4213:
alternative mathematical models that could replace those of
Ptolemy, and by scrutinizing the works of his predecessors who were all searching for unique mathematical models that could describe the physical phenomena consistently, this astronomer finally realized that all mathematical modeling had no physical truth by itself and was simply another language with which one could describe the physical observed reality. He also realized that the specific phenomena that were being described by the Ptolemaic models did not have unique mathematical solutions that were subject to the same restraints. Rather there were several mathematical models that could account for the Ptolemaic observations, yield identical predictive results at the same critical points used by Ptolemy to construct his own models (thus accounting for the observations as perfectly as Ptolemy could) and still meet the consistency requirement that was imposed by the Aristotelian cosmology which was adopted by the writers in the
5066:
6251:"This was an invention of some consequence, for the astrolabe, fitted with a series of plates for different latitudes, was neither a practical device nor an accurate observational instrument. Also, being made of brass, it was expensive. The almucantar quadrant, on the other hand, could be made of wood and was an extremely practical device with which one could solve all the problems solvable with an astrolabe, for a particular latitude. The back of such a quandrant could carry a trigonometric grid called a sine quadrant for solving all manner of computational problems."
3737:
633:
4770:
6098:
1731:
2579:
763:
3503:(Calendar of Corresponding Heavens). His job was to provide observation, and computation of the regularities in celestial phenomena, using the Islamic methods. His findings were used by Wang Chuna in the compilation of Yingtianli, which was completed in 963. The calculation, based on a 7-day week system similar to that in the Islamic calendar, was first adopted in this document, which was the most important occurrence in the Chinese history of calendrical methods.
6198:
5029:
2212:) are "to be considered as real, concrete physical bodies" or "merely the abstract circles in the heavens traced out year in and year out by the various stars and planets." He points out that many astronomers prefer to see them as solid spheres "on which the stars turn," while others, such as the Islamic scholar Dahhak, view the celestial sphere as "not a body but merely the abstract orbit traced by the stars." Al-Razi himself remains "undecided as to which
4619:
4173:
5777:
6160:
of markings were created for either equal or unequal hours. For measuring the time in equal hours, the horary quadrant could only be used for one specific latitude while a quadrant for unequal hours could be used anywhere based on an approximate formula. One edge of the quadrant had to be aligned with the sun, and once aligned, a bead on the end of a plumbline attached to the centre of the quadrant showed the time of the day.
128:
2237:
4718:
1262:
4222:
1401:
5149:
4839:
3611:("Ten Thousand Year Calendar" or "Eternal Calendar"). He was known as "Zhamaluding" in China, where in 1271, he was appointed by Khan as the first director of the Islamic observatory in Beijing, known as the Islamic Astronomical Bureau, which operated alongside the Chinese Astronomical Bureau for four centuries. Islamic astronomy gained a good reputation in China for its theory of planetary
2969:
2602:
3359:
3049:
9385:
4107:
astronomer." Qushji took this concept further and proposed that "the astronomer had no need for
Aristotelian physics and in fact should establish his own physical principles independently of the natural philosophers." Alongside his rejection of Aristotle's concept of a stationary Earth, Qushji also rejected the Aristotelian notion of the heavenly bodies moving in
5340:
1316:, in which many of his estimates come closer to modern values than any of his predecessors. For example, he estimated the Moon's diameter as 3,037 km (equivalent to 1,519 km radius) and its distance from the Earth as 215,209 miles, which come close to the currently accepted values of 1,735 km radius and 238,857 miles distance, respectively.
4128:(II.1) in which Copernicus follows Ṭūsī’s objection to Ptolemy’s “proofs” of the Earth’s immobility." This can be considered as evidence that not only was Copernicus influenced by the mathematical models of Islamic astronomers, but may have also been influenced by the astronomical physics they began developing and their views on the Earth's motion.
6136:, was used for astronomical calculations. Also known as the "Sinecal Quadrant" (the Arabic term for it is "Rubul Mujayyab"), it was used for solving trigonometric problems and taking astronomical observations. It was developed by al-Khwarizmi in the 9th century and remained prevalent until the 19th century. Its defining feature is a
2319:"Ptolemy assumed an arrangement that cannot exist, and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement, for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist."
1592:, he set forth the principles that the Earth is at the center of the universe and that it has no motion of its own. He was aware that if the Earth rotated on its axis and around the Sun, this would be consistent with his astronomical parameters, but he considered this a philosophical problem rather than a mathematical one.
2130:"And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely because of this distance and smallness that their influences are negligible, then why is it that you claim a great influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is it that you have given an influence to al-Ra's and al-Dhanab, which are two imaginary points ?"
7449:
505:“The general empirical attitude of the Qur'an which engendered in its followers a feeling of reverence for the actual, and ultimately made them the founders of modern science. It was a great point to awaken the empirical spirit in an age that renounced the visible as of no value in men's search after God.”
5123:(Arzachel) soon after. His instrument became known in Europe as the "Saphaea". It was a universal lamina (plate) which "constituted a universal device representing a stereographic projection for the terrestrial equator and could be used to solve all the problems of spherical astronomy for any latitude."
10174:
Clearly there is more to the
Copernican revolution than some clever astronomical models that arose in the context of a criticism of Ptolemy. There also needed to be a new conceptualization of astronomy that could allow for an astronomically based physics. But there is hardly anything like this in the
6159:
in 9th century
Baghdad, center of the development of quadrants. It was used to determine time (especially the times of prayer) by observations of the Sun or stars. The horary quadrant could be used to find the time either in equal or unequal (length of the day divided by twelve) hours. Different sets
4119:
in the 16th century. Despite the similarity in their discussions regarding the Earth's motion, there is uncertainty over whether al-Qushji had any influence on
Copernicus. However, it is likely that they both may have arrived at similar conclusions due to using the earlier work of al-Tusi as a basis.
2940:
Unlike the ancient Greek and
Hellenistic astronomers who were not concerned with the coherence between the mathematical and physical principles of a planetary theory, Islamic astronomers insisted on the need to match the mathematics with the real world surrounding them, which gradually evolved from a
4866:
Muslims both made many improvements to instruments already in use before their time, such as adding new scales or details and significantly enlarging them to improve accuracy, and invented many of their own new instruments. Islamic astronomers were also the first to build enormously large scientific
4421:
in the 18th century, Islamic astronomy was slowly displaced by
European astronomy, though there were attempts at harmonizing the two traditions. For example, the Indian Islamic scholar Mir Muhammad Hussain had travelled to England in 1774 to study Western science and, on his return to India in 1777,
1300:
in 830. The work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. The work is significant as it introduced Indian and
Ptolemaic concepts into Islamic sciences. This work also marked the turning point in Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had
3964:
This period was considered the period of stagnation, when the traditional system of astronomy continued to be practised with enthusiasm, but with decreasing innovation. It was believed there was no innovation of major significance during this period, but this view has been rejected by historians of
1832:
device." Ibn al-Haytham had "formulated a clear conception of the relationship between an ideal mathematical model and the complex of observable phenomena; in particular, he was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner,
1206:
kings for use in reckoning the lapse of time between known astronomical events and fixed dates. In addition to its relevance to calculating accurate calendars, it linked far and foreign cultures together by a common interest in the stars and astrology. The work of
Ptolemy was replicated and refined
8317:
All
Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted ... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere ...
4385:
with more accurate observations. The instruments and observational techniques used at the observatory were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition, and the computational techniques from the Hindu tradition. In particular, one of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented by Muslims in
311:. A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering approximately 10,000 manuscripts scattered throughout the world, many of which have not been read or catalogued. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.
4102:
and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationery Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth. He also observed comets and elaborated on al-Tusi's argument. He took it a step further and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence
2731:
spheres are not excluded by him. I have not heard it from his pupils; and even if it be correct that he discovered such a system, he has not gained much by it, for eccentricity is likewise contrary to the principles laid down by Aristotle.... I have explained to you that these difficulties do not
3179:
remains speculative, since there is no documentary evidence to prove it. The possibility that Copernicus independently developed the Tusi couple remains open, since no researcher has yet proven that he knew about Tusi´s work or the Maragha school. It has been argued that, given some differences
4106:
His predecessor al-Tusi had previously realized that "the monoformity of falling bodies, and the uniformity of celestial motions," both moved “in a single way,” though he still relied on Aristotelian philosophy to provide "certain principles that only the natural philosophers could provide the
5711:
that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His fragments of his sundial in a Damascus museum is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.
4212:
By his sheer insight into the role of mathematics in describing natural phenomena, this astronomer managed to bring the hay'a tradition to such unparalleled heights that could not be matched anywhere else in the world at that time neither mathematically nor astronomically. By working on the
4506:
The medieval Islamic observatories were also the earliest institutions to emphasize group research (as opposed to individual research) and where "theoretical investigations went hand in hand with observations." In this sense, they were similar to modern scientific research institutions.
6140:
like grid on one side that is divided into sixty equal intervals on each axis and is also bounded by a 90 degree graduated arc. A cord was attached to the apex of the quadrant with a bead at the end of it to act as a plumb bob. They were also sometimes drawn on the back of astrolabes.
865:
thought in this field. The foundations of Islamic astronomy closely parallel the genesis of other Islamic sciences in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science that was essentially Islamic. These include
2228:." He concludes that "astronomical models, whatever their utility or lack thereof for ordering the heavens, are not founded on sound rational proofs, and so no intellectual commitment can be made to them insofar as description and explanation of celestial realities are concerned."
5702:
Since ancient dials were nodus-based with straight hour-lines, they indicated unequal hours — also called temporary hours — that varied with the seasons, since every day was divided into twelve equal segments; thus, hours were shorter in winter and longer in summer. Abu'l-Hasan
953:
based on the Islamic viewpoint. This calendar has twelve lunar months, the beginnings of which are determined by the sighting of the crescent moon. This calendar is about 11 days shorter than the solar year. This calendar is still in use for religious purposes among Muslims.
9399:
2830:. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with
3315:
view of the impossibility of multiple worlds or universes. He describes the main Aristotelian arguments against the existence of multiple worlds or universes, pointing out their weaknesses and refuting them. This rejection arose from his affirmation of
618:. He concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory and that it is not possible to empirically deduce which theory is true (see
4401:
in 1702. After examining La Hire's work, Jai Singh concluded that the techniques and instruments used in the European tradition were inferior to the Islamic and Indian traditions. It is uncertain whether Islamic astronomers in India were aware of the
10175:
European tradition before Copernicus. The fact that we can find a long, vigorous discussion in Islam of this issue intricately tied to the question of the Earth's movement should indicate that such a conceptual foundation was there for the borrowing.
