a 7618: 7120: 7118: 7116: 7038:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 7021:David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", p. 168-9. 6705: 6703: 6371:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 3327:was invented in the Islamic world during the 1013:, and drawings for each constellation in his 843:, but endowed the work with formal prestige. 755:. Ptolemy also produced other works, such as 6964:Emilie Savage-Smith (1993). "Book Reviews", 6002: 6000: 5998: 5855:Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets 5775: 5773: 4924: 4486: 4226:The first astronomical uses of the magnetic 2997:, founder of a large Islamic observatory in 2960:with many other collaborators constructed a 2783:aboard ISS. He was both an astronaut and an 727:and it has since been known to the world as 197:. It closely parallels the genesis of other 177:(8th-15th centuries), mostly written in the 6912: 6910: 6815:(1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", 6161: 5747: 5745: 5743: 5741: 5739: 5436: 5434: 5241:This book is not related to al-Khwarizmi's 5220: 5218: 5216: 5176: 5174: 5172: 5117: 5115: 5113: 2601:series) as well as their predecessors (the 1974:In the 11th-12th centuries, astronomers in 1933:. In his work, he indicated the so-called " 1398:framework. As the historian of astronomy, 1259:(1021), was the first to discover that the 581:Ancient influences and translation movement 528:and contracting. He also stated that every 433:also show that he was generally opposed to 7625: 7611: 7113: 6700: 5584:, p. 27. Islamic Publication Ltd., Lahore. 5500:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 4301:and markings that are identical to modern 4024:, was used for astronomical calculations. 2925:also established a similar observatory in 2373:observatories, was the possibility of the 1692:, which became an influential work in the 1682:Treatise on the configuration of the World 441:in general. An example of this is when an 6394: 6392: 5995: 5971: 5969: 5770: 5674:Arabic Models for outer Planets and Venus 4728:Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī 2799:cells and the crystallisation of various 2761:Guidelines for Performing Islamic Rites ( 2396:in 1543 to explain the Earth's rotation. 1069:Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi 997:(Azophi) carried out observations on the 76:Revision as of 05:02, 20 January 2008 by 7084: 7082: 7080: 6950:Journal of the American Oriental Society 6907: 6884:Museum of the History of Science, Oxford 6868:Museum of the History of Science, Oxford 6222: 6220: 6218: 6069:Journal of the American Oriental Society 6031:(1980), "Al-Biruni", in Joseph Strayer, 5988:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 5935: 5933: 5736: 5431: 5213: 5169: 5110: 4557:Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī 4244: 4144: 3681: 3435: 3306:Whipple Museum of the History of Science 3295: 3168:world, chiefly as an aid to finding the 3115: 2427:due to similar arguments concerning the 2342:, Copernicus also cites the theories of 2125: 1946: 1766:hypotheses that cannot be observed from 1644:tradition of Islamic astronomy with his 1382:principles. Within the context of this 1153:called the "Zuraqi" based on this idea: 971: 919:Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī 845: 47: 7204:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive 6476: 6299: 6297: 6250:, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, p. 49-64, 66-71. 5582:Islam and The Origins of Modern Science 5536: 5534: 5532: 5327:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive 5150:Islamic Crescents' Observation Project. 4328:. These instruments were engraved with 3879:, and for determining the times of the 3662:of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the 3055: 2648:Sultan bin Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud 2362:were also known in Europe at the time. 2232:in the universe being only circular or 2134:depicting an epicyclic planetary model. 1434:of earth, water, air, and fire reside." 1347:of the stars during the lunar eclipse. 1271:and had a significant influence on the 949:, carried astronomers "to the verge of 575:of stars keeps them from falling down." 536:, including objects which appear to be 75: 14: 8089: 7526:Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber 6532:E. S. Kennedy (1962), "Reviewed Work: 6389: 5966: 5619: 5298:. The Internet Encyclopedia of Science 4935:Many of the modern names for numerous 4056:Quadrans Vetus was a universal horary 3978:device incorporating both a universal 3748: 3373:and fixed stars. In the 11th century, 2853: 2435:argument for the Earth's rotation was 2085:'s notion of perfect circular motion. 1616:(Alhacen) was a pioneer of the Muslim 1102:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity 279:is claimed to have provoked increased 7606: 7077: 6825: 6215: 5930: 5322:"Abu Said Sinan ibn Thabit ibn Qurra" 4409:, and original instruments involving 3777:which displayed moving models of the 3460:of the Sun, the time of day at which 3452:devices were invented to compute the 3293:developed by later Muslim engineers. 2439:(d. 1274), who used the phenomena of 2377:. Supporters of this theory included 2110:resolved significant problems in the 1595:Newton's law of universal gravitation 1245:Newton's law of universal gravitation 985:. The constellation pictured here is 965:, in which he completely revised the 44: 25: 7414:in 1882), December 2005, volume 119. 7333:Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Biruni", 7319:Journal for the History of Astronomy 7126:Journal for the History of Astronomy 6294: 6141: 5827:Y. Tzvi Langermann, ed. and trans., 5566:Journal for the History of Astronomy 5529: 5394:Introduction to Islamic Civilization 5260:Journal for the History of Astronomy 5039:, and many other Arabic star names. 4217: 3993: 3677: 2765:) at the International Space Station 1719:. His reform was not concerned with 1517:Astrophysics and celestial mechanics 1426:made up of a special element called 1045:Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn's 901:A compendium of the science of stars 598:. The most notable of the texts was 17: 7632: 7408:L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane 5816:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5369:A Short History of Scientific Ideas 4701:Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir 3805:which traveled across the top of a 3456:of the Sun, Moon, and planets, the 3431: 3215:), and over a thousand other uses. 2869:In many private observatories from 2339:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 1782:was the first to conduct elaborate 1284:Beginning of experimental astronomy 1198:Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir 1125:, he discusses the theories on the 1053:relatively accurately computed the 1031:were still used centuries later in 181:and which mostly took place in the 139: 108: 7367:La science chez les Turcs ottomans 7335:Dictionary of Scientific Biography 6593:"Palestinian Astronomical Society" 5550:State University of New York Press 5524:State University of New York Press 5481:Lecture at SOAS, London - Part 3/7 5191:The Qur'an, Knowledge, and Science 3897:, which they inherited from their 3514:'s mean and anomalistic position. 