1149:). In the Bessemer process, molten pig iron from the blast furnace was charged into a large crucible, and then air was blown through the molten iron from below, igniting the dissolved carbon. As the carbon burned off, the melting point of the mixture increased, but the heat from the burning carbon provided the extra energy needed to keep the mixture molten. After the carbon content in the melt had dropped to the desired level, the air draft was cut off: a typical Bessemer converter could convert a 25-ton batch of pig iron to steel in half an hour.
281:
1118:
584:
992:
1101:. In his process, wrought iron and cast iron were heated in small ceramic crucibles, melting together to form steel. While producing steel superior to cement steel, the crucible steel process remained relatively expensive in both time and fuel, and could not be used in any sort of modern industrial scale. The strong steels produced were however in high demand for specialty products such as
459:"worked" at high temperature to remove any cracks or poorly-mixed regions from the solidification process, and to produce shapes such as plate, sheet, wire, etc. It is then heat-treated to produce a desirable crystal structure, and often "cold worked" to produce the final shape. In modern steelmaking these processes are often combined, with ore going in one end of the
959:'s employ, cast the Weald's first one-piece iron cannon. English iron cannons gained a reputation for being superior to, and less expensive than, the bronze cannons made elsewhere in Europe, and at least initially, efforts to copy them outside the Weald failed. The superiority of English cannons over Spanish ones has been credited as one factor in England's
1024:. Although it was not understood at the time, Swedish ore had very low phosphorus content compared to most ores (notably those in England), which allowed for a finer and stronger crystal structure. Sales of Swedish ore generated considerable trade income, and local development helped the country became the industrial powerhouse it remains to this day.
487:
alloy, and iron recovered from meteorite falls allowed ancient peoples to manufacture small numbers of iron artifacts. The name for iron in several ancient languages means "sky metal" or something similar. In distant antiquity, iron was regarded as a precious metal, suitable for royal ornaments. The
982:
ironmaster, began importing
Wealden iron ore for comparison to the ore available on the Continent. One difference he observed was that the English ore contained some calcareous material, and soon after, Dutch ironmasters introduced the use of limestone as a flux in the blast furnace. This practice
872:
scaled up this basic design, increasing the height of the flue to as tall as 5 meters (16 feet) and smelting as much as 350 kg (750 lb) of iron in each batch. These larger furnaces required more draft than could be provided by human power, and forging the large blooms that resulted was also beyond
747:
province, dated to the early third century BC, contains several soldiers buried with their weapons and other equipment. The artifacts recovered from this grave are variously made of wrought iron, cast iron, malleabilized cast iron, and quench-hardened steel, with only a few, probably ornamental,
610:
Iron did not, however, replace bronze as the chief metal used for weapons and tools for several centuries. Working iron required more fuel and significantly more labor than working bronze, and the quality of iron produced by early smiths may have been inferior to bronze as a material for tools.
393:
At this point, if its carbon content is high enough to produce a significant concentration of martensite, the metal resembles spring steel: extremely hard, but very brittle. Often, steel undergoes further heat treatment at a lower temperature to destroy some of the martensite (by allowing enough
277:). Since the oxidation rate itself increases rapidly beyond 800 °C, it is important that smelting take place in a fairly oxygen-free environment. Unlike copper and tin, liquid iron dissolves carbon quite readily, so that smelting results in an alloy containing too much carbon to be called steel.
458:
When iron is smelted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be melted and re-processed to remove the correct amount of carbon, at which point other elements can be added. Once this liquid is cast into ingots, it usually must be
693:
into a mild steel by holding it in a charcoal fire for prolonged periods of time. By the beginning of the iron age, smiths had discovered that iron that was repeatedly re-forged produced a higher quality of metal. Quench-hardening was also known by this time. The oldest quench-hardened steel
1244:
These developments increased the availability and decreased the price of steel; 22 thousand tonnes were produced in 1867, 500 thousand in 1870, 1 million in 1880 and 28 million by 1900. Today, worldwide annual production is around 850 million tonnes. This widespread
680:, whose pores were filled with ash and slag. The bloom then had to be reheated to soften the iron and melt the slag, and then repeatedly beaten and folded to force the molten slag out of it. The result of this time-consuming and laborious process was
1180:, French ironmasters who had licensed Siemens' furnace design, developed a method for measuring the carbon content of molten iron. Thus, the decarburization could be stopped at the steel stage rather than proceeding all the way to wrought iron. This
643:. The reason for this sudden adoption of iron remains a topic of debate among archaeologists. One prominent theory is that warfare and mass migrations beginning around 1200 BC disrupted the regional tin trade, forcing a switch from bronze to iron.