5119:. His instrument could solve problems of spherical astronomy for any geographic latitude, though in a somewhat more complicated fashion than the standard astrolabe. Another, more advanced and more famous, universal astrolabe was constructed by
3965:
astronomy in recent times, who argue that Muslim astronomers continued to make significant advances in astronomy through to the 16th century and possibly after this as well. After the 16th century, there appears to have been little concern for
5629:. This is considered one of the most important innovations in 16th-century practical astronomy, as previous clocks were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes. He further improved the observational clock, as described in his
4862:
Modern knowledge of the instruments used by Muslim astronomers primarily comes from two sources. First the remaining instruments in private and museum collections today, and second the treatises and manuscripts preserved from the Middle Ages.
1881:'s view on the Milky Way galaxy. Aristotle believed the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together" and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the
1574:(c. 1028), which some have interpreted to imply he was criticizing Ptolemy's geocentrism, but most agree that he was actually criticizing the details of Ptolemy's model rather than his geocentrism. Alhazen did, however, later propose the
444:
says: "And it is He who ordained the stars for you that you may be guided thereby in the darkness of the land and the sea." On the basis of this advice Muslims began to develop better observational and navigational instruments, thus most
4466:
Islamic astronomers had based their work largely on actual observations of the heavens, far more so than earlier Greek astronomers who relied heavily upon abstract calculation. This led to the emergence of the modern astronomical
677:
says: "The number of months in the sight of Allah is twelve (in a year) so ordained by Him the day He created the heavens and the earth; of them four are sacred; that is the straight usage." Therefore Muslims could not follow the
6751:
tables) in the sense that "the entries found in the almanacs give directly the positions of the celestial bodies and need no further computation", in contrast to the more common "auxiliary astronomical tables" based on Ptolemy's
5633:, using only one dial to represent the hours, minutes and seconds. He describes this observational clock as "a mechanical clock with a dial showing the hours, minutes and seconds and we divided every minute into five seconds."
10457:
History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26,
10428:
History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26,
10399:
History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26,
9495:
History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26,
993:
Another impetus came from Islamic religious observances, which presented a host of problems in mathematical astronomy. In solving these religious problems the Islamic scholars went far beyond the Greek mathematical methods.
705:." This led Muslims to find the phases of the moon in the sky, and their efforts led to new mathematical calculations and observational instruments, as well as a special science being formed specifically for moon sighting.
4823:
inspired by the famous Samarkand observatory. The instruments and observational techniques used at the observatory were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition, and the computational techniques from the Hindu tradition.
322:
has affected astronomy directly and indirectly. A major impetus for the flowering of astronomy in Islam came from religious observances, which presented an assortment of problems in mathematical astronomy, specifically in
1301:
adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge. Al-Khwarizmi's work marked the beginning of non-traditional methods of study and calculations.
11472:"There is no evidence for the Hellenistic origin of the spherical astrolabe, but rather evidence so far available suggests that it may have been an early but distinctly Islamic development with no Greek antecedents."
6246:
in the 11th or 12th century, and was later known in Europe as the "Quadrans Vetus" (New Quadrant). It was intended as a simplified alternative to the astrolabe serving a specific latitude. According to David King:
4558:
dynasty encouraged the undertaking of extensive works in Astronomy, such as the construction of a large scale instrument with which observations were made in the year 950. We know of this by recordings made in the
2509:"Rotation of the earth would in no way invalidate astronomical calculations, for all the astronomical data are as explicable in terms of the one theory as of the other. The problem is thus difficult of solution."
3071:, incorporated the Urdi lemma, and eliminated the need for an equant by introducing an extra epicycle (the Tusi-couple), departing from the Ptolemaic system in a way that was mathematically identical to what
585:
and universes, "such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has." Al-Razi also criticized the Aristotelian notion of solid
6408:
among other things. Al-Wafa'i developed another compendium in the 15th century which he called the "equatorial circle", which also featured a horizontal sundial. These compendia later became popular in
6262:
The universal (shakkāzīya) quadrant was used for solving astronomical problems for any latitude. These quadrants had either one or two sets of shakkāzīya grids and were developed in the 14th century in
2707:"To assert the existence of an eccentric sphere or an epicyclic sphere is contrary to nature. The astronomy of our time offers no truth, but only agrees with the calculations and not with what exists."
2038:, discussed whether the Earth moved and considered how this might be consistent with astronomical computations and physical systems. Several other Muslim astronomers, most notably those following the
5914:. It was in the 1980s, however, that Emilie Savage-Smith discovered several celestial globes without any seams in Lahore and Kashmir. The earliest was invented in Kashmir by the Muslim metallurgist
4867:
instruments in order to greatly improve the accuracy of observations. Their contributions to astronomical instrumentation are abundant. Many of these instruments were often invented or designed for
2505:, he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem. He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters:
4406:
via the Jesuits, but it appears they were not concerned with theoretical astronomy, hence the theoretical advances in Europe did not interest them at the time. They did, however, employ the use of
4103:
rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory and that it is not possible to empirically deduce which theory is true.
2652:
where they have been preserved. Their students took up the challenge earlier posed by Ibn al-Haytham, namely to develop an alternate non-Ptolemaic configuration that evaded the errors found in the
606:
of an innate principle of circular motion in the heavenly bodies, and maintained that the celestial spheres were "imaginary things" and "more tenuous than a spider's web". Under such influences,
5508:
also invented a mechanical planetary computer which he called the Plate of Zones, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, including the prediction of the true positions in
3378:
claimed to have observed the transit of Venus across the Sun. He took this as evidence that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun (in the Ptolemaic cosmology). In the 12th century, the
2216:, concrete or abstract, most conform with external reality," and notes that "there is no way to ascertain the characteristics of the heavens," whether by "observable" evidence or by authority (
6267:. Some astrolabes are also printed on the back with the universal quadrant like an astrolabe created by Ibn al-Sarrāj. The Shakkaziya quadrant produced by Jamal al-Din al-Maridini was an
4004:
5807:
3394:
identified to Ibn Bajjah's observation as the transit of Venus and Mercury. However, Ibn Bajjah cannot have observed a Venus transit, as there were no Venus transits in his lifetime.
106:
94:
962:
This period was most notably the period of assimilation and syncretization of earlier Hellenistic, Indian and Sassanid astronomy occurred during the eighth and early ninth centuries.
701:
is first sighted in the western evening sky. The Qur'an says: "They ask you about the waxing and waning phases of the crescent moons, say they are to mark fixed times for mankind and
6477:
to make it more convenient to find the direction and distance to Mecca at the centre from anywhere on the Earth, which may be based on cartographic grids dating back to 10th century
84:(Tagged for rewrite. There's no way to trust this trainwreck as it stands - someone just needs to go through and rewrite the entire article from scratch with solid references.)
49:(Tagged for rewrite. There's no way to trust this trainwreck as it stands - someone just needs to go through and rewrite the entire article from scratch with solid references.)
2699:
physical principles and argued for a strictly concentric model of the universe. Al-Bitruji failed in his attempt to make an accurate model of the motions of the planets employing
110:
90:
541:
From the 12th century onwards, Islamic astronomy began becoming a science primarily dependant upon observation rather than philosophy, primarily due to religious opposition from
102:
5846:
were used primarily for solving problems in celestial astronomy. Today, 126 such instruments remain worldwide, the oldest from the 11th century. The altitude of the sun, or the
2732:
concern the astronomer, for he does not profess to tell us the existing properties of the spheres, but to suggest, whether correctly or not, a theory in which the motion of the
1684:(Algazel). They used two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:
3948:
treatises) among others. Byzantine science thus played an important role in transmitting Arabic knowledge to Western Europe in later centuries, such as the transmission of the
4503:
are carried out. Islamic observatories were also the first to employ enormously large astronomical instruments in order to greatly improve the accuracy of their observations.
8622:
3107:
by Copernicus, which was mathematically achieved by reversing the direction of the last vector connecting the Earth to the Sun. In the published version of his masterwork,
3103:. His work thus marked a turning point in astronomy, which may be considered a "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance". His rectified model was later adapted into a
806:
are the reasons which led to Muslims making advances in spherical geometry. Solving any of these problems involves finding the unknown sides or angles of a triangle on the
15144:
3491:. In the early 10th Century, the Chinese emperor of the Song dynasty encouraged the advancement of the study of astronomy and its related disciplines. In 961, the Emperor
5679:
made tables for these instruments which considerably shortened the time needed to make specific calculations. Sundials were frequently placed on mosques to determine the
5972:(973-1048), in a section of his work that is "dedicated to verifying the presence of the new crescent on the horizon." Though these early observation tubes did not have
3541:. Owing to Ma's contribution to the compilation of 'Yingtianli', Ma was made a hereditary noble and his sons later succeeded his position with the Imperial Observatory.
2141:
as "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" and thus argued that "it is certainly impossible to have knowledge of their influences."
6835:, Najm al-Din al-Misri (c. 1325) wrote a treatise describing over 100 different types of scientific and astronomical instruments, many of which he invented himself.
5915:
4995:
in the 10th century accurately observed more than 10,000 entries for the sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1.4 meters.
2397:, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the
822:, and the sun's position. The observer must know the altitude of the sun and that of the pole; the former can be observed, and the latter is equal to the observer's
3275:) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has of the throne (
3198:, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al-Tusi.
2493:, a contemporary of al-Biruni, suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which al-Biruni did not reject. Al-Biruni agreed with the
141:
375:, there were 12 years of 12 lunar months and seven years of 13 lunar months. The periodic insertion of a 13th month kept calendar dates in step with the seasons.
15033:
15011:
12585:
King, David A. (December 2003), "14th-Century England or 9th-Century Baghdad? New Insights on the Elusive Astronomical Instrument Called Navicula de Venetiis",
10284:
Zaken, Avner Ben (2004), "The heavens of the sky and the heavens of the heart: the Ottoman cultural context for the introduction of post-Copernican astronomy",
2525:), in which he recorded his astronomical findings and formulated astronomical tables. In it he presented a geocentric model, tabulating the distance of all the
5910:
before and after this were seamed, and in the 20th century, it was believed by metallurgists to be technically impossible to create a metal globe without any
1712:
Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument in particular became more famous after it was adopted by
13271:
5941:
These seamless celestial globes are considered to be an unsurpassed feat in metallurgy, hence some consider this achievement to be comparable to that of the
418:, for instance, repeated applications of Menelaus' theorem were required. For medieval Islamic astronomers, there was an obvious challenge to find a simpler
12367:
Kennedy, Edward S. (1952), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Maneteq" II: Longitudes, Distances, and Equations of the Planets",
6579:
4704:, as well as a library and mosque. Some of the top astronomers of the day gathered there, and their collaboration resulted in important alternatives to the
4442:, thus his view corresponds to the modern view that the universe consists of billions of galaxies, each one consisting of billions of stars. The last known
4070:'s claim that a stationery Earth can be determined through observation. Al-Tusi, however, eventually accepted that the Earth was stationery on the basis of
3850:
1774:
1562:
accepted unanimously the geocentric model. However, several Muslim scholars questioned the Earth's apparent immobility and centrality within the universe.