2839:, and building where astronomical 2767:, giving advice on issues such as 2694:top 25 astronauts by time in space 2565:Astronautics and space exploration 2354:as influences, while the works of 2020:and instead argued for a strictly 1966:and instead argued for a strictly 1472:distinction between astronomy and 929:around the Sun. His times for the 248:, are still today recognized with 140: 8123: 7593:Ibn ash-Shatir model for the Moon 7545: 7533:"Ancient Roots of Modern Science" 6730:University of Southern California 6494:Text "publisherTheStar" ignored ( 5195:University of Southern California 4913:Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1525) 4761:On the Configuration of the World 3851:, specifically for measuring the 3762:Water-powered astronomical clocks 1579:The Book of the Balance of Wisdom 765:, and some suggest he also wrote 594:texts were first translated into 484:common at the time, in which the 236:, and astronomical terms such as 62:. The present address (URL) is a 7801:Reception in early modern Europe 7796:Contributions to Medieval Europe 7588:Ibn ash-Shatir model for Mercury 7340: 7327: 7311: 7299: 7283: 7272:Muzaffar Iqbal, "David A. King, 7266: 7249: 7232: 7214: 7186: 7170: 7154: 7134: 7095: 7061: 7048: 7015: 6988: 6979: 6958: 6942: 6926: 6889: 6873: 6857: 6841: 6806: 6653:"Société Astronomique de Tunise" 6573:"Jordanian Astronomical Society" 5644:The Rise of Early Modern Science 5442:The Muslim Pioneers of Astronomy 5426:The Muslim Pioneers of Astronomy 5406:The Muslim Pioneers of Astronomy 5381:The Muslim Pioneers of Astronomy 4822:Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy 3757:for use in their observatories. 3590:movement based on the design of 3285:-wheels was also constructed by 3102:observatory in the near future. 2989: 2836: 2818: 2633:Landing Site Selection Committee 2631:, where he was secretary of the 2181:(1201-1274), 'Umar al-Katibi al- 2102: 1988:Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy 1774: 1656:, he was the first to criticise 1608: 1558:'s views of them not having any 1350:This led to the use of exacting 1343:, in detail, and gave the exact 1319:, he observed and described the 945:, and work on the phenomenon of 662: 586:During this period, a number of 7552:Iran Astronomy Sciences Academy 7425:Islamic Science And Engineering 7399:, ed. John Esposito, New York: 7348:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 6791: 6773: 6755: 6735: 6720: 6684: 6665: 6645: 6633:"Emirates Astronomical Society" 6625: 6613:"Lebanese Astronomical society" 6605: 6585: 6565: 6548: 6526: 6502: 6470: 6446: 6428: 6409: 6380: 6360: 6347: 6334: 6326:International Education Journal 6318: 6309: 6273: 6253: 6240: 6195: 6186: 6125: 6109: 6093: 6077: 6057: 6038: 6022: 6009: 5978: 5942: 5917: 5908: 5899: 5890: 5881: 5872: 5863: 5847: 5834: 5821: 5805: 5786: 5757: 5716: 5700: 5691: 5679: 5665: 5653: 5636: 5611:Journal of the History of Ideas 5603: 5587: 5574: 5555: 5508: 5496:Bartel Leendert van der Waerden 5489: 5470: 5447: 5420:, October 2001, Aleppo, Syria ( 5411: 5386: 5361: 5352: 5343: 5309: 5288: 5268: 4471:observatory, a double quadrant 4016:The sine quadrant, invented by 3620:will occur, and for performing 2536: 2290:, discussed the possibility of 2204:". An important aspect of this 1308:to be a collection of numerous 1117:In the early eleventh century, 7473:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 7459:Astronomy before the telescope 7449:Islamic mathematical astronomy 7145:Astronomy before the telescope 6727:Islam, Knowledge, and Science. 6417:Obituary: Lt-Gen Kerim Kerimov 6017:Islamic Cosmological Doctrines 5925:Islamic Cosmological Doctrines 5252: 5235: 5200: 5183: 5153: 5138: 5121:Gingerich, Owen (April 1986). 5079:Inventions in the Muslim world 4711:Book on the motion of the orbs 4694: 4535:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī 4356:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī 4044:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī 4018:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī 3822:Mechanical observational clock 3698:had similar applications to a 3464:will occur and for performing 3164:were developed in much of the 3112:Inventions in the Muslim world 3105: 3050:Istanbul observatory of al-Din 2623:and was involved in the first 2499:Istanbul observatory of al-Din 1406:"All Islamic astronomers from 715:. The Islamic world called it 13: 1: 7578:History of Islamic Astrolabes 7359: 6033:Dictionary of the Middle Ages 5627:Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni 4852:Al-Tadhkirah fi'ilm al-hay'ah 4002:(including several different 3539:. He also invented the first 3155: 3048:bin Ma'ruf founded the large 2913:, who systematically revised 2552:were involved in research on 2258:heliocentric Copernical model 1849:and others consider that the 1609:File:Ibn haithem portrait.jpg 809:astronomers and astrologers. 532:in the universe is always in 8037:Arab Agricultural Revolution 5948:Michael E. Marmura (1965). " 5896:Rashed (2007), p. 20, 32-33. 5840:Duhem, Pierre (1908, 1969). 4744:Kitab fi Jawami Ilm al-Nujum 4467:, the Fakhri sextant at the 4397:instrument he invented, the 3940:This was a universal horary 3488:Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī 3331:, and employed the use of a 2399: 2220:, which would only save the 1602:Beginning of hay'a tradition 1357: 723:(greatest) with the article 709:The Mathematical Composition 97: 52: 7: 7573:King Abdul Aziz Observatory 7457:, "Islamic Astronomy", in 7397:The Oxford History of Islam 7308:, National Maritime Museum. 5939:A. Baker, L. Chapter (2002) 5779:Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). 5042: 3268:Mechanical geared astrolabe 3033:over a period of 50 years. 2984:Late medieval observatories 2718:International Space Station 1067:In the late ninth century, 812: 383:texts were translated into 24:of this page, as edited by 10: 8128: 7480:Cambridge University Press 7441:. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate. 7437:Edward S. Kennedy (1998), 7374:Miracle of Islamic Science 7151:Press. ISBN 0-7141-2733-7. 6966:Journal of Islamic Studies 6743:The Mapping of the Heavens 6404:Kluwer Academic Publishers 6355:Cambridge University Press 6235:Cambridge University Press 5648:Cambridge University Press 5398:Cambridge University Press 5094:List of Iranian scientists 5084:List of Muslim astronomers 5049:Arab and Persian astrology 4928: 4495: 4167:, during the 15th century. 3716:was first produced in the 3109: 2739:travelled to ISS with his 2094: 1993:In the late 11th century, 1095:In the tenth century, the 457: 394: 259: 95: 50: 8029: 7989:Geography and cartography 7957: 7895: 7809: 7761: 7703: 7695:Influences on Western art 7640: 6674:Iran Invests in Astronomy 6671:Feder Toni (July, 2004). 6268:New York University Press 6210:New York University Press 6181:New York University Press 6006:Richard Covington (2007). 5878:Rashed (2007), p. 20, 53. 5731:New York University Press 5089:List of Muslim scientists 4931:List of Arabic star names 4925:List of Arabic star names 4818:Al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus 4792:Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi 4766:Doubts concerning Ptolemy 4514:Az-Zij ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab 4487:List of notable treatises 3084:has modern facilities at 2909:was patronised by prince 2896:In the 10th century, the 2779:. Shukor also celebrated 2708:to Mir, and commander of 1984:al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus 1878:Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi 1823:Indian planetary theories 1802:, and suggested that the 1289:In the eleventh century, 1212:were subject to the same 1062:Early heliocentric models 1041:Obliquity of the Ecliptic 731:or, after popular use in 719:prefixing the Greek work 409:expansion of the universe 144:This is a sub-article of 7209:University of St Andrews 6880:History of the Astrolabe 6711:National Maritime Museum 6437:Azerbaijan International 6208:, p. 245, 250, 256-257. 5914:Rashed (2007), p. 35-36. 5905:Rashed (2007), p. 51-52. 5887:Rashed (2007), p. 33-34. 5332:University of St Andrews 5104: 4947:names. Examples include 4903:Ali al-Qushji (d. 1474) 4772:The Resolution of Doubts 4491: 4459:instrument of Urdi, the 4364:Treatises on instruments 3944:invented in 9th century 3866: 3420:invented the astrolabic 3343:Orthographical astrolabe 3300:An 18th century Persian 3186:Hellenistic civilization 2837:astronomical instruments 2823:The modern astronomical 2641:Astronaut Training Group 2032:Averroes' contemporary, 1812:Early alternative models 1717:The Model of the Motions 1570:of the heavenly bodies. 