1005:) to carburize wrought iron without individually forging each piece. Wrought iron bars and charcoal were packed into stone boxes, then held at a red heat for up to a week. During this time, carbon diffused into the iron, producing a product called
880:
Eventually, the scaling up of the bloomery reached a point where the furnace was hot enough to produce cast iron. Although the brittle cast iron may initially have been a nuissance to the smith, as it was too brittle to be forged, the spread of
763:), Chinese ironworking achieved a scale and sophistication not reached in the West until the eighteenth century. In the first century, the Han government established ironworking as a state monopoly and built a series of large blast furnaces in
394:
time for cementite, etc., to form) and help settle the internal stresses and defects. This softens the steel, producing a more ductile and fracture-resistant metal. Because time is so critical to the end result, this process is known as
599:, dated to about 3000 BC. Some iron oxides are effective fluxes for copper smelting; it is possible that small amounts of metallic iron were made as a byproduct of copper and bronze production throughout the bronze age. In
647:, on the other hand, did not experience such a rapid transition from the bronze to iron ages: although Egyptian smiths did produce iron artifacts, bronze remained in widespread use there until after Egypt's conquest by
1077:
made it possible to convert cast iron into wrought iron in large batches, finally rendering the ancient bloomery obsolete. Wrought iron produced using this method became a major metal in the
English midlands' emerging
373:
Martensite has a lower density than austenite, so that the transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of
370:, cooling it so rapidly that the transformation to ferrite or perlite does not have time to take place. The transformation into martensite, by contrast, occurs almost immediately, due to a lower activation energy.
189:
Currently there are several classes of steels in which carbon is replaced with other alloying materials, and carbon, if present, is undesired. A more recent definition is that steels are iron-based alloys that can be
786:
Also during this time, Chinese metallurgists had found that wrought iron and cast iron could be melted together to yield an alloy of intermediate carbon content, that is, steel. According to legend, the sword of
348:
substance with about four to five times the strength of ferrite. Martensite has a very similar unit cell structure to austenite, and identical chemical composition. As such, it requires extremely little thermal
1232:
material removed phosphorus and sulfur from the steel as insoluble calcium or magnsium phosphates and sulfates. This development expanded the range of iron ores that could be used to make steel, especially in
324:
C. Cementite forms in regions of higher carbon content while other areas revert to ferrite around it. Self-reinforcing patterns often emerge during this process, leading to a patterned layering known as
311:
but is similarly soft and metallic. As carbon-rich austenite cools, the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for
551:. These artifacts were also used as trade goods with other Arctic peoples: tools made from the Cape York meteorite have been found in archaeological sites more than 1000 miles (1600 km) away. When the
170:, from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of carbon and its distribution in the alloy controls the qualities of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and
674:
produced by the charcoal reduced the iron oxides to metallic iron, but the bloomery was not hot enough to melt the iron. Instead, the iron collected in the bottom of the furnace as a spongy mass, or
1200:
Initially, only ores low in phosphorus and sulfur could be used for quality steelmaking; ores rich in those elements yielded brittle metals little better than cast iron. This problem was solved in
1109:
has preserved a water-wheel powered, scythe-making works dating from
Huntsman's times. It is still operated for the public, several times per year, using crucible steel made on the Abbeydale site.
320:
out of the mix, leaving behind iron that is pure enough to take the form of ferrite, and resulting in a cementite-ferrite mixture. Cementite is a stochiometric phase with the chemical formula of Fe
718:
developed an iron smelting technology that would not be practiced in Europe until late medieval times. In Wu, iron smelters achieved a temperature of 1130°C, hot enough to be considered a
939:. Despite this late start, the production of English iron foundries rapidly grew, in no small part due to foreign craftsmen hired by Henry to bring the craft of iron casting to England. In
1308:, which was famous in ancient times for its flexibility, was created from a number of different materials (some only in traces), essentially a complicated alloy with iron as main component.