1361:(Albatenius) (853-929) produced "improved tables of the orbits of the sun and the moon" that "contained his great discovery that the direction of the sun's
1358:
10270:
7408:
4299:
After the destruction of the Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din in 1580, astronomical activity stagnated in the Ottoman Empire, until the introduction of
1121:
had previously done with geometrical works, all extant knowledge in the field of astronomy that was known to the author. This work was originally known as
1773:, unlike the ancients who believed that the celestial spheres followed their own set of physical laws different from that of Earth. In the 10th century,
15016:
12702:
An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina
9910:, (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr.), pp. 35-8 or Charles Burnett, "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century,"
3521:
12618:
In Synchrony with the Heavens, Studies in Astronomical Timekeeping and Instrumentation in Medieval Islamic Civilization: Instruments of Mass Calculation
5336:" and to Biruni (c. 1000) who made important contributions to the development of the volvelle. In the 20th century, the volvelle had many diverse uses.
5092:
and fixed stars. The first universal astrolabes were later constructed in the Islamic world and which, unlike their predecessors, did not depend on the
4303:
in 1660, when the Ottoman scholar Ibrahim Efendi al-Zigetvari Tezkireci translated Noël Duret's French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic.
2570:" problem of the Ptolemic model, and proposed a solution for the problem. He claimed that his teacher Avicenna had also worked out the equant problem.
5833:. It was an Islamic variation of the astrolabe and the armillary sphere, of which only one complete instrument, from the 14th century, has survived.
1950:
During this period, a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. It was Greek tradition to separate mathematical astronomy (as typified by
6934:
6772:. The work provided the true daily positions of the sun, moon and planets for four years from 1088 to 1092, as well as many other related tables. A
3804:
3499:(910?-1005) as the chief official to take charge of the government observatory. After compiling several important astrological works, including the
1524:
in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star. He says that the object was two to three times as large as the disc of
15038:
12690:
8604:
3517:
786:'s theory of the complex lunar motion was tolerably accurate near the time of the new moon, it specified the moon's path only with respect to the
614:
and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationery Earth, as he explored the idea of a
13605:
9593:
Benno van Dalen (2002), "Islamic and Chinese Astronomy under the Mongols: a Little-Known Case of Transmission", in Yvonne Dold-Samplonius (ed.),
5096:
of the observer and could be used anywhere on the Earth. The basic idea for a latitude-independent astrolabe was conceived in the 9th century by
4184:
in the 14th century, but recent studies have shown that there were several significant advances in planetary theory through to the 16th century.
3889:
who translated and developed the astronomical concepts brought from Islamic Spain. Other Arabic astronomical texts translated into Latin include
3175:
However, it remains a fact that the Maragha school never made the big leap to heliocentrism. In addition, the influence of the Maragha school on
1351:
of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the earth. The books were widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into
5934:. 21 such globes were produced, and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes. These Mughal metallurgists developed the method of
3075:
did in the 16th century. Unlike previous astronomers before him, Ibn al-Shatir was not concerned with adhering to the theoretical principles of
14840:
13423:
12319:
Kennedy, Edward S. (1950), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Manateq" I. Motion of the Sun and Moon in Longitude",
4483:
treatises using these observatories. The Islamic observatory was the first specialized astronomical institution with its own scientific staff,
11625:
King, David A. (1974), "An analog computer for solving problems of spherical astronomy: The Shakkaziya quadrant of Jamal al-Din al-Maridini",
6907:
4371:, who attempted to revive the Islamic tradition of astronomy in India. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called
3087:
observations. For example, it was Ibn al-Shatir's concern for observational accuracy which led him to eliminate the epicycle in the Ptolemaic
2385:
from astronomy, free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. The model also propounded the
1750:
12893:
6275:, Muslim astronomers "developed the quadrant to all conceivable limits; it virtually replaced the astrolabe in Syria and Egypt in Mamluk and
4292:
fractions used by his contemporaries and predecessors. He also invented a variety of astronomical instruments, including accurate mechanical
1365:... , as recorded by Ptolemy, was changing." Among other things, he worked on timing the first appearance of the moon's crescent following a
7548:
7070:
2846:
13332:
4367:
were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, however, it was a Hindu king,
4243:
3682:
3580:
3500:
1660:, presented the first such argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. His arguments were adopted by many most notably;
147:
5734:. This was later known in Europe as the "Navicula de Venetiis", which was considered the most sophisticated timekeeping instrument of the
15053:
6761:
5244:
5120:
4919:, Fazari made several improvements to the device, such as the introduction of angular scales to the astrolabe, adding circles indicating
4046:, is seen as a late example of innovation in Islamic theoretical astronomy and it is believed he may have possibly had some influence on
3686:
3584:
11514:
Sabra, A. I. & Hogendijk, J. P. (2003), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, pp. 85-118, ISBN 0262194821
3017:(d. 1266) was the first of the Maragheh astronomers to develop a non-Ptolemaic model, and he proposed a new theorem, the "Urdi lemma".
1828:'s light strikes." In order to prove that "light is emitted from every point of the moon's illuminated surface," he built an "ingenious
13398:
7784:
7769:
7711:
1227:
The period throughout the ninth, tenth and early eleventh centuries was one of vigorous investigation, in which the superiority of the
7696:
7509:
6340:, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements.
3431:
as 23.52 degrees, which remains the most accurate measurement to date. It was more accurate than later measurements by Copernicus and
2408:
15043:
14845:
14669:
14549:
13264:
5699:. Muslim astronomers and engineers were the first to write instructions on the construction of vertical sundials and polar sundials.
4752:. The remains of the observatory were excavated in 1908 by Russian teams. Ulugh Beg, alongside his team of researchers that included
3646:, which was largely accepted at Kublai's court. These possible influences include a pseudo-geometrical method for converting between
2949:
after the work of Ibn al-Shatir. The Maragha Revolution was thus characterized by a shift away from the philosophical foundations of
6178:
and which was later known as the "Quadrans Vetus" (Old Quadrant) in medieval Europe from the 13th century. It could be used for any
3728:
in the 15th century. The tradition of Chinese-Islamic astronomy survived in Korea for even longer, up until the early 19th century.
15065:
13036:
12347:
11208:
11183:
6557:
6502:
6156:
6129:
6106:
5037:
3858:
3781:
3751:
3328:, which entails the existence of vacant space in which the atoms move, combine and separate. He discussed more on the issue of the
1297:
1265:
4098:, rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely
3160:
relevant to the Earth as evidence, which al-Qushji elaborated on with further empirical observations while rejecting Aristotelian
2893:
Some have described their achievements in the 13th and 14th centuries as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "
1190:
was a particularly unifying work for its exhaustive lists of astronomical phenomena. He drew up a list of chronological tables of
14981:
14322:
11873:
11654:
10623:
8654:
7982:
5621:." This was the first clock to measure time in seconds, and he used it for astronomical purposes, specifically for measuring the
4163:) horizon. This point moves with the motion of the Earth and thus there will be no difference in place of fall of the two rocks."
3007:
grounds by Ibn al-Shatir, and the development of a non-Ptolemaic model by Ibn al-Shatir that was mathematically identical to the
782:
Predicting just when the crescent moon would become visible is a special challenge to Islamic mathematical astronomers. Although
240:
in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science with
98:
15048:
14077:
3777:
3755:
720:
in that direction. Thus they need to determine the direction of Mecca from a given location. Another influencing factor is the
355:. Both communities had confronted the fact that the approximately 29.5-day lunar months are not commensurable with the 365-day
265:
12638:
King, David A.; Cleempoel, Koenraad Van; Moreno, Roberto (2002), "A Recently Discovered Sixteenth-Century Spanish Astrolabe",
9733:
van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in Ansari, S. M. Razaullah (ed.),
9655:
van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in Ansari, S. M. Razaullah (ed.),
8274:
Aulie, Richard P. (March 1994), "Al-Ghazali Contra Aristotle: An Unforeseen Overture to Science In Eleventh-Century Baghdad",
7422:
van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in Ansari, S. M. Razaullah (ed.),
15060:
15003:
14098:
13848:
9112:
9066:
9026:
8260:
8145:
8108:
5059:
2756:
256:
in particular, which were translated and built upon. In turn, Islamic astronomy later had a significant influence on Indian,
4815:
were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Hindu king
4547:
were undertaken. One of these early observatories in Baghdad was the Al-Shammisiyyah observatory, where between 825 to 835,
4094:
in astronomy, opening up possibilities for an astronomy unrestrained by philosophy. Under this influence, Al-Qushji, in his
3156:(d. 1525). Al-Tusi was the first to present empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation, using the location of
1698:
The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states:
13257:
11868:
9450:
8289:
8310:
A. I. Sabra, "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy,"
4414:, Jai Singh states: "telescopes were constructed in my kingdom and using them a number of observations were carried out."
3152:, Nizam al-Din al-Nisaburi (c. 1311), al-Sayyid al-Sharif al-Jurjani (1339–1413), Ali al-Qushji (d. 1474), and Abd al-Ali
2901:". An important aspect of this revolution included the realization that astronomy should aim to describe the behavior of
2451:
2414:
610:(d. 1474) rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated it from astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely
14623:
13802:
8535:
8342:
6351:
5869:(Geber) was "the first to design a portable celestial sphere to measure and explain the movements of celestial objects."
4785:
4773:
4679:
4257:
3109:
10133:
10079:
3622:
shortly afterwards resemble the style of instrumentation built at Maragheh. In particular, the "simplified instrument" (
14592:
13985:
13747:
12770:
12607:
King, David A. (2004), "Reflections on some new studies on applied science in Islamic societies (8th-19th centuries)",
10374:
10346:
6715:
6355:
5598:
4781:
4253:
3785:
3773:
2194:
2186:
1231:
of astronomy was accepted and significant contributions made to it. Astronomical research was greatly supported by the
970:
Historians point out several factors that fostered the growth of Islamic astronomy. The first was the proximity of the
261:
13919:
13059:(1994a), "Early Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Cosmology: A Ninth-Century Text on the Motion of the Celestial Spheres",
2868:
537:"An eclipse is a phenomenon of nature. It is foolish to attribute such things to the death or birth of a human being."