1463:Refutations of astrology 1410:in the ninth century to 1141:, al-Biruni writes that 445:occurred during his son 220:A significant number of 173:, especially during the 7516:Perspectives on Science 7490:Perspectives on Science 7464:Seyyed H. Nasr, (1964) 7401:Oxford University Press 7041:, Vol. 1, p. 128-184 . 7001:, May 1991, p. 64-69. ( 6767:Encyclopædia Britannica 6741:Robert Hannah (1997). " 6063:George Saliba (1981). " 6049:Perspectives on Science 5797:Perspectives on Science 5440:Salah Zaimeche (2002), 5424:Salah Zaimeche (2002), 5404:Salah Zaimeche (2002), 5379:Salah Zaimeche (2002), 5373:Oxford University Press 5164:, Pelanduk Publications 5160:Mohammad Ilyas (1997), 4943:are derived from their 4838:Treatise on Instruments 4721:The Force of Attraction 4379:Treatise on Instruments 4358:in 9th century Baghdad. 4202:. In the 15th century, 3017:under the patronage of 2733:Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor 2659:Space Shuttle Discovery 2511:astronomical catalogues 2282:orbits. Tusi's student 2130:Medieval manuscript by 2103:File:Al-Tusi Nasir.jpeg 2075:epicycles or eccentrics 1819:Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 1640:as Alhacen), began the 1632:Between 1025 and 1028, 1394:, remaining within the 1229:The Force of Attraction 874:Observational astronomy 658:by Muslim astronomers. 488:is stationary, and the 467:Early Islamic cosmology 7255:David A. King (1999), 7238:Josef W. Meri (2006), 7045:, London and New York. 7010:Mechanical Engineering 6976: 6709:Dr. Emily Winterburn ( 6192:Dallal (1999), pg. 171 6088:The Making of Humanity 5697:Teresi, et al., (2002) 5625:Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), 5598:The Making of Humanity 5358:Dallal (1999), pg. 164 5349:Dallal (1999), pg. 163 5224:Research Committee of 5210:, May 1955, pp. 68-70. 4878:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 4254: 4188:Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi 4168: 3691: 3618:planetary conjunctions 3462:planetary conjunctions 3445: 3325:navigational astrolabe 3318:Navigational astrolabe 3313: 3174:earliest known example 3132: 3006: 2966:Persian solar calendar 2757:National Fatwa Council 2491: 2451:instead, particularly 2284:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 2187:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 2135: 2132:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 2123: 2059: 2030: 1971: 1970:model of the universe. 1874: 1845:). Biruni stated that 1807: 1704:", The foundations of 1678: 1646:Al-Shuku ala Batlamyus 1629: 1587: 1544: 1534:described the Earth's 1436: 1183: 1159: 1115: 1051:Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi 990: 869: 747:until the work of the 672: 667:A page from Ptolemy's 577: 557: 455: 423: 411:and possibly even the 303:The science historian 45:05:02, 20 January 2008 7972:Alchemy and chemistry 7006:Donald Routledge Hill 6995:Donald Routledge Hill 6972: 6813:Donald Routledge Hill 6745:by Peter Whitfield", 6556:Georgetown University 6152:Science and Its Times 5631:Hasanuddin University 5580:K. A. Waheed (1978). 5180:Dallal (1999), p. 162 4574:Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi 4369:In the 12th century, 4248: 4148: 3966:In the 13th century, 3849:astronomical purposes 3809:and caused automatic 3685: 3634:In the 15th century, 3612:In the 15th century, 3607:Plate of Conjunctions 3575:In 1235, Abi Bakr of 3561:knowledge processing 3498:and positions of the 3439: 3405:Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī 3299: 3228:astrology, horoscopes 3218:In the 10th century, 3176:is dated 315 (in the 3119: 2993: 2907:Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi 2866:under his patronage. 2704:to Mir, commander of 2619:worked for the rival 2483: 2294:. 'Umar al-Katibi al- 2236:was not true, as the 2198:Scientific Revolution 2129: 2106: 2042: 2026: 2004:In the 12th century, 1950: 1870: 1778: 1674: 1612: 1597:in the 18th century. 1583: 1540: 1404: 1175:Miftah 'ilm al-hai'ah 1171: 1169:, which is now lost: 1155: 1111: 1075:. This is due to his 993:In the 10th century, 975: 849: 797:over the years under 739:. though much of the 666: 624:visited the court of 561: 553: 451: 417: 305:Donald Routledge Hill 8112:History of astrology 8107:History of astronomy 7381:Philosophia Islamica 7195:Robertson, Edmund F. 6695:Golden Age of Persia 5318:Robertson, Edmund F. 5226:Strasburg University 5054:History of astronomy 4856:Memento in astronomy 4846:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī 4804:Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani 4786:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 4631:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī 3935:Navicula de Venetiis 3918:(timekeeper) of the 3847:." He used this for 3770:invented monumental 3622:linear interpolation 3592:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 3525:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 3466:linear interpolation 3349:Abu Rayhan al-Biruni 3287:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 3207:), the direction of 3092:. In December 2005, 3056:Modern observatories 3015:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī 3011:Maragheh observatory 2972:, the most accurate 2956:. It was here where 2579:Soviet space program 2479:Maragheh astronomers 2453:Aristotelian physics 2437:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī 2379:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī 2286:(1236-1311), in his 2268:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī 2179:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī 2108:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī 2097:Maragheh observatory 1923:Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani 1727:that was completely 1698:Epitome of Astronomy 1554:, and he criticized 1532:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 1482:Abu Rayhan al-Biruni 1444:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī 1440:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 1291:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 1086:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 1001:and described their 713:The Great Astronomer 675:Islamic interest in 612:, and translated by 543:Al-Sadiq's student, 159:history of astronomy 7882:Early social change 7781:Early social change 7506:Columbia University 7337:, Vol. VII, p. 338. 7278:Islam & Science 7193:O'Connor, John J.; 7090:Islam & Science 6999:Scientific American 6691:Richard Nelson Frye 6554:Prof. Osman Bakar ( 6315:Y. M. Faruqi wrote: 6266:, p. 254, 256-257. 6233:(1-2), p. 145–163. 6179:, p. 233-234, 240. 6101:Scientific American 5812:Nicolaus Copernicus 5765:Islam & Science 5316:O'Connor, John J.; 5146:"Arabic Star Names" 5129:Scientific American 4863:'Umar al-Katibi al- 4585:Book of Fixed Stars 4483:which he invented. 4182:was constructed in 4122:Almucantar quadrant 3775:astronomical clocks 3755:astronomical clocks 3749:Astronomical clocks 3745:ring of the globe. 3714:spherical astrolabe 3707:Spherical astrolabe 3001:, honoured on this 2964:and formulated the 2893:were undertaken. 2854:Early observatories 2789:biomedical research 2519:Nicolaus Copernicus 2425:Nicolaus Copernicus 2394:Nicolaus Copernicus 2326:Nicolaus Copernicus 2010:eccentric deferents 1956:eccentric deferents 1528:celestial mechanics 1295:experimental method 1206:celestial mechanics 1077:orbital revolutions 1016:Book of Fixed Stars 982:Book of Fixed Stars 753:Nicolaus Copernicus 644:Indian trigonometry 514:heliocentric theory 265:Pre-Islamic Arabian 115:← Previous revision 102:Pre-Islamic Arabian 57:Pre-Islamic Arabian 7538:Talk of the Nation 7412:Camille Flammarion 7389:Saudi Aramco World 7263:, ISBN 9004113673. 7246:, ISBN 0415966914. 7244:Taylor and Francis 7074:(1-4), p. 204-226. 6715:Using an Astrolabe 6536:by Aydin Sayili", 6479:"Mission in space" 6406:, ISBN 0792340663. 6377:, ISBN 0415124107. 6357:, ISBN 0521000637. 6270:, ISBN 0814780237. 6228:Science in Context 6212:, ISBN 0814780237. 6183:, ISBN 0814780237. 5733:, ISBN 0814780237. 