791:, the first Han emperor, was made in this fashion. Some texts of the era mention "harmonizing the hard and the soft" in the context of ironworking; the phrase may refer to this process.
815:. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in crucibles and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. The resulting high-carbon steel, called
848:). The secret of forging this kind of steel was lost, even in the Middle East, by around 1600, and only recently have metallurgists found methods for reproducing its properties.
1186:
coexisted in industrial practice with the
Bessemer process for many years, but eventually proved more economical and displaced it. Reasons for this include its ability to
1058:. Although coke could be produced less expensively than charcoal, coke-fired iron was initially of inferior quality compared to charcoal-fired iron. It was not until the
1193:
in addition to fresh pig iron, its greater scaleability (up to hundreds of tons per batch, compared to tens of tons for the
Bessemer process), and the more precise
1082:. The combination of the blast furnace and the puddling furnace allowed iron to be produced at either end of the carbon spectrum, depending on the user's needs.
975:
386:
on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, these internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools; at the very least, they cause internal
296:, with very different properties; understanding these is essential to making quality steel. Relatively pure iron at room temperature will tend to form the
1296:
In a modern sense, alloy steels have been made since the advent of furnaces capable of melting iron, into which other metals may be thrown and mixed.
1177:
1270:
864:, a furnace about 1 meter (3 feet) tall, capable of smelting up to 150 kg (350 lb) of iron in each batch. In succeeding centuries, smiths in the
292:
Even in the narrow range of concentrations that make up steel, mixtures of carbon and iron can form into a number of different structures, or
948:
905:
1062:, when Darby's son refined the coking process to reduce the amout of sulfur in the coke that coke-fired furances became widespread.
603:, smelted iron was occasionally used for ornamental weapons: an iron-bladed dagger with a bronze hilt has been recovered from a
166:
being the primary alloying material. Carbon acts as a hardening agent, preventing iron atoms, which are naturally arranged in a
739:
to steel or wrought iron by heating it in air for several days. In China, these ironworking methods spread northward, and by
767:
province, each capable of producing several tons of iron per day. By this time, Chinese metallurgists had discovered how to
856:
The middle ages in Europe saw the construction of progressively larger bloomeries. By the 8th century, smiths in northern
138:
1289:, mated wire obtained from meteorites, heated and worked to impart the properties of expensive "star metal" to cheaper
560:
1253:), all of them dependent on the wide availability of inexpensive iron and steel and the ability to alloy it at will.
710:
Archaeologists and historians debate whether bloomery-based ironworking ever spread to China from the West. Around
273:, temperatures that could be reached with ancient methods that have been in use for at least 6000 years (since the
122:
110:
619:, iron tools and weapons displaced bronze ones throughout the near east. This process appears to have begun in
463:
and finished steel coming out the other. These can be streamlined by a deft control of the interaction between
253:
by removing the oxygen by combining it with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon. This process, known as
439:
interferes with the formation of cementite, allowing martensite to form with slower quench rates, resulting in
86:
37:
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make steel more brittle, so these commonly found elements must be removed from the ore during processing.
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had developed techniques for forging wootz to produce steel blades of unusual flexibility and sharpness (
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in western Europe was making ironworking and its charcoal-hungry processes increasingly expensive. In
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form, which is fairly soft. At about 910 °C ferrite will transition to the denser, face-centered cubic
983:
improved the separation of slag from the cast iron and improved the quality of
Continental cast iron.
75:
26:
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molten pig iron, stirring it in the open air until it lost its carbon and became wrought iron. (In
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and modern society as we know it. It also led to the introduction of newer "niche" steels (such as
356:
The heat treatment process for most steels involves heating the alloy until austenite forms, then
1209:
1205:
892:, sometime between 1150 and 1350. Other early European blast furnaces were built throughout the
743:, iron was the material of choice throughout China for most tools and weapons. A mass grave in
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a form of secondary steelmaking from scrap, though the process can also use direct-reduced iron
407:
Other materials are often added to the iron-carbon mixture to tailor the resulting properties.