410:
it was possible to solve one of the six sides, but only if the other five sides were known. To tell the time from the
14739:
12966:(1998), "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy",
12807:
12541:
12226:
12046:
10736:
8169:
7931:
7381:
5803:. No early Islamic armillary spheres survive, but several treatises on “the instrument with the rings” were written.
3631:
2295:
plausible ... description of what actually took place in the heavens." While maintaining the physical reality of the
469:
than was common in the preceding Greek civilization" which inspired Muslims to place a greater emphasis on empirical
171:
155:
8780:"Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation"
8747:"Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation"
6992:
5461:
5172:
5157:
5055:
5018:
3828:
2158:
2077:
2031:
1901:
533:'s death, and rumours began spreading about this being God's personal condolence. Muhammad is said to have replied:
452:
Other influences of the Qur'an on Islamic astronomy included its "insistence that the Universe is ruled by a single
14986:
14926:
14825:
13949:
13939:
10461:
10432:
10403:
9862:
9824:
9783:
9738:
9660:
9499:
9479:
7427:
4904:
4180:
It was traditionally believed that Islamic astronomers made no more advances in planetary theory after the work of
3180:
between the two models, it is more likely that Copernicus could have taken the ideas found in the Tusi couple from
6054:(Alhazen). His descriptions were fundamental to the development of the telescope and helped set the parameters in
2042:
of astronomy, developed non-Ptolemaic planetary models within a geocentric context that were later adapted by the
1588:(b. 973) discussed the possibility of whether the Earth rotated about its own axis and around the Sun, but in his
14954:
12415:
9294:
9269:
4450:, written in 1838 by the Indian astronomer Ghulam Hussain Jaunpuri (1760–1862) and printed in 1855, dedicated to
4438:
of God, who is not confined to a single universe. Hussain's idea of a universe resembles the modern concept of a
810:
from the known sides and angles. A way of finding the time of day, for example, is to construct a triangle whose
78:
37:
10869:
7521:
Ahmad, I. A. (1995), "The impact of the Qur'anic conception of astronomical phenomena on Islamic civilization",
6497:: The shadow square was an instrument used to determine the linear height of an object, in conjunction with the
6238:. The term "almucantar" is itself derived from Arabic. The almucantar quadrant was originally modified from the
2084:. Their reasons for refuting astrology were often due to both scientific (the methods used by astrologers being
13807:
13742:
13212:
13199:
Wickens, G. M. (1976), "The Middle East as a world Centre of science and medicine", in Savory, Roger M. (ed.),
13088:
12906:
12778:
12675:
12629:
12563:
12266:
12248:
12125:
11938:
11848:
10797:
10769:
10717:
10469:
10440:
10411:
10382:
10354:
10323:
9746:
9668:
9635:
9602:
9507:
8564:
7435:
7336:
7052:
6666:
5197:
is one in which he describes the linear astrolabe, sometimes called the "staff of al-Tusi", which he invented.
4833:
4689:
4479:
as was the case in ancient times) being first introduced by medieval Muslim astronomers, who produced accurate
4159:). And this perpendicular is away from the tangent point of the Earth’s sphere and the plane of the perceived (
4059:
3935:
3487:), Islamic astronomer and astrologist who worked as the chief official of the astronomical observatory for the
3149:
3018:
2874:
2842:
2787:
2182:
2035:
9129:, "The Andalusian Revolt Against Ptolemaic Astronomy: Averroes and al-Bitrûjî", in Mendelsohn, Everett (ed.),
4135:(d. 1528), who in his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were moving, develops a hypothesis similar to
4115:. This is considered to be a "conceptual revolution" that had no precedent in European astronomy prior to the
3374:
were claimed to have been observed by medieval Islamic astronomers. In the 11th century, the Persian polymath
15149:
14820:
14662:
13858:
11204:
4151:"The small or large rock will fall to the Earth along the path of a line that is perpendicular to the plane (
3643:
3003:
from astronomy by Ibn al-Shatir and al-Qushji, the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than
2664:), included a list of objections to Ptolemic astronomy. This marked the beginning of the Andalusian school's
9410:
5194:
2547:
are not identical. Al-Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than
15081:
14757:
13975:
13883:
13762:
9716:
8195:
889:
has divided the history of Islamic astronomy into the four following distinct time periods in its history:
790:. To predict the first visibility of the moon, it was necessary to describe its motion with respect to the
13347:
12088:
11162:
Silvio A. Bedini, Francis R. Maddison (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi",
8848:
8338:
6387:: The alhidade was invented in the Islamic world, while the term "alhidade" is itself derived from Arabic.
2389:
about its axis, and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like
2291:) of physical orbs and spheres each of which turning uniformly about its own axis," thereby producing "a
1385:. Around the same time, Yahya Ibn Abi Mansour carried out extensive observations and tests, and wrote the
1312:
in Baghdad, where he estimated a number of geographic and astronomical values. He compiled his results in
1079:
990:
during the ninth century. This process was enhanced by the tolerance towards scholars of other religions.
15154:
15026:
14976:
14959:
14916:
14911:
14815:
14767:
14538:
14417:
14291:
13337:
12832:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2001b), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science",
12015:
11050:
11010:
5370:
3561:
3413:
in the early 15th century, the observatory made considerable progress in observational astronomy. In the
1422:
67:
26:
11965:
11523:
O. S. Marshall (1950). "Alhazen and the Telescope", Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets 6, p. 4
11344:
10567:
7840:
5013:
were invented in the Muslim world, and were perfected by Ibn Samh (c. 1020). One such device with eight
4708:
over a period of 50 years. The observations of al-Tusi and his team of researchers were compiled in the
1800:) some time before 1021. This was the first attempt successful at combining mathematical astronomy with
14859:
14714:
13792:
13782:
13403:
13293:
13204:
13012:
12924:
12824:
12552:
World-maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science
12277:
World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science
12240:
12218:
12138:
11878:
11833:
10709:
10686:
10293:
10264:
10043:
9692:
9134:
8362:
6396:: A compendium was a multi-purpose astronomical instrument, first constructed by the Muslim astronomer
5333:
5108:
5097:
4548:
3651:
2728:
2315:
grounds, and for relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles:
2019:
1559:
1305:
1157:
was incorrect, even in premise, it remained a standard astronomical text in both the Islamic world and
13413:
11728:
9474:
Sally P. Ragep (2007), "Ibn Sīnā: Abū ʿAlī al‐Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Sīnā", in Thomas Hockey (ed.),
5486:
invented the Plate of Conjunctions, a computing instrument used to determine the time of day at which
4911:, (927/8 CE). The first person credited for building the Astrolabe in the Islamic world is reportedly
4188:, for example, improved on al-Tusi's planetary model and presented an alternative planetary model for
3263:), and it is established as well by evidence that God Most High has power over all contingent beings (
1889:." Ibn al-Haytham refuted this by making the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's
590:
and suggested these may be "merely the abstract orbit traced by the stars." Later in the century, the
489:
alone as being sufficient to understanding nature. The Qur'an's insistence on observation, reason and
14059:
13640:
13524:
13080:
11893:
11888:
11883:
11863:
11649:
11039:"State, Science and Economy in Traditional Societies: Some Problems in Weberian Sociology of Science"
10847:
10618:
9557:
Richard Bulliet, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup.
7357:
7139:
3615:, which did not exist in Chinese astronomy at the time, and for its accurate prediction of eclipses.
3588:
3386:
reported observing "the two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun." In the 13th century, the
3216:
518:
308:
10931:
Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents",
10269:
Cite error: The named reference "Tekeli" was defined multiple times with different content (see the
8581:"Popularisation of Optical Phenomena: Establishing the First Ibn Al-Haytham Workshop on Photography"
7856:
Henry C. King, Harold Spencer Jones, Courier Dover Publications, 2003 ISBN 0486432653, 9780486432656
7407:
Cite error: The named reference "Saliba" was defined multiple times with different content (see the
3239:
verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds." He raises the question of whether the term "
2995:
Other achievements of the Maragha school include the first empirical observational evidence for the
1555:
1331:"). The book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy's
14949:
14655:
13873:
13767:
13645:
13408:
13368:
12883:
12766:
11732:
11659:
11627:
Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences (International Archives on the History of Science)
11367:
10628:
8659:
8649:
7987:
7547:
Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), "The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study",
6272:
5672:
5065:
4916:
4788:. This was on the same scale as those in Maragha and Samarkand as well as that of his contemporary
4515:
The first systematic observations in Islam are reported to have taken place under the patronage of
4300:
4226:
3506:
Ma Yize might have consulted many works of Islamic mathematical astronomy into Chinese, including:
3104:
3008:
2886:
2043:
1867:
1661:
1607:
875:
249:
13863:
7653:
6686:
4753:
4333:
techniques. While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Muslim and
3259:
It is established by evidence that there exists beyond the world a void without a terminal limit (
1893:, and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it was very remote from the
1785:
observations and experimental techniques by Muslim astronomers from the eleventh century onwards.
13878:
13827:
13489:
13479:
13418:
13171:
13101:
12737:
12504:
King, David A. (1997), "Two Iranian World Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca",
11996:
11136:
10949:
10892:
10789:
10761:
9627:
8873:
7828:
6190:
after the astrolabe. One of its main purposes in the Islamic world was to determine the times of
4684:
The more influential observatories, however, were established beginning in the 13th century. The
4342:
4193:
4108:
3970:
3303:) for establishing that the world is one are weak, flimsy arguments founded upon feeble premises.
1734:
1289:
8414:
Craig, William Lane (June 1979), "Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past",
3926:, translated various Arabic books on astronomy, including for example the works of Abu Ma'shar,
2965:
in general, as exemplified in the works of Ibn al-Shatir, al-Qushji, al-Birjandi and al-Khafri.