5650:, ISBN 0521529948. 5552:, ISBN 0791415163. 5526:, ISBN 0791415163. 5467:, 1001 Inventions) 5367:C. Singer (1959), 5069:Islamic Golden Age 4508:Muhammad al-Fazari 4449:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi 4255: 4169: 4042:, was invented by 3881:five daily prayers 3692: 3629:Planetary computer 3544:lunisolar calendar 3446: 3364:Saphaea and Zuraqi 3314: 3133: 3007: 2829:research institute 2785:orthopedic surgeon 2749:Angkasawan program 2682:Abdul Ahad Mohmand 2652:Payload Specialist 2639:, chairman of the 2449:natural philosophy 2390:natural philosophy 2334:heliocentric model 2264:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi 2250:natural philosophy 2175:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi 2136: 2124: 2090:Maragha Revolution 2016:. He rejected the 1972: 1962:. He rejected the 1808: 1748:natural philosophy 1696:tradition. In his 1630: 1577:, in his treatise 1562:or gravity and of 1263:do not consist of 1253:(Alhacen), in his 1135:Indian astronomers 1097:Brethren of Purity 1073:heliocentric model 1009:, brightness, and 991: 933:, lengths for the 870: 693:(c. 100-178). The 673: 614:Muhammad al-Fazari 563:"Put a stone in a 559:Al-Sadiq replied: 399:There are several 250:their Arabic names 175:Islamic Golden Age 8102:Islamic astronomy 8084: 8083: 8052:elementary school 7670:Geometric pattern 7598:Arabian astronomy 7524:H. Suter (1902). 7406:Antoine Gautier, 7372:K. Ajram (1992). 7229:(2), p. 246-266 . 7178:Annals of Science 7167:(4), p. 331-362 . 7162:Annals of Science 7109:(4), p. 531-555 . 6971:(2), p. 296-299. 6904:(1-2), p. 56-59 . 6864:Astrolabe gearing 6833:Turk J Elec Engin 6817:Annals of Science 6787:(4), p. 531-555 . 6074:(2), p. 219-221 . 6054:(3), p. 288-330 . 5802:(3), p. 288-330 . 5688:(1998), p. 317-18 5320:(November 1999), 5276:"Greek Astronomy" 5162:Islamic Astronomy 5124:Islamic astronomy 5074:Islamic astrology 4705:Mohammed Ben Musa 4619:Az-Zij as-Sanjarī 4504:Ibrahim al-Fazari 4316:instruments with 4218:Other instruments 4159:, constructed in 4034:The first horary 4000:mural instruments 3994:Mural instruments 3678:Armillary spheres 3656:elliptical orbits 3579:invented a brass 3549:which employed a 3403:A famous work by 3355:astrolabe in the 3291:mechanical clocks 3128:) astrolabe from 3090:Tabriz University 3086:Shiraz University 2929:. And reports by 2583:human spaceflight 2558:space exploration 2543:rocket scientists 2469:Later astronomers 1942:Andalusian school 1890:celestial spheres 1866:geocentric models 1650:Doubts on Ptolemy 1552:celestial spheres 1476:was given by the 1261:celestial spheres 1210:celestial spheres 663:File:Almagest.jpg 646:) instead of the 622:Indian astronomer 608:and the works of 296:works which were 205:. These included 163:Islamic astronomy 8119: 7959:Medieval science 7627: 7620: 7613: 7604: 7603: 7423:Donald R. Hill, 7417:M. Gill (2005). 7365:Abdulhak Adnan, 7354: 7353:(2), p. 98-108 . 7344: 7338: 7331: 7325: 7315: 7309: 7303: 7297: 7287: 7281: 7270: 7264: 7261:Brill Publishers 7253: 7247: 7236: 7230: 7218: 7212: 7211: 7190: 7184: 7174: 7168: 7158: 7152: 7138: 7132: 7122: 7111: 7099: 7093: 7086: 7075: 7065: 7059: 7052: 7046: 7033: 7022: 7019: 7013: 6992: 6986: 6983: 6977: 6962: 6956: 6946: 6940: 6930: 6924: 6923:(2), p. 180-183. 6914: 6905: 6893: 6887: 6877: 6871: 6861: 6855: 6845: 6839: 6829: 6823: 6810: 6804: 6795: 6789: 6777: 6771: 6762:Linear astrolabe 6759: 6753: 6739: 6733: 6724: 6718: 6707: 6698: 6688: 6682: 6669: 6663: 6662: 6660: 6659: 6649: 6643: 6642: 6640: 6639: 6629: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6619: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6600: 6599: 6589: 6583: 6582: 6580: 6579: 6569: 6563: 6552: 6546: 6530: 6524: 6523: 6521: 6520: 6506: 6500: 6499: 6492: 6490: 6482: 6477:theStar (2007). 6474: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6464: 6450: 6444: 6432: 6426: 6413: 6407: 6396: 6387: 6384: 6378: 6364: 6358: 6351: 6345: 6338: 6332: 6331:(4), p. 395-396. 6322: 6316: 6313: 6307: 6303:M. Gill (2005), 6301: 6292: 6291:(4), p. 571-576. 6277: 6271: 6257: 6251: 6244: 6238: 6224: 6213: 6199: 6193: 6190: 6184: 6170: 6159: 6145: 6139: 6129: 6123: 6113: 6107: 6097: 6091: 6084:Robert Briffault 6081: 6075: 6061: 6055: 6042: 6036: 6026: 6020: 6013: 6007: 6004: 5993: 5982: 5976: 5973: 5964: 5963:(4), p. 744-746. 5946: 5940: 5937: 5928: 5921: 5915: 5912: 5906: 5903: 5897: 5894: 5888: 5885: 5879: 5876: 5870: 5867: 5861: 5851: 5845: 5838: 5832: 5829:Ibn al-Haytham's 5825: 5819: 5809: 5803: 5790: 5784: 5777: 5768: 5761: 5755: 5749: 5734: 5729:, p. 60, 67-69. 5720: 5714: 5713:(3), p. 343-349. 5704: 5698: 5695: 5689: 5683: 5677: 5669: 5663: 5662:(1998), p. 293-8 5657: 5651: 5640: 5634: 5623: 5617: 5607: 5601: 5594:Robert Briffault 5591: 5585: 5578: 5572: 5559: 5553: 5538: 5527: 5512: 5506: 5493: 5487: 5474: 5468: 5451: 5445: 5438: 5429: 5415: 5409: 5390: 5384: 5365: 5359: 5356: 5350: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5339: 5338: 5313: 5307: 5306: 5304: 5303: 5292: 5286: 5285: 5283: 5282: 5272: 5266: 5256: 5250: 5239: 5233: 5222: 5211: 5204: 5198: 5187: 5181: 5178: 5167: 5166:ISBN 9679785491. 5165: 5157: 5151: 5149: 5142: 5136: 5119: 5059:Hebrew astronomy 4834:Risala fi'l-alat 4830:(fl. 1115-1130) 4824:) (11th century) 4796:Canon Mas’udicus 4651:Jamshīd al-Kāshī 4615:(fl. 1115-1130) 4605:Tables of Toledo 4437:armillary sphere 4416:In 14th century 4375:Risala fi'l-alat 4308:In 17th century 4105:was invented in 3829:mechanical clock 3731:Celestial globes 3725:Celestial globes 3696:armillary sphere 3688:armillary sphere 3432:Analog computers 3424:in 14th century 3412:Astrolabic clock 3398:Linear astrolabe 3377:(al-Zarqali) of 3277:astrolabes with 3178:Islamic calendar 3148:or the times of 3036:In 1420, prince 3031:Ptolemaic system 2991: 2917:'s catalogue of 2755:, for which the 2690:Talgat Musabayev 2529:rather than the 2525:notation in his 2497:, who built the 2429:Earth's rotation 2375:Earth's rotation 2246:Earth's rotation 2242:circular motions 2120:Copernican model 2112:Ptolemaic system 2104: 1886:Canon Mas’udicus 1858:Earth's rotation 1804:Earth's rotation 1776: 1752:Earth's rotation 1654:geocentric model 1610: 1452:Copernican model 1424:celestial sphere 1408:Thabit ibn Qurra 1388:Ptolemaic system 1277:Tychonic systems 1243:, foreshadowing 1179:Key of Astronomy 1167:Key of Astronomy 1127:Earth's rotation 941:, prediction of 927:elliptical orbit 853:, the father of 819:Ptolemaic system 685:(c. 150) of the 664: 642:(inherited from 573:perpetual motion 478:geocentric model 324:Ptolemaic system 300:and built upon. 199:Islamic sciences 167:Arabic astronomy 127:Newer revision → 105: 103: 101: 92: 71: 69:current revision 61: 60: 58: 56: 46: 42: 41: 8127: 8126: 8122: 8121: 8120: 8118: 8117: 8116: 8087: 8086: 8085: 8080: 8025: 7953: 7942:Early sociology 7891: 7855:decision-making 7805: 7786:Early conquests 7757: 7699: 7636: 7634:Islamic studies 7631: 7548: 7362: 7357: 7345: 7341: 7332: 7328: 7316: 7312: 7304: 7300: 7288: 7284: 7271: 7267: 7254: 7250: 7237: 7233: 7219: 7215: 7191: 7187: 7175: 7171: 7159: 7155: 7139: 7135: 7123: 7114: 7100: 7096: 7087: 7078: 7066: 7062: 7054:David A. King, 7053: 7049: 7034: 7025: 7020: 7016: 6993: 6989: 6984: 6980: 6963: 6959: 6947: 6943: 6931: 6927: 6915: 6908: 6894: 6890: 6878: 6874: 6862: 6858: 6846: 6842: 6838:(1), p. 63-70 . 6830: 6826: 6811: 6807: 6796: 6792: 6778: 6774: 6760: 6756: 6740: 6736: 6725: 6721: 6708: 6701: 6689: 6685: 6670: 6666: 6657: 6655: 6651: 6650: 6646: 6637: 6635: 6631: 6630: 6626: 6617: 6615: 6611: 6610: 6606: 6597: 6595: 6591: 6590: 6586: 6577: 6575: 6571: 6570: 6566: 6553: 6549: 6531: 6527: 6518: 6516: 6508: 6507: 6503: 6493: 6484: 6483: 6475: 6471: 6462: 6460: 6452: 6451: 6447: 6433: 6429: 6425:, 7 April 2003. 6422:The Independent 6414: 6410: 6397: 6390: 6385: 6381: 6365: 6361: 6352: 6348: 6339: 6335: 6323: 6319: 6314: 6310: 6302: 6295: 6278: 6274: 6258: 6254: 6245: 6241: 6225: 6216: 6200: 6196: 6191: 6187: 6171: 6162: 6146: 6142: 6138:(1), p. 39-47 . 6130: 6126: 6122:(1), p. 39-47 . 