1246:
1069:. In particular, the form of coal-fired puddling furnace developed by the British engineer
722:. At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. As a liquid, iron can be
427:. Large amounts of chromium and nickel (often 18 and 8 %, respectively) are added to
1414:
1146:
924:
8:
1404:
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Cast iron is rather brittle and unsuitable for striking implements. It can, however, be
730:, a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom.
548:
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to Europe in the 1300s provided an application for iron casting, cast iron cannonballs.
178:. One classical definition is that steels are iron-carbon alloys with up to 5.1 percent
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For many years the best steels could be produced by buying expensive iron ore from
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in steel adds to the tensile strength and makes austenite more chemically stable,
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Also by the early 1600s, ironworkers in western Europe had found a means (called
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Iron was in limited use long before it became possible to smelt it. About 6% of
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with an iron blade and a gold-decorated bronze haft found in the excavation of
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The oldest known blast furnace in Europe was constructed at
Lapphyttan in
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The oldest known samples of iron that appear to have been smelted from
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182:; ironically, alloys with higher carbon content than this are known as
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Another 18th-century
European development was the re-invention of the
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1220:. Their modified Bessemer process used a converter lined with
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to preheat the incoming air and conserve fuel. The next year,
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As for alloys of intermediate carbon content (that is, steel),
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were used to force air through a pile of iron ore and burning
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Iron axehead from
Swedish Iron Age, found at Gotland, Sweden.
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Meteoric iron was also fashioned into tools in pre-contact
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by later
Europeans, was exported throughout much of Asia.
64:
to this revision, which may differ significantly from the
804:
760:
572:
500:
and was buried with an iron dagger with a golden hilt. A
367:
266:
250:
1168:
introduced an improved puddling furnace that used brick
1145:. (An early converter can still be seen at the city's
595:
are small lumps found at copper-smelting sites on the
1401:, the first commercial scale steel production process
986:
1371:- the original steel making technique, developed in
919:
The first English blast furnace was not built until
807:, high quality steel was being produced in southern
333:-like appearance, or the similar but less beautiful
435:forms on the metal surface, to inhibit corrosion.
1391:by Benjamin Huntsman in 1740, and Pavel Anosov in
1125:The problem of mass-producing steel was solved in
559:shipped the largest piece of the meteorite to the
474:
851:
714:, however, metalworkers in the southern state of
137:
1434:
877:were employed to power the bellows and hammers.
873:the capabilities of a single man. To this end,
382:on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of
218:into the atmosphere, iron can be found only in
66:
1261:Alloy steels were known from antiquity, being
1245:availability of inexpensive steel powered the
896:valley: blast furnaces were in operation near
860:had developed a style that become known as a
658:Iron smelting at this time was based on the
307:phase, which has considerably higher carbon
202:Iron, like most metals, is not found in the
95:
52:
1334:). Some stainless steels are non-magnetic.
1121:Schematic drawing of a Bessemer converter
1112:
547:and other edged tools from pieces of the
288:pellets will be used in steel production.
257:, was first applied to metals with lower
210:in a native state. Since the rise of the
1116:
995:Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace.
990:
705:
582:
340:Perhaps the most important allotrope is
279:
47:
1241:, where high-phosphorus ores abounded.
811:by what Europeans would later call the
74:Revision as of 14:56, 20 March 2005 by
73:
14:
1435:
1358:
1046:product, in place of charcoal at his
390:and other microscopic imperfections.
44:
25:
1269:, and hot-worked into useful items.
17:
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987:Ironworking in early modern Europe
561:American Museum of Natural History
378:on the crystals of martensite and
136:
1459:
1387:and independently redeveloped in
1256:
1089:was rediscovered in the 1740s by
197:
60:. The present address (URL) is a
1293:; an early attempt at alloying.
1273:, famous as the blades that the
927:commissioned a new ironworks at
571:, it still weighed over 33
194:formed (pounded, rolled, etc.).
139:
1133:, with the introduction of the
794:
635:was fully into the iron age by
578:
475:History of iron and steelmaking
852:Ironworking in medieval Europe
423:while reducing the effects of
13:
1:
1348:Advanced High Strength Steels
694:artifact is a knife found on
531:. Beginning around the year
947:, a Wealden ironmaster, and
415:increases the hardness, and
269:both melt at just over 1000
174:than iron, but is also more
7:
1421:
1318:contain a minimum of 10.5%
1107:Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet
783:, literally, stir-frying.)