1978:
of astronomy. Most of these criticisms, however, continued to follow the Ptolemaic astronomical
857:; their knowledge was what they observed regarding the rising and setting of stars. The rise of
662:
There are several rules in Islam which lead Muslims to use better astronomical calculations and
14830:
14296:
14256:
14070:
14011:
13970:
13797:
13777:
13696:
13574:
7977:
7557:
7083:
6875:
6847:
6813:
6303:
6295:
6208:
6091:
5927:
5285:
5006:
4963:
4588:
4580:
4144:
3639:
3053:
2099:
1498:
1464:
1418:
1057:
639:
399:
12846:
12194:
10978:
10732:
10690:
10657:
L. C. Martin (1923), "Surveying and navigational instruments from the historical standpoint",
9853:
Yunli Shi (January 2003), "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables",
9815:
Yunli Shi (January 2003), "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables",
9774:
Yunli Shi (January 2003), "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables",
9227:
6332:
constructed the Fakhri sextant, which had a radius of approximately 36 meters. Constructed in
5369:, an observational instrument and mechanical analog computer device used to transform between
2747:
to be made up of many stars but that it appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of
1413:, which described more than a thousand stars in detail and gave the first descriptions on the
1072:
used in Hellenistic mathematics. Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for
602:, which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God's will, rejected the
359:. To solve the problem, Christians and Jews had adopted a scheme based on a discovery made in
14563:
14357:
14271:
13944:
13757:
13726:
13671:
13459:
12856:
12210:
12190:
12176:
12153:
10863:
10587:
9275:
8626:
6863:
6821:
6809:
6596:
6426:
6125:
6102:
6087:
6071:
5968:(Albatenius) (853-929), and the first exact description of the observation tube was given by
5942:
5487:
5218:
4958:
first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as astronomy,
4816:
4745:
4725:
4675:
4564:
4551:
conducted various observations and estimated a number of geographic and astronomical values.
4403:
4368:
4116:
3795:, who translated 87 books from Arabic to Latin. The astronomical texts he translated include
3398:
3349:
3251:, or to many other universes or a multiverse beyond this known universe." In volume 4 of the
3014:
2980:
2894:
2838:
2819:
2752:
2724:
2684:
2609:
1862:
matter, and that the heavens are less dense than the air. These views were later repeated by
1451:(964). He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud" now known as the
1430:
1166:
886:
12413:
Kennedy, Edward S. (1961), "Al-Kashi's Treatise on Astronomical Observational Instruments",
10187:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2004), "Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks",
10113:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2004), "Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks",
10056:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2004), "Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks",
9624:
The history of the relations between the Low Countries and China in the Qing era (1644-1911)
7951:
7654:"Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on Physics and the Nature of the Physical World: A Preliminary Survey"
5730:. It was used for accurate timekeeping by the Sun and Stars, and could be observed from any
3700:”), which was published in China a number of times until the early 18th century, though the
2287:
tradition was concerned with accommodating mathematical hypotheses within "a configuration (
14921:
14772:
14699:
14582:
14556:
14397:
14367:
13772:
13752:
13443:
13342:
13327:
11843:
11179:
10549:
Micheau, Francoise, "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East", pp. 992–3
10164:
F. Jamil Ragep (2004), "Copernicus and His Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks",
7885:
6825:
6744:
6544:
5855:
5491:
5222:
5107:
The first known universal astrolabe to be constructed was by Ali ibn Khalaf al-Shakkaz, an
4685:
4671:
4623:
4535:
degrees were measured, solar parameters were established, and detailed observations of the
4532:
4484:
4269:
4205:
4120:
This is more of a possibility considering "the remarkable coincidence between a passage in
4111:. His work was an important step away from Aristotelian physics and towards an independent
4079:
4023:
3923:
3743:
3572:
3568:
3387:
3212:
3186:
2942:
2811:
2799:
2201:
2039:
1653:
1362:
1117:
1035:
827:
603:
566:
554:
530:
407:
185:
13249:
12800:
12039:
11077:
Lorch, R. P. (1976), "The Astronomical Instruments of Jabir ibn Aflah and the Torquetum",
10042:
Edith Dudley Sylla, "Creation and nature", in Arthur Stephen McGrade (2003), pp. 178-179,
9574:
Rufus, W. C. (May 1939), "The Influence of Islamic Astronomy in Europe and the Far East",
2014:" ...—the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the
1824:
and correctly concluded that it "emits light from those portions of its surface which the
1335:
based on findings of earlier Iranian astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the
1097:
ran parallel to the interest in mathematics. Especially noteworthy in this regard was the
8:
14867:
14704:
14523:
14362:
14342:
14276:
14261:
14132:
14091:
13812:
13787:
13474:
13393:
13107:
12587:
12093:
11645:
11079:
10992:
10640:
10614:
10315:
10261:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
8645:
8052:
8024:
7973:
6607:
5854:
of stars could be calculated with these by inputting the location of the observer on the
5826:
5811:
5142:
4912:
4398:
4277:
4230:
4200:
also studied the works of a 16th century astronomer, Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550), a
4051:
4047:
4015:
3953:
3659:
3424:
3391:
3165:
3145:
3072:
3030:
2996:
2958:
2954:
2906:
2850:
2700:
2494:
2483:
2438:
2386:
2213:
2174:
2154:
2011:
1758:
1723:
1637:
1621:
1575:
1447:
1409:
757:
694:
615:
74:
53:
33:
13438:
12140:
Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering
7460:
7252:, as well as a number of other stars. Some of these names originated in the pre-Islamic
6429:
used for various astronomical and timekeeping purposes from the 10th century introduced
6097:
5328:, paper constructions with rotating parts. It is considered an early example of a paper
4397:
astronomers to his observatory, who had bought back the astronomical tables compiled by
14941:
14835:
14719:
14587:
14528:
14206:
14158:
14016:
13569:
13363:
13186:
12852:
12708:
12667:
12525:
12059:
11982:
11858:
11676:
11092:
10974:
9362:
Y. M. Faruqi (2006). "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise",
8065:
8037:
7803:
7746:
7724:
7578:
7010:
6743:
word. The modern almanac differs from earlier astronomical tables (such as the earlier
6530:
5830:
5606:
5573:
5553:
5412:
5400:
5288:
4488:
4472:
4418:
4330:
4293:
4075:
4055:
4027:
4011:
3934:(who was of Byzantine Greek descent but raised in a Persian culture), Al-Khwārizmī and
3890:
3886:
3371:
3161:
3076:
3000:
2555:
2382:
2023:
1438:
1061:
1031:
846:
795:
775:
493:("see", "think" and "contemplate"), on the other hand, led Muslims to develop an early
474:
446:
395:
352:
324:
205:
12600:
6026:
onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up."
5373:. It was designed to take and convert measurements made in three sets of coordinates:
5088:
The first astrolabe instruments were used to read the rise of the time of rise of the
3041:. Al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī (d. 1277), who also worked at the Maragheh observatory, in his
1845:
onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up."
1540:
later corroborated bin Ridwan's observations as to magnitude and location in the sky.
1473:
observed more than 10,000 entries for the sun's position for many years using a large
1053:, a collection of astronomical tables compiled in Sassanid Persia over two centuries.
14782:
14777:
14749:
14618:
14613:
14487:
14347:
13888:
13822:
13817:
13534:
13244:
13208:
13084:
12902:
12870:
12787:
12774:
12728:
12684:
12671:
12625:
12559:
12537:
12262:
12244:
12222:
12121:
12026:
11952:
11934:
11853:
11331:
11127:
10965:
10883:
10793:
10765:
10713:
10677:
10670:
10554:
10490:
10465:
10436:
10407:
10378:
10371:
The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India
10350:
10343:
The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India
10319:
9874:
9836:
9795:
9742:
9699:
9664:
9631:
9598:
9503:
9288:
8864:
8598:
8560:
8178:
8165:
7816:
7534:
7431:
7375:
7332:
7253:
6526:
5911:
5880:
5281:
4959:
4568:
4281:
3998:
3974:
3919:
3911:
3792:
3769:
3444:
3224:
3207:
2822:. Like their Andalusian predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the
2703:. Averroes wrote the following criticism of the Ptolemaic model of planetary motion:
2526:
2205:
2178:
2059:
2015:
1905:
1855:
1805:
1762:
1669:
1629:
1601:
1585:
1549:
1537:
811:
587:
494:
431:
269:
257:
21:
12012:
To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo
8630:
8578:
7221:
7205:
6186:
of the Sun. This was the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the
4612:
3824:
3021:(1201–1274) resolved significant problems in the Ptolemaic system by developing the
1746:
14884:
14807:
14628:
14597:
14472:
14462:
14392:
14251:
14211:
14196:
14119:
14084:
14064:
14006:
13929:
13914:
13909:
13635:
13484:
13373:
13132:
13123:(2000), "Arabic versus Greek Astronomy: A Debate over the Foundations of Science",
13045:
12993:
12952:
12928:
12717:
12647:
12621:
12596:
12555:
12513:
12481:
12450:
12424:
12402:
12378:
12356:
12330:
12308:
12165:
11991:
Dallal, Ahmad (1999), "Science, Medicine and Technology", in Esposito, John (ed.),
11838:
11088:
11054:
11014:
10666:
10503:
10499:
10010:
9866:
9828:
9787:
9160:
Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy",
8791:
8758:
8497:
8423:
8061:
8050:
Langermann, Y. Tzvi (1985), "The Book of Bodies and Distances of Habash al-Hasib",
8033:
8022:
Langermann, Y. Tzvi (1985), "The Book of Bodies and Distances of Habash al-Hasib",
7530:
7450:
African Cultural Astronomy By Jarita C. Holbrook, R. Thebe Medupe, Johnson O. Urama
7361:
6851:
6784:
6778:
6640:
6307:
6205:
6083:
6063:
5935:
5796:
5781:
5668:
5525:
5022:
4908:
4647:
4476:
4338:
4326:
4312:
4189:
4143:", which he described in the following observational test (as a response to one of
4083:
3865:(also containing trigonometric tables) were translated by Robert of Chester and by
3846:
3816:
3812:
3725:
3674:
3635:
3600:
3367:
3325:
3228:
3045:, wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, though he later abandoned the idea.
2976:
2922:
2878:
2779:
2760:
2653:
2502:
2455:
2394:
2296:
2123:
1995:
1975:
1958:). Muslim scholars developed a program of seeking a physically real configuration (
1886:
1677:
1613:
1485:'s investigations on the motion of the moon, while his other observations inspired
1452:
1414:
1228:
1065:
1039:
905:
867:
807:
771:
725:
670:
591:
570:
542:
273:
253:
233:
13239:
12288:
Iqbal, Muzaffar; Berjak, Rafik (2003), "Ibn Sina–Al-Biruni correspondence",
11535:(University of Illinois), Best Idea; Eyes Wide OpenNew York Times, April 18, 1999.
9445:
4744:, himself an astronomer and mathematician, founded another large observatory, the
4260:
in 1577, where he carried out astronomical observations until 1580. He produced a
3736:
3618:
Some of the astronomical instruments constructed by the famous Chinese astronomer
2486:
on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems.