6114: 6110: 6098: 6094: 6082: 6078: 6067:by F. Sezgin", 6062: 6058: 6043: 6039: 6027: 6023: 6014: 6010: 6005: 5996: 5983: 5979: 5974: 5967: 5947: 5943: 5938: 5931: 5927:, p. 135, n. 13 5922: 5918: 5913: 5909: 5904: 5900: 5895: 5891: 5886: 5882: 5877: 5873: 5868: 5864: 5852: 5848: 5839: 5835: 5826: 5822: 5810: 5806: 5791: 5787: 5778: 5771: 5762: 5758: 5750: 5737: 5721: 5717: 5705: 5701: 5696: 5692: 5684: 5680: 5670: 5666: 5658: 5654: 5641: 5637: 5624: 5620: 5616:(1), p. 13-31 . 5608: 5604: 5592: 5588: 5579: 5575: 5560: 5556: 5539: 5530: 5513: 5509: 5494: 5490: 5475: 5471: 5452: 5448: 5439: 5432: 5416: 5412: 5396:, pp. 111-118, 5391: 5387: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5353: 5348: 5344: 5336: 5334: 5314: 5310: 5301: 5299: 5294: 5293: 5289: 5280: 5278: 5274: 5273: 5269: 5257: 5253: 5240: 5236: 5223: 5214: 5208:Reader's Digest 5205: 5201: 5188: 5184: 5179: 5170: 5158: 5154: 5144: 5143: 5139: 5120: 5111: 5107: 5064:Islamic science 5045: 4945:Arabic language 4933: 4927: 4697: 4643:Ilkhanic Tables 4623:Sinjaric Tables 4549:Zij al-Sindhind 4545:) (c. 780-850) 4522:Yaqūb ibn Tāriq 4500: 4494: 4489: 4347:attached to it. 4220: 4064:in 9th century 4029:Horary quadrant 4020:in 9th century 3996: 3982:and a magnetic 3869: 3853:right ascension 3835:which show the 3751: 3735:Right Ascension 3700:celestial globe 3680: 3533:analog computer 3484:analog computer 3450:analog computer 3434: 3255:Large astrolabe 3199:, the hours of 3158: 3114: 3108: 3058: 3013:was founded by 2986: 2970:jalali calendar 2923:Sharaf al-Daula 2856: 2821: 2747:as part of the 2722:Anousheh Ansari 2698:flight engineer 2539: 2402: 2210:physical bodies 2160:Ptolemaic model 2099: 2065:(Abubacer) and 2018:Ptolemaic model 1999:elliptic orbits 1980:Ptolemaic model 1964:Ptolemaic model 1839:Ta'rikh al-Hind 1756:Johannes Kepler 1702:laws of physics 1568:innate property 1564:circular motion 1548:heavenly bodies 1448:Maragheh school 1360: 1293:introduced the 1241:heavenly bodies 1214:laws of physics 1139:Canon Masudicus 1137:, while in his 897:Kitab fi Jawani 815: 618:Yaqūb ibn Tāriq 605:Surya Siddhanta 602:, based on the 600:Zij al-Sindhind 474:Ja'far al-Sadiq 460: 420: 397: 262: 179:Arabic language 146:Islamic science 138: 137: 136: 135: 134: 119:Latest revision 107: 106: 96: 93: 82: 80: 67: 51: 48: 31: 29: 12: 11: 5: 8125: 8115: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8082: 8081: 8079: 8078: 8077: 8076: 8071: 8066: 8056: 8055: 8054: 8049: 8039: 8033: 8031: 8027: 8026: 8024: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8012: 8011: 8001: 7996: 7991: 7986: 7985: 7984: 7974: 7969: 7963: 7961: 7955: 7954: 7952: 7951: 7950: 7949: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7923: 7922: 7912: 7907: 7901: 7899: 7893: 7892: 7890: 7889: 7884: 7879: 7874: 7869: 7864: 7863: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7850:use of analogy 7842: 7837: 7836: 7835: 7830: 7819: 7817: 7807: 7806: 7804: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7776:Historiography 7773: 7767: 7765: 7759: 7758: 7756: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7709: 7707: 7701: 7700: 7698: 7697: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7646: 7644: 7638: 7637: 7630: 7629: 7622: 7615: 7607: 7601: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7547: 7546:External links 7544: 7543: 7542: 7529: 7522: 7509: 7496: 7483: 7469: 7462: 7452: 7442: 7435: 7428: 7421: 7415: 7404: 7393: 7384: 7377: 7370: 7369:, Paris, 1939. 7361: 7358: 7356: 7355: 7339: 7326: 7324:, p. 237-255 . 7310: 7298: 7282: 7265: 7248: 7231: 7213: 7185: 7183:(1), p. 1-47 . 7169: 7153: 7149:British Museum 7147:, p. 167-168. 7133: 7131:, p. 237-255 . 7112: 7094: 7076: 7060: 7058:, E. J. Brill. 7047: 7023: 7014: 6987: 6978: 6957: 6955:(1), p. 13-21. 6941: 6939:(1), p. 42-50. 6925: 6906: 6888: 6872: 6856: 6840: 6824: 6805: 6798:Ahmad Y Hassan 6790: 6772: 6754: 6734: 6719: 6699: 6683: 6664: 6644: 6624: 6604: 6584: 6564: 6547: 6525: 6501: 6469: 6445: 6427: 6408: 6388: 6386:Saliba (2000). 6379: 6373:, p. 58-127 , 6359: 6346: 6333: 6317: 6308: 6293: 6272: 6252: 6239: 6214: 6194: 6185: 6160: 6140: 6124: 6108: 6092: 6076: 6056: 6037: 6021: 6008: 5994: 5977: 5975:Saliba (1999). 5965: 5941: 5929: 5916: 5907: 5898: 5889: 5880: 5871: 5869:Rashed (2007). 5862: 5846: 5833: 5820: 5804: 5785: 5769: 5756: 5735: 5715: 5699: 5690: 5678: 5664: 5652: 5635: 5618: 5602: 5586: 5573: 5571:, p. 115-141 . 5554: 5548:, p. 135-136. 5528: 5507: 5505:(1), 525–545 . 5488: 5469: 5446: 5430: 5410: 5385: 5360: 5351: 5342: 5308: 5287: 5267: 5265:, p. 237-255 . 5251: 5234: 5212: 5199: 5189:A. Abd-Allah, 5182: 5168: 5152: 5137: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5102: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5044: 5041: 4941:constellations 4929:Main article: 4926: 4923: 4922: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4911: 4910: 4909: 4901: 4900: 4899: 4888: 4887: 4886: 4875: 4874: 4873: 4871:Hikmat al-'Ain 4861: 4860: 4859: 4843: 4842: 4841: 4825: 4815: 4814: 4813: 4810:Tarik al-Aflak 4801: 4800: 4799: 4794:(Latinized as 4783: 4782: 4781: 4775: 4769: 4763: 4753:(Latinized as 4751:Ibn al-Haytham 4748: 4747: 4746: 4741: 4730:(Latinized as 4725: 4724: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4703:(Latinized as 4696: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4690: 4689: 4677: 4676: 4675: 4661: 4660: 4659: 4648: 4647: 4646: 4628: 4627: 4626: 4610: 4609: 4608: 4600:) (1028-1087) 4596:(Latinized as 4591: 4590: 4589: 4576:(Latinized as 4571: 4570: 4569: 4567:Az-Zij as-Sabi 4559:(Latinized as 4554: 4553: 4552: 4532: 4531: 4530: 4519: 4518: 4517: 4496:Main article: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4443:armillary and 4367: 4366: 4360: 4359: 4348: 4310:Safavid Persia 4306: 4287: 4263: 4243: 4242: 4219: 4216: 4176: 4175: 4125: 4124: 4096: 4095: 4093:Quadrans Vetus 4054: 4053: 4051:Quadrans Novus 4032: 4031: 4014: 4013: 3995: 3992: 3964: 3963: 3938: 3937: 3920:Umayyad Mosque 3912:time of prayer 3905:predecessors. 3891: 3890: 3868: 3865: 3825: 3824: 3813:to open every 3765: 3764: 3750: 3747: 3728: 3727: 3710: 3709: 3679: 3676: 3632: 3631: 3610: 3609: 3602:in existence. 3573: 3572: 3522: 3521: 3512:celestial body 3490:(Arzachel) in 3476: 3475: 3433: 3430: 3415: 3414: 3401: 3400: 3367: 3366: 3353:orthographical 3346: 3345: 3321: 3320: 3304:, kept at The 3271: 3270: 3258: 3257: 3157: 3154: 3107: 3104: 3057: 3054: 2990:File:Ulugh.jpg 2985: 2982: 2974:solar calendar 2855: 2852: 2820: 2817: 2812:space sciences 2663:Muhammed Faris 2661:, followed by 2629:Apollo program 2591:space stations 2568: 2567: 2538: 2535: 2472: 2471: 2413: 2412: 2410:Earth's motion 2405:recent times. 2401: 2398: 2356:Ibn al-Haytham 2300:Hikmat al-'Ain 2095:Main article: 2093: 2092: 2012:introduced by 1958:introduced by 1945: 1944: 1931:Tarik al-Aflak 1916:solar eclipses 1841:(Latinized as 1821:discussed the 1815: 1814: 1634:Ibn al-Haytham 1614:Ibn al-Haytham 1605: 1604: 1520: 1519: 1490:Ibn al-Haytham 1466: 1465: 1359: 1356: 1287: 1286: 1279:of astronomy. 1256:Book of Optics 1251:Ibn al-Haytham 1190: 1189: 1099:published the 1065: 1064: 877: 876: 814: 811: 749:Maragha school 592:Middle Persian 584: 583: 470: 469: 459: 456: 429:attributed to 403:verses in the 396: 393: 381:Middle Persian 365: 364: 358: 357: 346: 335: 320: 261: 258: 155: 154: 78: 64:permanent link 27: 16: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8124: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8094: 8092: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8061: 8060: 8057: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8044: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8034: 8032: 8028: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8010: 8009:ophthalmology 8007: 8006: 8005: 8002: 8000: 7997: 7995: 7992: 7990: 7987: 7983: 7980: 7979: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7964: 7962: 7960: 7956: 7948: 7945: 7944: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7921: 7918: 7917: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7902: 7900: 7898: 7894: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7847: 7846: 7845:Jurisprudence 7843: 7841: 7838: 7834: 7831: 7829: 7826: 7825: 7824: 7821: 7820: 7818: 7816: 7812: 7808: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7768: 7766: 7764: 7760: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7710: 7708: 7706: 7702: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7647: 7645: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7628: 7623: 7621: 7616: 7614: 7609: 7608: 7605: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7553: 7550: 7549: 7540: 7539: 7534: 7530: 7527: 7523: 7521:, p. 328-341. 