520:for 40 times its weight in
24:of this page, as edited by
10:
1464:
1345:(High Strength, Low Alloy)
1038:began smelting iron using
607:tomb dating from 2500 BC.
93:
50:
1316:surgical stainless steels
1105:and weapons. Sheffield's
779:, the process was called
158:whose major component is
1410:Basic oxygen steelmaking
803:, although certainly by
508:has been dated to about
483:are composed of an iron-
140:File:Steel framework.jpg
96:→Industrial steelmaking
53:→Industrial steelmaking
1210:Sidney Gilchrist Thomas
1206:Percy Carlyle Gilchrist
904:) in the 1340s, and at
245:. Iron oxide is a soft
214:and their excretion of
1322:, often combined with
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1113:Industrial steelmaking
996:
900:(a city in modern-day
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289:
145:
1247:industrial revolution
1137:at his steelworks in
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1027:By the 18th century,
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706:Developments in China
586:
443:. On the other hand
400:, source of the term
283:
143:
1415:Electric arc furnace
1277:wielded against the
1212:at the ironworks at
1147:Kelham Island Museum
976:Jan Andries Moerbeck
799:Perhaps as early as
687:Wrought iron can be
639:, central Europe by
234:— the form of
45:14:56, 20 March 2005
1405:Open hearth furnace
1183:open-hearth process
698:at a site dated to
549:Cape York meteorite
419:also increases the
298:body-centered cubic
111:← Previous revision
1365:Crucible technique
1359:Production methods
1135:Bessemer converter
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813:crucible technique
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1091:Benjamin Huntsman
870:Holy Roman Empire
842:Abbasid caliphate
362:the hot metal in
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1399:Bessemer process
1312:Stainless steels
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1166:William Siemens
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965:Spanish Armada
963:defeat of the
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1052:Coalbrookdale
1049:
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1037:
1036:Abraham Darby
1034:
1030:
1029:deforestation
1025:
1023:
1018:
1016:
1015:
1014:blister steel
1010:
1009:
1004:
1003:
993:
984:
981:
977:
973:
968:
966:
962:
958:
955:craftsman in
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
935:known as the
934:
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911:
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903:
899:
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862:Catalan forge
859:
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792:
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784:
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766:
762:
758:
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749:
746:
742:
738:
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731:
729:
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721:
720:blast furnace
717:
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697:
692:
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685:
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665:
661:
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623:and southern
622:
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598:
594:
585:
576:
574:
570:
566:
565:New York City
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
543:began making
542:
538:
534:
530:
529:North America
525:
523:
519:
516:sold iron to
515:
512:. The early
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
486:
482:
472:
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462:
461:assembly line
456:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
425:metal fatigue
422:
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405:
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385:
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377:
371:
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287:
284:This heap of
282:
278:
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272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
241:
238:found as the
237:
221:
217:
213:
212:cyanobacteria
209:
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128:
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108:
97:
88:
84:
79:
72:
71:
68:
63:
54:
39:
35:
30:
23:
1368:
1301:Carbon steel
1295:
1291:wrought iron
1260:
1243:
1199:
1182:
1181:
1178:Émile Martin
1151:
1124:
1084:
1080:toy industry
1064:
1042:, a refined
1026:
1019:
1013:
1012:
1008:cement steel
1007:
1006:
1001:
1000:
998:
969:
918:
887:
879:
855:
835:
827:
826:
817:
816:
798:
795:Indian steel
785:
780:
769:
768:
750:
736:decarburized
735:
734:
732:
709:
689:
688:
686:
682:wrought iron
676:
675:
657:
609:
590:
579:The iron age
557:Robert Peary
526:
478:
457:
440:
406:
401:
395:
392:
372:
357:
355:
339:
291:
201:
188:
148:
147:
22:old revision
19:
18:
1381:Middle East
1353:superalloys
1338:Tool steels
1191:scrap metal
1002:cementation
949:Peter Baude
875:waterwheels
838:9th century
753:Han Dynasty
751:During the
633:Mesopotamia
593:iron oxides
494:Tutankhamun
376:compression
329:due to its
318:precipitate
192:plastically
20:This is an
1437:Categories
1343:HSLA Steel
1267:meteorites
1095:Handsworth
1071:Henry Cort
957:Henry VIII
690:carburized
539:people of
502:battle axe
481:meteorites
453:phosphorus
346:metastable
342:martensite
309:solubility
294:allotropes
275:Bronze Age
236:iron oxide
1389:Sheffield
1328:corrosion
1279:crusaders
1222:limestone
1214:Blaenavon
1164:engineer
1139:Sheffield
1048:ironworks
929:Newcastle
925:Henry VII
906:Massevaux
541:Greenland
469:tempering
397:tempering
359:quenching
353:to form.