689:
The other issue is moon sighting. Islamic months do not begin at the astronomical
15118:
14734:
14678:
14533:
14467:
14231:
14186:
13716:
13590:
13559:
13509:
13494:
13322:
13191:
11363:
11114:
9131:
Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences: Essays in honor of I. Bernard Cohen
8686:
7153:
6740:
6451:
6268:
6041:
5919:
5883:
5866:
5847:
5843:
5800:
5622:
5362:
5348:
5329:
5291:
5240:
5206:
5180:
4705:
4592:
4136:
4091:
3982:
3899:
3882:
3866:
3796:
3761:
3709:
3591:, who previously worked at Maragha observatory, presented Kublai Khan with seven
3308:
2934:
2827:
2692:
2617:
2390:
2190:
1871:
1754:
1657:
1628:
developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning (see
1022:
1011:
871:
683:
679:
643:
636:
562:
245:
237:
209:
58:
13549:
13077:
A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam
12437:
The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory
8209:
6378:
Various other astronomical instruments were also invented in the Islamic world:
6234:
quadrant was invented in the medieval Islamic world, and it employed the use of
5420:
4639:
3164:
altogether. Both of their arguments were similar to the arguments later used by
632:
15113:
14971:
14729:
14709:
14377:
14352:
14138:
14001:
13655:
13630:
13615:
13600:
13564:
13433:
13136:
12984:
12815:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context",
12533:
12472:
12441:
12369:
12321:
12299:
12134:
11898:
11817:
11532:
11001:
10001:
8488:
7109:
6957:
6474:
6276:
6170:
The universal horary quadrant was an ingenious mathematical device invented by
6067:
6046:
6007:
5688:
5268:
4769:
4655:
4635:
4316:
4249:
4071:
4035:
4007:
3978:
3915:
3841:
3836:
3721:
3670:
3452:
3448:
3126:
2950:
2918:
2815:
2264:
2240:
2069:
1850:
1789:
1705:"The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition."
1513:
1460:
1212:
1199:
1195:
1069:
1007:
983:
975:
950:
831:
819:
607:
558:
498:
403:
13147:
12932:
12651:
12517:
12401:(2), Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 46, No. 2: 123,
12169:
11595:
Elly Dekker (1995), "An unrecorded medieval astrolabe quadrant from c. 1300",
11108:
9870:
9832:
9791:
8531:
6058:
for the later advances in telescopic technology. His additional work in light
5663:
Muslims made several important improvements to the theory and construction of
3549:
3397:
The astronomical tradition established by the Maragha school continued at the
1730:
1249:
became the centers of such activity. The caliphs not only supported this work
15138:
14931:
14724:
14497:
14407:
14281:
14151:
14144:
13843:
13711:
13625:
13143:
13120:
13097:
13072:
13056:
13023:
13004:
12979:
10232:
9971:
9878:
9840:
9799:
9223:
7257:
7201:
7149:
7096:
6765:
6706:
6673:
6493:
6417:
6397:
6182:
on Earth and at any time of the year to determine the time in hours from the
5973:
5749:
5704:
5696:
4820:
4796:
4762:
4710:
4608:
4423:
4381:
4372:
4322:
4197:
4181:
4003:
3986:
3940:
3529:
Kitab Aqdar al- Ittisalat, On the Quantities of the Astrological Applications
3420:
3415:
3353:
3195:
3060:
3038:
3004:
2972:
2902:
2858:
2854:
2805:
2783:
2637:
2498:
2434:
2367:
2323:
Ibn al-Haytham developed a physical structure of the Ptolemaic system in his
2047:
1999:
1935:
1931:
1713:
1633:
1482:
1456:
1374:
1146:
698:
599:
490:
419:
372:
201:
13686:
12572:
King, David A. (2002), "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus",
10706:
The mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: a sourcebook
10507:
8427:
8378:, 24 (1971): 59–81; reprinted in David A. King and Mary Helen Kennedy, ed.,
8229:
4696:
in the 13th century. Here, al-Tusi supervised its technical construction at
4329:, where Islamic observational techniques and instruments were combined with
2393:'s model centuries later. Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of
1463:
astronomers, very probably before 905 AD. The first recorded mention of the
15103:
14327:
14221:
13934:
13868:
13721:
13464:
13428:
12758:
12007:
11290:
10591:
9522:
7177:
7173:
6434:
6421:
6235:
6171:
5946:
5887:
5676:
5464:'s mechanical calendar computer. Abi Bakr's geared astrolabe uses a set of
5404:
5138:
4631:
4516:
4451:
4375:
in order to rival the famous Samarkand observatory, and in order to update
4112:
4019:
3966:
3832:
3701:
3666:
3619:
3556:
to Persia in 1210 and studied their calendar for use in the Mongol Empire.
3553:
3545:
3488:
3474:
3092:
2649:
2578:
2536:
2467:
2422:
2350:
In 1038, Ibn al-Haytham described the first non-Ptolemaic configuration in
2344:
2256:
2150:
1809:
1766:
1645:
1203:
971:
922:
Stagnation, where few significant contributions were made (1450—1900
522:
453:
225:
217:
197:
5683:. One of the most striking examples was built in the 14th century by the
5100:
in Baghdad and the topic was later discussed in the early 11th century by
2529:
from the central Earth, computed according to the principles of Ptolemy's
1781:"past observations by means of new ones". This led to the use of exacting
915:
Flourishing of a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy (1025—1450
14797:
14686:
14502:
14492:
14457:
14266:
14246:
14125:
13965:
13701:
13650:
13610:
13378:
13044:(2), Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 101, No. 2: 219–221,
12963:
12054:
Gautier, Antoine (December 2005), "L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane",
10842:
9993:
The Astronomical Works of Gregory Chioniades, Volume I: The Zij al- Ala'i
9126:
7241:
6879:
6471:
6438:
6410:
6367:
6187:
6137:
6110:
5976:, they "enabled an observer to focus on a part of the sky by eliminating
5903:
5851:
5735:
5680:
5646:
5570:
5416:
5325:
5176:
5153:
4880:
4789:
4701:
4693:
4500:
4468:
4435:
4434:), each with their own planets and stars, and that this demonstrates the
4289:
4285:
4273:
4132:
3949:
3904:
3576:
3557:
3466:
3432:
3153:
3099:
than any previous model, and was also the first that permitted empirical
3096:
3022:
2984:
2930:
2898:
2882:
2862:
2834:
2641:
2479:
2463:
2421:
related to astronomical phenomena, and he introduced the analysis of the
2308:
2162:
2085:
1987:
1983:
1974:
tradition, Muslim astronomers began questioning technical details of the
1963:
1927:
1673:
1533:
1309:
1125:, but after it had come to be used as a text in astronomy, it was called
1027:
923:
916:
909:
898:
879:
835:
762:
721:
663:
470:
213:
13228:
13030:
Geschichte des arabischen Schriftiums. Band VI: Astronomie bis ca. 430 H
9906:
For a list of Gerard of Cremona's translations see: Edward Grant (1974)
8790:(1), Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 91, No. 1: 96–103 ,
8580:
6466:
engraved on them were produced primarily for the purpose of finding the
6197:
5601:
invented the "observational clock", which he described as "a mechanical
5028:
3910:
In addition to the Arabic-Latin translation movement in Western Europe,
3423:
as 365 5 49 15, which has an error of +25, making it more accurate than
2736:
and planets is uniform and circular, and in agreement with observation."
2110:
arguments in astronomy in order to refute the practice of astrology and
2064:
The study of astrology was refuted by several Muslim writers, including
697:
as the sun and is therefore invisible; instead they begin when the thin
565:
philosophy. For example, the Ash'ari doctrine influenced the theologian
561:
in astronomy, opening up possibilities for an astronomy unrestrained by
14447:
14437:
14427:
14332:
14312:
14236:
13904:
13853:
13691:
13681:
13519:
13514:
13499:
12859:
discussion; astronomy is discussed in the first fifteen-minute segment)
12840:(Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64 & 66–71
8757:(1), Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 91, No. 1: 96–103,
7723:
Syed Mohammad Hussain Tabatabai, "Volume 3: Surah Baqarah, Verse 189",
7034:
6797:
6769:
6648:
6629:
6430:
6391:
6337:
6231:
6216:
6059:
6011:
5965:
5931:
5899:
5295:
5248:
5236:
5116:
5112:
5074:
4812:
4757:
4658:
to date. A modern version of this calendar is still in official use in
4618:
4604:
4364:
4185:
4131:
In the 16th century, the debate on the Earth's motion was continued by
4087:
3931:
3878:
3765:
3691:
3538:
3534:
3511:
3428:
3406:
3383:
3379:
3321:
3312:
3232:
3176:
3114:
3100:
2910:
2775:
2748:
2716:
2712:
2680:
2672:
2668:
against Ptolemaic astronomy, sometimes called the "Andalusian Revolt".
2645:
2633:
2629:
2621:
2590:
2544:
2430:
2418:
2359:
2312:
2252:
2111:
1909:
1882:
1829:
1778:
1681:
1502:
1370:
1344:
1336:
1320:
894:
647:
595:
578:
550:
546:
478:
379:
356:
304:
221:
12355:(1), Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 71, No. 1: 13–21,
10485:
9274:, From Medieval to Modern in the Islamic World, Sawyer Seminar at the
7472:
6894:
instrument he invented, and a small armillary sphere incorporating an
6481:. One of the two instruments, produced by Muhammad Husayn, also had a
5806:
4082:
and natural philosophy was declining due to religious opposition from
3427:' estimate which had an error of +30. Beg also determined the Earth's
2594:
2513:
In 1031, al-Biruni completed his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia
1708:".•. The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite."
14991:
14694:
14482:
14422:
14201:
13980:
13924:
13595:
13529:
13504:
13388:
12915:
Rashed, Roshdi (2007), "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham",
12898:
12117:
12072:
11038:
10996:
10703:
9762:
Li, Qi, and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China
9455:
9271:
The Interplay of Science and Theology in the Fourteenth-century Kalam
7161:
6883:
6699:
6616:
6463:
6333:
6329:
6311:
6299:
6239:
6212:
6201:
6019:
5985:
5969:
5964:
The first reference to an "observation tube" is found in the work of
5566:
5509:
5450:
5396:
5366:
5344:
5252:
5251:, probably around 1015 CE. It is a mechanical device for finding the
5070:
5041:
5033:
4992:
4967:
4931:
4892:
4851:
4749:
4741:
4729:
4721:
4600:
4584:
4407:
4376:
4099:
4039:
3927:
3740:
3705:
3470:
3410:
3402:
3236:
3137:
3130:
3084:
3080:
2914:
2831:
2741:
2696:
2551:'s estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded annular eclipses.