7520: 7517: 7513: 7512:George Saliba 7510: 7507: 7504: 7500: 7499:George Saliba 7497: 7495:, p. 288-330. 7494: 7491: 7487: 7484: 7481: 7477: 7474: 7470: 7467: 7463: 7460: 7456: 7455:David A. King 7453: 7450: 7446: 7445:David A. King 7443: 7440: 7436: 7434:46, 2 (1956). 7433: 7429: 7426: 7422: 7420: 7416: 7413: 7409: 7405: 7402: 7398: 7394: 7391: 7390: 7385: 7382: 7378: 7375: 7371: 7368: 7364: 7363: 7352: 7349: 7343: 7336: 7330: 7323: 7320: 7314: 7307: 7306:Shadow square 7302: 7295: 7292: 7286: 7279: 7275: 7269: 7262: 7258: 7252: 7245: 7241: 7235: 7228: 7225: 7224: 7217: 7210: 7206: 7205: 7200: 7199:"Al-Khujandi" 7196: 7189: 7182: 7179: 7173: 7166: 7163: 7157: 7150: 7146: 7142: 7141:David A. King 7137: 7130: 7127: 7121: 7119: 7117: 7110: 7108: 7104: 7098: 7091: 7085: 7083: 7081: 7073: 7070: 7064: 7057: 7051: 7044: 7040: 7039: 7032: 7030: 7028: 7018: 7011: 7007: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6991: 6985:Ajram (1992). 6982: 6975: 6970: 6967: 6961: 6954: 6951: 6945: 6938: 6935: 6929: 6922: 6919: 6913: 6911: 6903: 6900: 6899: 6892: 6885: 6881: 6876: 6869: 6865: 6860: 6854:(5), p. 1-69. 6853: 6850: 6844: 6837: 6834: 6828: 6822:, p. 139-163. 6821: 6818: 6814: 6809: 6803: 6799: 6794: 6788: 6786: 6782: 6776: 6769: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6752:, p. 161-162. 6751: 6748: 6744: 6738: 6731: 6728: 6723: 6716: 6712: 6706: 6704: 6696: 6692: 6687: 6680: 6679:Physics Today 6676: 6675: 6668: 6654: 6648: 6634: 6628: 6614: 6608: 6594: 6588: 6574: 6568: 6561: 6557: 6551: 6545:(2): 237-239. 6544: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6529: 6515: 6511: 6505: 6497: 6488: 6480: 6473: 6459: 6455: 6449: 6442: 6439: 6438: 6431: 6424: 6423: 6418: 6412: 6405: 6401: 6395: 6393: 6383: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6367:George Saliba 6363: 6356: 6350: 6343: 6337: 6330: 6327: 6321: 6312: 6306: 6300: 6298: 6290: 6287: 6286: 6281: 6280:George Saliba 6276: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6260:George Saliba 6256: 6249: 6243: 6236: 6232: 6229: 6223: 6221: 6219: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6202:George Saliba 6198: 6189: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6173:George Saliba 6169: 6167: 6165: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6144: 6137: 6134: 6128: 6121: 6118: 6112: 6105: 6102: 6096: 6089: 6085: 6080: 6073: 6070: 6066: 6060: 6053: 6050: 6046: 6041: 6034: 6030: 6029:George Saliba 6025: 6018: 6012: 6003: 6001: 5999: 5991: 5987: 5981: 5972: 5970: 5962: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5945: 5936: 5934: 5926: 5920: 5911: 5902: 5893: 5884: 5875: 5866: 5859: 5856: 5850: 5843: 5837: 5830: 5824: 5817: 5813: 5808: 5801: 5798: 5794: 5789: 5782: 5776: 5774: 5766: 5760: 5753: 5748: 5746: 5744: 5742: 5740: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5723:George Saliba 5719: 5712: 5709: 5703: 5694: 5687: 5682: 5676: 5675: 5671:Dennis Duke, 5668: 5661: 5656: 5649: 5645: 5639: 5632: 5628: 5622: 5615: 5612: 5606: 5599: 5595: 5590: 5583: 5577: 5570: 5567: 5563: 5562:George Saliba 5558: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5537: 5535: 5533: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5511: 5504: 5501: 5497: 5492: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5477:George Saliba 5473: 5466: 5463: 5459: 5456: 5450: 5443: 5437: 5435: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5414: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5389: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5364: 5355: 5346: 5333: 5329: 5328: 5323: 5319: 5312: 5297: 5291: 5277: 5271: 5264: 5261: 5255: 5248: 5244: 5238: 5231: 5227: 5221: 5219: 5217: 5209: 5203: 5196: 5192: 5186: 5177: 5175: 5173: 5163: 5156: 5148:. 2007-05-01. 5147: 5141: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5125: 5118: 5116: 5114: 5109: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5040: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4932: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4912: 4908: 4905: 4904: 4902: 4898: 4895: 4894: 4892: 4891:Ibn al-Shatir 4889: 4885: 4882: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4872: 4869: 4868: 4866: 4862: 4857: 4853: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4839: 4835: 4832: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4823: 4819: 4816: 4811: 4808: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4797: 4793: 4790: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4779: 4776: 4773: 4770: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4757:) (965-1039) 4756: 4752: 4749: 4745: 4742: 4739: 4736: 4735: 4733: 4729: 4726: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4716:Astral Motion 4714: 4712: 4709: 4708: 4706: 4702: 4699: 4698: 4687: 4686:Unbored Pearl 4684: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4673: 4672: 4671:Zij-i-Sultani 4668: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4658: 4655: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4644: 4640: 4639: 4638:Zij-i Ilkhani 4635: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4625:) (1115-1116) 4624: 4620: 4617: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4607: 4606: 4602: 4601: 4599: 4595: 4592: 4587: 4586: 4582: 4581: 4579: 4575: 4572: 4568: 4565: 4564: 4562: 4558: 4555: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4533: 4529: 4526: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4515: 4512: 4511: 4510:(d. 796/806) 4509: 4506:(d. 777) and 4505: 4502: 4501: 4499: 4484: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4447:armillary of 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4421: 4419: 4414: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4365: 4362: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4312:, two unique 4311: 4307: 4304: 4300: 4299:regular grids 4296: 4292: 4288: 4285: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4271:Ibn al-Shatir 4268: 4264: 4261: 4257: 4256: 4252: 4247: 4240: 4236: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4224: 4223: 4215: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4174: 4171: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4130: 4123: 4120: 4119: 4118: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4101: 4094: 4091: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4052: 4049: 4048: 4047: 4045: 4041: 4038:for specific 4037: 4030: 4027: 4026: 4025: 4023: 4019: 4012: 4011:Sine quadrant 4009: 4008: 4007: 4005: 4001: 3991: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3970:invented the 3969: 3968:Ibn al-Shatir 3962: 3959: 3958: 3957: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3936: 3933: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3928:Ibn al-Shatir 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3889: 3886: 3885: 3884: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3864: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3823: 3820: 3819: 3818: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3773: 3772:water-powered 3769: 3763: 3760: 3759: 3758: 3756: 3746: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3726: 3723: 3722: 3721: 3719: 3718:Islamic world 3715: 3708: 3705: 3704: 3703: 3701: 3697: 3689: 3684: 3675: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3630: 3627: 3626: 3625: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3605: 3604: 3603: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3571: 