314:cementite
305:austenite
247:sandstone
1422:See also
1395:in 1837.
1369:puddling
1351:Ferrous
1320:chromium
1275:Saracens
1226:dolomite
789:Liu Bang
668:charcoal
660:bloomery
601:Anatolia
553:American
545:harpoons
514:Hittites
496:died in
490:Egyptian
449:nitrogen
437:Tungsten
421:hardness
417:vanadium
413:chromium
286:iron ore
261:points.
255:smelting
243:hematite
172:stronger
87:contribs
77:Fawcett5
38:contribs
28:Fawcett5
1283:smelted
1239:Germany
1188:recycle
1162:British
1143:England
1103:cutlery
1099:England
1056:England
923:, when
902:Belgium
836:By the
777:Chinese
700:1100 BC
670:. The
664:bellows
649:Assyria
629:1050 BC
617:1000 BC
518:Assyria
510:1400 BC
498:1323 BC
380:tension
335:bainite
327:perlite
301:ferrite
259:melting
240:mineral
176:brittle
168:lattice
162:, with
1443:Alloys
1393:Russia
1324:nickel
1263:nickel
1235:France
1174:Pierre
1158:German
1156:, the
1022:Sweden
953:French
933:Sussex
910:France
890:Sweden
883:cannon
823:Arabic
805:AD 200
801:300 BC
771:puddle
761:AD 220
757:202 BC
741:300 BC
712:500 BC
696:Cyprus
653:663 BC
641:800 BC
637:900 BC
625:Greece
621:Cyprus
605:Hattic
535:, the
522:silver
506:Ugarit
492:ruler
485:nickel
451:, and
445:sulfur
409:Nickel
263:Copper
216:oxygen
180:carbon
164:carbon
1448:Steel
1377:wootz
1373:India
1285:iron
1230:basic
1218:Wales
1060:1750s
980:Dutch
937:Weald
898:Liège
894:Rhine
858:Spain
829:wootz
818:pulad
809:India
765:Henan
745:Hebei
728:molds
726:into
677:bloom
645:Egypt
537:Thule
433:oxide
384:shear
364:water
331:pearl
220:oxide
208:crust
204:Earth
156:alloy
153:metal
151:is a
149:Steel
1332:rust
1314:and
1287:wire
1237:and
1202:1878
1176:and
1154:1867
1127:1856
1075:1784
1044:coal
1040:coke
1033:1709
978:, a
972:1619
961:1588
951:, a
941:1543
921:1496
914:1409
825:and
781:chao
724:cast
615:and
613:1200
573:tons
569:1897
533:1000
467:and
265:and
184:iron
160:iron
127:diff
121:) |
119:diff
107:diff
83:talk
34:talk
1383:as
1375:as
1367:or
1224:or
1216:in
1204:by
1152:In
1129:by
1097:in
1093:in
1073:in
1054:in
1050:at
1011:or
970:In
912:by
908:in
821:in
651:in
631:.
567:in
563:in
368:oil
366:or
337:.
316:to
267:tin
251:ore
206:'s
43:at
1439::
1141:,
1017:.
974:,
967:.
943:,
916:.
759:-
716:Wu
702:.
655:.
575:.
524:.
471:.
447:,
404:.
271:°C
186:.
113:|
109:)
85:|
36:|
1330:(
1160:-
755:(
322:3
231:3
228:O
225:2
129:)
125:(
117:(
105:(
100:)
92:(
89:)
81:(
70:.
57:)
49:(
40:)
32:(
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