2497:
about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the
2459:
2398:
2355:
2304:
2221:
2135:
2107:
2089:
2065:
1955:
1913:
1878:
1838:
1782:
1521:
1474:
1470:
1273:
1250:
1175:
1094:
1056:
Fragments of text during this period indicate that Arabs adopted the
1046:
897:
of earlier Hellenistic, Indian and Sassanid astronomy (700—825
854:
767:
737:
674:
611:
463:
441:
336:
288:
12982:(1979), "The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School",
12956:
12721:
12406:
9621:
8354:
Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham",
6846:, which described a variety of different instruments, including the
4915:. Though the first astrolabe to chart the stars was invented in the
4192:. He also rejected the Aristotelian notion of the planets moving in
4172:
3881:. Adelard associated with other scholars in Western England such as
3526:
Kitab Matali' al-Buruj, On the Ascensions of the Signs of the Zodiac
3091:
model and all the eccentrics, epicycles and equant in the Ptolemaic
2810:
The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the
1455:. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic
163:
No issues specified. Please specify issues, or remove this template.
14507:
14477:
14442:
14432:
14372:
14191:
13706:
13676:
13620:
13554:
13544:
13469:
13383:
13049:
13016:
12997:
12663:
12485:
12454:
12428:
12382:
12360:
12334:
12312:
12000:
11498:
Regis Morelon, "General Survey of Arabic Astronomy", pp. 9-10, in (
11110:[[Ancient Discoveries]], Episode 11: Ancient Robots
11058:
11018:
10014:
8795:
8762:
8501:
7576:
Michene, James A. (May 1955), "Islam: The Misunderstood Religion",
6895:
6891:
6859:
6839:
6401:
6383:
6183:
6179:
6152:
6023:
6015:
5776:
5731:
5692:
5537:
5533:
5529:
5505:
5483:
5457:
5382:
5321:
5214:
5210:
5134:
5101:
5093:
4808:
4697:
4555:
4524:
4496:
4427:
4360:
4043:
3820:
3689:, a Chinese scholar-official. These tables came to be known as the
3612:
3375:
3244:
3231:
within the universe and "explores the notion of the existence of a
3141:
3136:
An area of active discussion in the Maragheh school, and later the
3122:
3118:
3064:
2676:
2605:
2559:
2535:. The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the
2531:
2490:
2378:
2370:
2363:
2247:
tradition of astronomy, presented the first critique and reform of
2204:
participated in the debate among Islamic scholars over whether the
2081:
2073:
2007:
2003:
1979:
1939:
1890:
1842:
1834:
1817:
1665:
1625:
1617:
1382:
1366:
1340:
1246:
1238:
1099:
1003:
979:
936:
823:
787:
690:
652:
574:
514:
415:
364:
348:
296:
229:
14647:
12940:
12699:
12390:
9595:
From China to Paris: 2000 years transmission of mathematical ideas
4325:, the 16th and 17th centuries saw a synthesis between Islamic and
1741:(the minaret in the background was used for astronomical purposes)
1532:, and that the star was low on the southern horizon. Monks at the
15086:
14904:
14899:
14412:
14402:
14337:
14286:
14226:
14216:
14181:
13539:
13153:
13027:
12342:
12019:
11486:
Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use
10783:
10755:
9426:
Claudia Kren, "The Rolling Device of Naṣir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī in the
8779:
8746:
7225:
7189:
6887:
6871:
6855:
6817:
6736:
6498:
6486:
6482:
6478:
6405:
6363:
6175:
6133:
6051:
5895:
5761:
5757:
5727:
5723:
5664:
5642:
5469:
5446:
5378:
5374:
5307:
5267:, without calculation using a geometrical model to represent the
4955:
4935:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4896:
4800:
4596:
4572:
4544:
4528:
4352:
4201:
4140:
4067:
3870:
3662:
in the calculation of the irregularity in the planetary motions.
3655:
3647:
3604:
3496:
3480:
3462:
3317:
3181:
2946:
2688:
2656:. Like Ibn al-Haytham's critique, the anonymous Andalusian work,
2613:
2548:
2441:
on its axis would be consistent with his astronomical parameters.
2300:
2248:
2236:
1967:
1951:
1887:
region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions
1801:
1738:
1641:
1567:
1563:
1517:
1486:
1478:
1378:
1269:
1242:
1232:
1191:
1104:
826:. The time is then given by the angle at the intersection of the
791:
783:
745:
729:
526:
383:
300:
12179:(May 1991), "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East",
7103:
A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory
6316:
On the obliquity of the ecliptic and the latitudes of the cities
6271:
for solving problems of spherical astronomy. By the time of the
4717:
4519:, and the first Islamic observatories were built in 9th century
3362:
An Arabic manuscript from the 13th century depicting Astronomers
3169:
3069:
A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory
2957:
and towards a greater emphasis on the empirical observation and
2601:
2343:, he insisted that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the
2010:
and later, are known to have accepted what Kuhn has called the "
1702:"An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition."
1261:
1049:
in 770. The most notable Middle Persian text translated was the
939:
to determine the lunar months especially Ramadan and holy days.
620:
15108:
15096:
15091:
14855:
14762:
14387:
14382:
12497:
12297:
Kennedy, Edward S. (1947), "Al-Kashi's Plate of Conjunctions",
11326:
King, David A., "Astronomy and Islamic society", pp. 163–8
10593:
Islam's Contribution to Human Civilization: Science and Culture
9688:
9561:. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005. ISBN 0-618-42770-8
9044:
8586:. The Education and Training in Optics and Photonics Conference
8396:
8125:
7217:
7209:
7197:
7169:
7157:
7116:
Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy
7090:
The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens
6055:
6037:
5984:-speaking Europe, where they influenced the development of the
5923:
5891:
5708:
5618:
5614:
5521:
5468:-wheels and is the oldest surviving complete mechanical geared
5408:
5264:
4939:
4843:
4733:
4439:
4394:
4221:
4096:
Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy
3776:, were slowly being reconquered by Christians. This led to the
3627:
3337:
3329:
3248:
3035:
The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens
3026:
2988:
2962:
2926:
2823:
2771:
2767:
2744:
2665:
2644:
is credited to have introduced the early astronomical works of
2586:
2582:
2567:
2374:
2225:
2169:"The attraction of all things towards the centre of the earth."
2138:
2119:
1920:
1916:
1863:
1821:
1761:. He was the first to hypothesize that the heavenly bodies and
1691:"An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite."
1442:
1404:
1400:
1348:
1235:
1216:
1158:
1112:
1043:
1038:
in 777. Sources indicate that the text was translated after an
987:
943:
904:
Vigorous investigation, and acceptance and modification to the
815:
741:
717:
510:
497:
based on these principles, particularly empirical observation.
486:
458:
437:
344:
292:
12112:
Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005),
5922:'s reign; another was produced in 1070 AH (1659-60 CE) by the
5148:
4838:
4615:
indicate the use of sophisticated instruments for their time.
3243:" in this verse refers to "multiple worlds within this single
3083:, but rather to produce a model that was more consistent with
997:
14964:
14894:
14877:
14452:
14317:
14241:
12951:(1), Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 46, No. 1: 13–31,
11922:
11387:
Jones, Lawrence (December 2005), "The Sundial And Geometry",
8579:
Hamid-Eddine Bouali, Mourad Zghal, Zohra Ben Lakhdar (2005).
8129:
7780:
7765:
7707:
7692:
7505:
7237:
7193:
7185:
7165:
6832:
6773:
6561:
6467:
6459:
6455:
6445:
6264:
6243:
6191:
5999:
5981:
5980:
interference." These observation tubes were later adopted in
5977:
5907:
5859:
5765:
5650:
5602:
5541:
5183:. The astrolabe was a predecessor of the modern planisphere.
4979:
4975:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4900:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4804:
4454:. The treatise incorporated the heliocentric system into the
4422:
he wrote a Persian treatise on astronomy. He wrote about the
4356:
4334:
4063:
3717:
3596:
3492:
3458:
3240:
3157:
2933:
showed that linear motion could also be produced by applying
2723:"I have heard that Abu Bakr discovered a system in which no
2640:
introduced various works and used various instruments. Later
2540:
2518:
2426:
2402:
2268:
2093:
1894:
1859:
1770:
1649:
1525:
1509:
1352:
858:
803:
799:
713:
709:
656:
582:
482:
368:
319:
241:
12237:
The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West
9383:
The rise of early modern science: Islam, China, and the West
5339:
4587:, Iran where he is known to have constructed the first huge
3461:
in order to work on calendar making and astronomy since the
3190:. Another possible source for Copernicus's knowledge is the
2968:
14889:
14872:
14792:
14787:
13279:
12114:
Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia
9041:
History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations
8393:
History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations
7798:
7722:
7249:
7245:
7233:
7229:
7213:
7181:
7145:
6867:
6362:, a framed sextant with cords for the determination of the
6066:, as well as the creation of other instruments such as the
6003:
5753:
5626:
5610:
5585:
5581:
5517:
5465:
5454:
5432:
5428:
5424:
5303:
5299:
5256:
5014:
5010:
4971:
4855:
4847:
4659:
4576:
4540:
4520:
2733:
2115:
1923:
1813:
1717:
1529:
1434:
1208:
1073:
946:
862:
850:
733:
702:
594:
Adud al-Din al-Iji (1281–1355), under the influence of the
466:
391:
387:
280:
9949:
M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 440-3
9764:, p. 105. Mineola: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41445-0.
9545:, (New York: Springer-Verlag), p. 194, ISBN 0-387-94107-X.
5898:, is considered to be one of the most remarkable feats in
5886:
invented by Muslim metallurgists and instrument-makers in
4426:
model, and argued that there exists an infinite number of
4272:
that were more accurate than those of his contemporaries,
3992:
3358:
1694:".•. An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist."
1477:
with a diameter of nearly 1.4 meters. His observations on
56:
to this revision, which may differ significantly from the
14110:
12186:
11903:
8285:
8135:
6756:. The earliest known almanac in this modern sense is the
6748:
6520:
5930:
with Arabic and Persian inscriptions during the reign of
5588:. His largest astronomical clock was the "castle clock".