3568: 3567: 3566: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3545: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3520: 3517: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3474: 3471: 3470: 3469: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3443: 3438: 3429: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3418:Ibn al-Shatir 3413: 3410: 3409: 3408: 3406: 3399: 3396: 3395: 3394: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3365: 3362: 3361: 3360: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3344: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3337: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3319: 3316: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3298: 3294: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3269: 3266: 3265: 3264: 3262: 3256: 3253: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3216: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3153: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3137: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3118: 3113: 3103: 3101: 3097: 3096: 3095:Physics Today 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3053: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2981: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2968:, a.k.a. the 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2946: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2911:Adud o-dowleh 2908: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2867: 2865: 2861: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2819:Observatories 2816: 2813: 2808: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2764: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2741:Expedition 16 2738: 2734: 2729: 2727: 2726:space tourist 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2678:space station 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2625:Moon landings 2622: 2618: 2614: 2613:Farouk El-Baz 2610: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2571:Kerim Kerimov 2566: 2563: 2562: 2561: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2548: 2544: 2534: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2523:decimal point 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2507:Unbored Pearl 2504: 2500: 2496: 2490: 2488: 2482: 2480: 2476: 2475:George Saliba 2470: 2467: 2466: 2465: 2463: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2406: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2363: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2340: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2306:Ibn al-Shatir 2303: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2292:heliocentrism 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2259: 2255: 2254:philosophical 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2192: 2191:Ibn al-Shatir 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2133: 2128: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2098: 2091: 2088: 2087: 2086: 2084: 2080: 2079:self-luminous 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2058: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2041: 2039: 2035: 2029: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2008:rejected the 2007: 2002: 2000: 1996: 1991: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1954:rejected the 1953: 1949: 1943: 1940: 1939: 1938: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1925:, a pupil of 1924: 1919: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1873: 1869: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1854: 1852: 1851:earth rotates 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1800:heliocentrism 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1760:Occam's razor 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1733:infinitesimal 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1677: 1673: 1671: 1667: 1666:observational 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1603: 1600: 1599: 1598: 1596: 1592: 1586: 1582: 1580: 1576: 1571: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1543: 1539: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1518: 1515: 1514: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1464: 1461: 1460: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1435: 1433: 1432:four elements 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1412:Ibn al-Shatir 1409: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1355: 1353: 1348: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1333:lunar eclipse 1330: 1326: 1322: 1321:solar eclipse 1318: 1314: 1311: 1307: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1285: 1282: 1281: 1280: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1257: 1252: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1225:Astral Motion 1221: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1188: 1185: 1184: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1170: 1168: 1164: 1158: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1129:supported by 1128: 1124: 1120: 1114: 1110: 1108: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1063: 1060: 1059: 1058: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1033:Simon Newcomb 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1017: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 988: 984: 983: 978: 974: 970: 968: 964: 962: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 939:sidereal year 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 889: 886: 885:al-Khwarizimi 882: 875: 872: 871: 867: 865: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 842: 838: 834: 830: 827: 824: 820: 810: 808: 804: 800: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 770: 768: 764: 763: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 735:translation, 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 705: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 683: 678: 670: 665: 659: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 640:sine function 636: 634: 630: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 606: 601: 597: 593: 589: 582: 579: 578: 576: 574: 570: 566: 560: 556: 552: 550: 546: 541: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 518:Earth rotates 516:in which the 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 468: 465: 464: 463: 454: 450: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 422: 416: 414: 410: 406: 402: 392: 388: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 363: 360: 359: 355: 351: 347: 344: 340: 336: 333: 329: 325: 321: 318: 314: 310: 309: 308: 306: 301: 299: 295: 291: 287: 282: 278: 274: 270: 267:knowledge of 266: 257: 253: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 218: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 191:Islamic Spain 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 171:Islamic world 168: 164: 160: 153: 151: 147: 142: 141: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 99: 90: 86: 81: 74: 73: 70: 65: 54: 39: 35: 30: 23: 8059:Sufi studies 8030:Other fields 7976: 7910:Contemporary 7833:consultation 7655:Architecture 7536: 7525: 7518: 7515: 7492: 7489: 7475: 7472: 7465: 7458: 7448: 7438: 7431: 7424: 7407: 7396: 7387: 7380: 7373: 7366: 7350: 7347: 7342: 7334: 7329: 7321: 7318: 7313: 7301: 7296:, p. 62-82 . 7293: 7290: 7285: 7280:, June 2003. 7277: 7273: 7268: 7256: 7251: 7239: 7234: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7202: 7188: 7180: 7177: 7172: 7164: 7161: 7156: 7144: 7136: 7128: 7125: 7106: 7105: 7097: 7092:, June 2004. 7089: 7071: 7068: 7063: 7055: 7050: 7036: 7017: 6998: 6990: 6981: 6973: 6968: 6965: 6960: 6952: 6949: 6944: 6936: 6933: 6928: 6920: 6917: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6875: 6859: 6851: 6848: 6843: 6835: 6832: 6827: 6819: 6816: 6808: 6793: 6784: 6783: 6775: 6765: 6757: 6749: 6746: 6742: 6737: 6722: 6694: 6686: 6672: 6667: 6656:. Retrieved 6647: 6636:. Retrieved 6627: 6616:. Retrieved 6607: 6596:. Retrieved 6587: 6576:. Retrieved 6567: 6550: 6542: 6537: 6533: 6528: 6517:. Retrieved 6504: 6472: 6461:. Retrieved 6448: 6440: 6435: 6430: 6420: 6415:Peter Bond, 6411: 6399: 6382: 6370: 6362: 6349: 6341: 6336: 6328: 6325: 6320: 6311: 6288: 6283: 6275: 6263: 6255: 6247: 6242: 6230: 6227: 6205: 6197: 6188: 6176: 6156:Thomson Gale 6151: 6143: 6135: 6132: 6127: 6119: 6116: 6111: 6106:(10), p. 74. 6103: 6100: 6095: 6087: 6079: 6071: 6068: 6064: 6059: 6051: 6048: 6040: 6032: 6024: 6016: 6015:S. H. Nasr, 6011: 5985: 5980: 5960: 5957: 5954:Hossein Nasr 5949: 5944: 5924: 5923:S. H. Nasr, 5919: 5910: 5901: 5892: 5883: 5874: 5865: 5857: 5854: 5849: 5841: 5836: 5828: 5823: 5807: 5799: 5796: 5788: 5767:, June 2003. 5764: 5759: 5726: 5718: 5710: 5707: 5702: 5693: 5681: 5673: 5667: 5655: 5643: 5638: 5621: 5613: 5610: 5605: 5597: 5589: 5581: 5576: 5568: 5565: 5557: 5545: 5542:Hossein Nasr 5519: 5516:Hossein Nasr 5510: 5502: 5499: 5491: 5472: 5457: 5454: 5449: 5417: 5413: 5393: 5388: 5368: 5363: 5354: 5345: 5335:, retrieved 5325: 5311: 5300:. Retrieved 5290: 5279:. Retrieved 5270: 5262: 5259: 5254: 5246: 5243:Zij al-Sindh 5242: 5237: 5229: 5207: 5202: 5185: 5161: 5155: 5140: 5132: 5122: 4965:Baten Kaitos 4934: 4916: 4906: 4896: 4893:(1304–1375) 4883: 4880:(1236-1311) 4870: 4855: 4851: 4848:(1201-1274) 4837: 4833: 4821: 4817: 4809: 4795: 4791: 4777: 4771: 4765: 4760: 4754: 4743: 4737: 4731: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4707:) (800-873) 4704: 4685: 4682:(1526-1585) 4669: 4666:(1394-1449) 4656: 4653:(1380-1429) 4642: 4636: 4633:(1201-1274) 4622: 4618: 4603: 4597: 4583: 4580:) (903-986) 4577: 4566: 4563:) (853-929) 4560: 4548: 4542: 4527: 4513: 4428: 4422: 4415: 4378: 4374: 4368: 4363: 4330:cartographic 4221: 4199: 4196:astronomical 4177: 4172: 4136:trigonometry 4126: 4121: 4115:12th century 4111:11th century 4097: 4092: 4062:al-Khwarizmi 4055: 4050: 4033: 4028: 4015: 4010: 3998:A number of 3997: 3972:compass dial 3965: 3961:Compass dial 3960: 3939: 3934: 3915: 3907:Al-Khwarizmi 3892: 3887: 3870: 3826: 3821: 3799:lunar orbits 3766: 3761: 3752: 3729: 3724: 3711: 3706: 3693: 3654:in terms of 3633: 3628: 3611: 3606: 3574: 3569: 3523: 3518: 3486:invented by 3477: 3472: 3447: 3416: 3411: 3402: 3397: 3391:heliocentric 3368: 3363: 3347: 3342: 3322: 3317: 3272: 3267: 3259: 3254: 3217: 3159: 3138: 3134: 3093: 3059: 3035: 3008: 2969: 2958:Omar Khayyám 2950:Malik Shah I 2947: 2902: 2895: 2868: 2857: 2849: 2845:observations 2822: 2809: 2760: 2745:Soyuz TMA-11 2743:crew aboard 2730: 2692:(one of the 2645: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2611: 2569: 2564: 2554:astronautics 2550:Central Asia 2540: 2537:1900-present 2527:observations 2506: 2492: 2486: 2484: 2473: 2468: 2414: 2409: 2403: 2387:Aristotelian 2364: 2337: 2321: 2304: 2299: 2287: 2262: 2226:Aristotelian 2214:mathematical 2195: 2171:observations 2137: 2089: 2060: 2043: 2040:(Avempace): 2031: 2027: 2003: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1973: 1941: 1930: 1920: 1904:solar apogee 1900:acceleration 1893: 1885: 1877: 1875: 1871: 1862:heliocentric 1855: 1842: 1838: 1835:Varahamihira 1816: 1811: 1792:solar apogee 1788:acceleration 1764:cosmological 1716: 1714: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1670:experimental 1649: 1645: 1641: 1631: 1617: 1601: 1588: 1584: 1578: 1572: 1545: 1541: 1524:astrophysics 1521: 1516: 1504:rather than 1467: 1462: 1456:heliocentric 1437: 1405: 1383: 1376:mathematical 1371: 1361: 1349: 1337:September 17 1288: 1283: 1254: 1249: 1228: 1224: 1222: 1202:astrophysics 1191: 1186: 1178: 1174: 1172: 1166: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1138: 1122: 1116: 1112: 1100: 1094: 1066: 1061: 1049: 1044: 1040: 1014: 992: 980: 966: 958: 917: 904: 900: 896: 890: 881:Zij al-Sindh 880: 878: 873: 862: 861:, wrote the 851:Al-Khwarizmi 816: 773: 771: 766: 760: 756: 740: 736: 728: 724: 720: 717:The Greatest 716: 712: 708: 702: 694: 680: 674: 668: 637: 632: 603: 599: 585: 580: 562: 558: 554: 542: 476:refuted the 471: 466: 461: 452: 439:superstition 424: 418: 401:cosmological 398: 389: 369:Muslim world 366: 361: 302: 263: 254: 219: 195:Central Asia 187:North Africa 166: 162: 156: 143: 22:old revision 19: 18: 7999:Mathematics 7660:Calligraphy 7486:A. I. Sabra 7478:, p. 7-55. 7291:Imago Mundi 6747:Imago Mundi 6514:IslamOnline 6458:IslamOnline 6045:A. I. Sabra 5793:A. I. Sabra 5686:A. I. Sabra 5660:A. I. Sabra 5642:Toby Huff, 4788:(973-1048) 4780:(1029-1039) 4734:) (d. 850) 4695:Other works 4688:(1577-1580) 4680:Taqi al-Din 4657:Khaqani Zij 4465:al-Khujandi 4441:equinoctial 4383:instruments 4303:graph paper 4284:Renaissance 4078:Middle Ages 3976:timekeeping 3954:Renaissance 3903:Hellenistic 3877:timekeeping 3831:with three 3739:Declination 3529:planisphere 3442:planisphere 3329:Middle Ages 3240:timekeeping 3106:Instruments 3046:Taqi al-Din 3027:Hulagu Khan 3019:Hulegu Khan 2825:observatory 2781:Eid ul-Fitr 2720:(ISS); and 2714:Soyuz TM-31 2710:Soyuz TM-32 2706:Soyuz TM-27 2702:Soyuz TM-19 2531:sexagesimal 2515:Tycho Brahe 2495:Taqi al-Din 2489:tradition." 2272:Tusi-couple 2238:Tusi-couple 2202:Renaissance 2200:before the 2185:(d. 1277), 2177:(d. 1266), 2116:Tusi-couple 2048:occur, but 1847:Brahmagupta 1831:Brahmagupta 1784:experiments 1746:, separate 1686:Maqâlah fî 1536:gravitation 1502:conjectural 1480:astronomer 1400:A. I. 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London. 7403:, (1999). 7259:, p. 17, 7242:, p. 75, 7069:Centaurus 7043:Routledge 6697:, p. 163. 6375:Routledge 6090:, p. 190. 5600:, p. 191. 5522:, p. 77. 5460:: 26-46 ( 5135:(10): 74 4953:Aldebaran 4774:(c. 1029) 4768:(c. 1028) 4664:Ulugh Beg 4561:Albategni 4543:Algorismi 4539:Latinized 4524:(d. 796) 4469:Samarqand 4423:In 1416, 4407:astrolabe 4320:-centred 4291:quadrants 4208:Samarkand 4204:Ulugh Beg 4184:Ray, Iran 4161:Samarkand 4150:Ulugh Beg 4140:astrolabe 4082:astrolabe 4040:latitudes 4004:quadrants 3768:Al-Jazari 3660:latitudes 3640:longitude 3581:astrolabe 3535:, in the 3454:latitudes 3310:Cambridge 3302:astrolabe 3261:Ibn Yunus 3236:surveying 3224:astronomy 3193:Caliphate 3100:telescope 3066:Palestine 3042:Samarkand 3038:Ulugh Beg 2999:Samarkand 2995:Ulugh Beg 2931:Ibn Yunus 2860:al-Ma'mun 2731:In 2007, 2627:with the 2433:empirical 2419:and then 2417:Samarkand 2400:1450-1900 2367:Samarkand 2360:al-Biruni 2222:phenomena 2168:empirical 2148:Samarkand 2114:with the 2083:Aristotle 2055:Aristotle 2050:eccentric 2046:epicycles 1921:In 1070, 1882:Latinized 1827:Aryabhata 1817:In 1030, 1780:Al-Biruni 1729:geometric 1721:cosmology 1662:empirical 1638:Latinized 1591:gravities 1573:In 1121, 1566:being an 1556:Aristotle 1506:empirical 1486:al-Farabi 1474:astrology 1458:context. 1402:, noted: 1368:Aristotle 1358:1025-1450 1352:empirical 1345:latitudes 1303:Milky Way 1196:brother, 1194:Banū Mūsā 1151:astrolabe 1143:Aryabhata 1119:al-Biruni 1107:cosmology 1025:astrolabe 1021:Ibn Yunus 1003:positions 955:space age 923:eccentric 762:Harmonica 677:astronomy 629:Al-Mansur 538:inanimate 526:expanding 435:astrology 273:empirical 230:Aldebaran 150:Astronomy 98:→‎History 79:Jagged 85 53:→‎History 28:Jagged 85 8004:Medicine 7967:Timeline 7915:Theology 7872:Quietism 7840:Feminism 7815:politics 7771:Timeline 7501:(1999). 7447:(1986). 6487:cite web 6262:(1994), 6204:(1994), 6175:(1994), 6086:(1938). 6019:, p. 134 5958:Speculum 5752:Khwarizm 5725:(1994), 5596:(1938). 5544:(1993), 5518:(1993), 5043:See also 4798:) (1031) 4740:(c. 833) 4645:) (1272) 4598:Arzachel 4588:(c. 964) 4551:(c. 830) 4516:(c. 750) 4481:alhidade 4477:altitude 4425:al-Kashi 4399:quadrant 4289:Islamic 4275:alhidade 4260:Alhidade 4132:quadrant 4103:quadrant 4074:altitude 4070:latitude 4058:quadrant 4036:quadrant 3950:latitude 3924:Damascus 3916:muwaqqit 3895:sundials 3888:Sundials 3793:and the 3743:meridian 3668:alhidade 3664:ecliptic 3636:al-Kashi 3614:al-Kashi 3588:calendar 3547:computer 3458:ecliptic 3448:Various 3387:al-Sijzi 3383:latitude 3375:Arzachel 3338:system. 3023:Maragheh 2898:Buwayhid 2879:meridian 2871:Damascus 2841:research 2805:microbes 2801:proteins 2797:leukemia 2737:Malaysia 2688:to Mir; 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