5577:
5513:
5260:
5089:
4643:
4634:
who established the first large observatory, probably in
4563:
of astronomers such as Ibn al-Alam. The great astronomer
4536:
4480:
4347:
4261:
3945:
3678:
3484:
3088:
3048:
2837:. The most important of the Maragha astronomers included
2715:, wrote the following on the planetary model proposed by
2539:
of the planets, and first states that the motions of the
2173:
Al-Biruni also discovered that gravity exists within the
1825:
1388:
1281:
1016:
411:
340:
284:
9974:(1964), "Gregory Chioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy",
4954:), and over a thousand other uses. In the 10th century,
4523:
under his patronage. In many private observatories from
4280:. Taqi al-Din was also the first astronomer to employ a
3731:
3634:
show traces of Islamic influence. While formulating the
3095:. His model was thus in better agreement with empirical
2999:
on its axis by al-Tusi and al-Qushji, the separation of
1292:, the first major original Muslim work of astronomy was
13235:
The Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences (AUASS)
13234:
12470:
King, David A. (1983), "The Astronomy of the Mamluks",
11947:
Baker, A.; Chapter, L. (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences",
11103:
11101:
10237:
Arabic planetary theories after the eleventh century AD
9997:
An Eleventh-Century Manual of Arabo-Byzantine Astronomy
8850:[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
8122:
23rd Annual Conference on the History of Arabic Science
6776:
translation and adaptation of the work appeared as the
5641:
Muslim astronomers and engineers invented a variety of
4248:
Another notable 16th century Muslim astronomer was the
3973:
in the Islamic tradition continued in the three Muslim
2144:
2126:
is the smallest planet known to them, and thus argued:
13103:
Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?
10454:
10425:
10396:
10259:
Sevim Tekeli, "Taqi al-Din", in Helaine Selin (1997),
9492:
6314:
measurements, which he described his in his treatise,
5021:
in 996. These can be considered as an ancestor of the
3435:, and matches the currently accepted value precisely.
2826:
problem and produce alternative configurations to the
1962:) of the universe, that would be consistent with both
1908:
into astronomy and was the first to conduct elaborate
1308:
conducted various observations at the Al-Shammisiyyah
974:
to the world of ancient learning. Much of the ancient
462:, the unity of God", as well its "greater respect for
398:
was a clumsy one devised late in the first century by
12745:
Marshall, O. S. (1950), "Alhazen and the Telescope",
12463:
Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World
9940:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. xi.
9925:
Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages
9151:, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971), pp. 6-14.
7971:
6985:
The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets
6094:, were invented by Muslim astronomers and engineers.
6044:
used in an instrument was found in a book called the
4934:
and perfected it to be used to find the beginning of
3658:
in the underlying parameters, and the application of
2002:
in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from
1938:
on September 17, 1019, in detail, and gave the exact
1912:
related to astronomical phenomena. He discovered the
1812:. He disproved the universally held opinion that the
935:
From the beginning, Muslim community in Medina sight
569:(1149–1209) to reject the Aristotelian notion of the
425:
12074:
Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?
11980:
Covington, Richard, "Rediscovering Arabic science",
11098:
10073:
10071:
7804:
http://www.almizan.org/Tafseer/Volume2/Baqarah32.asp
7475:. Islamic Crescents' Observation Project. 2007-05-01
4760:, compiled the results of their observations in the
3791:
One of the most productive translators in Spain was
3438:
1459:. This "cloud" was apparently commonly known to the
12845:Ragep, F. Jamil; Teresi, Dick; Hart, Roger (2002),
12662:, Harvard Dissertations in the History of Science,
12637:
11612:
10486:"The Astronomical Manuscripts of Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī"
10131:
10077:
6310:sextant that achieved a high level of accuracy for
4155:) of the horizon; this is witnessed by experience (
4054:. Before al-Qushji, the only astronomer to present
12698:Marmura, Michael E.; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1965),
12660:Ibn al-Haytham's On the Configuration of the World
12395:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
12111:
11778:
11765:
11321:
11319:
11317:
11164:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
10125:
9039:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975).
8529:
8391:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975).
6844:Treatise on Astronomical Observational Instruments
6551:Az-Zij al-Mahlul min as-Sindhind li-Darajat Daraja
6018:of the light-spot formed by the projection of the
5440:Mechanical astrolabe with geared calendar computer
4386:Mughal India is the seamless celestial globe (see
4237:
4208:. Saliba wrote the following on al-Khafri's work:
3483:(ca. 910 - 1005) was an important Chinese Muslim (
2853:(1236–1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (c. 1347),
2358:, as he developed a systematic study of celestial
1837:of the light-spot formed by the projection of the
751:
12763:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines
11972:Sharif, M. M., "A History of Muslim Philosophy",
11643:
11488:, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
10812:
10810:
10808:
10612:
10544:
10542:
10068:
8643:
8416:The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science
7550:Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity
3809:On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions
2917:. The Maragha astronomers also realized that the
2867:
2407:
2373:. His reformed model was the first to reject the
2366:. This in turn led to innovative developments in
1111:was a landmark work in its field, assembling, as
1078:
693:, defined as the time when the moon has the same
15136:
12941:"The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres"
12524:King, David A. (1999a), "Islamic Astronomy", in
10528:
10526:
10524:
10522:
7126:The complement to the explanation of the memento
6400:in the 13th century. His compendium featured an
5536:of the Sun. The instrument also incorporated an
5419:. Another innovative feature of the clock was a
5058:invented and wrote the earliest treatise on the
3579:in Persia. One of these Chinese astronomers was
3025:as an alternative to the physically problematic
2987:, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and
2865:(d. 1525) and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550).
2562:, proposed a non-Ptolemaic configuration in his
2433:are not identical, discussed the possibility of
1256:
794:, and this problem demands a more sophisticated
208:(8th-15th centuries), and mostly written in the
13007:(1980), "Al-Biruni", in Strayer, Joseph (ed.),
12844:
11314:
11036:
10025:
10023:
9938:Adelard of Bath, Conversations with His Nephew,
9592:
9397:Encyclopaedia of Islamic science and scientists
8719:
8210:"Observatoire de Paris (Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi)"
7355:
7256:, but many came later, some as translations of
6501:, for angular observations. It was invented by
6225:Astrolabic/Almucantar quadrant (Quadrans Vetus)
3914:also translated Arabic texts on astronomy into
3465:period the first major introduction of Islamic
3336:. He argued that God has the power to fill the
2909:language, and should not remain a mathematical
2425:of planets, discovered that the motions of the
2303:'s astronomical system, which he criticized on
2030:Some Muslim astronomers, however, most notably
2022:, concentrically envelops the other, where the
1954:) from philosophical cosmology (as typified by
1716:in his thesis of the first antimony concerning
834:through the zenith and the pole) and the sun's
11673:Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia
10997:"On the Origin of Polyalphabetic Substitution"
10805:
10704:Victor J. Katz & Annette Imhausen (2007),
10539:
10286:The British Journal for the History of Science
10163:
9473:
9179:
9177:
9175:
9173:
7744:
6945:Elements of astronomy on the celestial motions
6808:) which has seven parts describing different
5390:Castle clock with programmable analog computer
5332:. The volvelle can be traced back to "certain
5302:-wheels. This was an early example of a fixed-
4700:. The facility contained resting quarters for
4665:
3681:, a task that was carried out by the scholars
2945:to one based on an empirical and mathematical
2885:, which later played an important role in the
1777:(Albatenius) (853-929) introduced the idea of
708:Muslims are also expected to pray towards the
456:" which was "rooted in the Islamic concept of
212:. These developments mostly took place in the
14663:
13265:
12894:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
12890:
12343:"An Islamic Computer for Planetary Latitudes"
11563:
11561:
11559:
11545:
11543:
11541:
11499:
11350:
10951:VOLVELLES! Early Paper Astronomical Computers
10573:
10519:
10242:
10108:
10106:
9622:Willy vande Walle & Noël Golvers (2003),
9065:harv error: no target: CITEREFCovington2007 (
8773:
8771:
8620:
8017:
8015:
5175:invented and wrote the first treatise on the
5133:The Zuraqi is a unique astrolabe invented by
4886:
4306:
3564:and an institution for astronomical studies.
3267:). Therefore He the Most High has the power (
3227:and astronomy. He criticizes the idea of the
3168:in 1543 to explain the Earth's rotation (see
2671:In the 12th century, under the influence of
2231:
1543:
1253:, but endowed the work with formal prestige.
1169:. Ptolemy also produced other works, such as
481:who expressed a general distrust towards the
13022:
12761:(1st edition in 1964, 2nd edition in 1993),
12747:Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets
12689:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
12658:Langermann, Y. Tzvi, ed. and trans. (1990),
11946:
11483:
11462:Emilie Savage-Smith (1993). "Book Reviews",
10656:
10020:
9728:
9726:
9650:
9648:
9646:
9553:
9551:
9537:
9535:
9476:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
9055:
9053:
9007:
8603:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
8374:E. S. Kennedy, "Al-Bīrūnī's Masudic Canon",
8259:harv error: no target: CITEREFZaimeche2002 (
8144:harv error: no target: CITEREFZaimeche2002 (
7868:
7866:
7864:
7862:
7794:
7792:
7331:, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., pp. 8–10,
7309:
7307:
7305:
6509:
5945:which was considered an unsurpassed feat in
4642:with many other collaborators constructed a
4244:Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire
4176:A manuscript written during the Abbasid Era.
2271:as Alhazen), began what has been called the
1528:and about one-quarter the brightness of the
1141:and it has since been known to the world as
236:. It closely parallels the genesis of other
12704:by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]"
12697:
12287:
12156:(1985), "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar",
11233:
11231:
10865:[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
10619:"Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi"
10585:
9443:
9267:
9170:
9025:harv error: no target: CITEREFMarmura1965 (
8808:
8687:"Arabic Models for outer Planets and Venus"
8276:Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith
8249:
8247:
8245:
7896:This book is not related to al-Khwarizmi's
7303:
7301:
7299:
7297:
7295:
7293:
7291:
7289:
7287:
7285:
7260:descriptions and others of unknown origin.
6824:, the astrolabe, and instruments involving
6791:
4871:purposes, such as the determination of the
3642:may have also been partially influenced by
2628:In the 11th-12th centuries, astronomers in
2566:. In his work, he indicated the so-called "
2445:
2053:
1986:framework. As the historian of astronomy,
1445:and drawings for each constellation in his
998:Ancient influences and translation movement
156:Learn how and when to remove these messages
14670:
14656:
13272:
13258:
12657:
11556:
11538:
11510:
11508:
10991:
10784:John Brian Harley, David Woodward (1992),
10756:John Brian Harley, David Woodward (1992),
10483:
10305:
10303:
10255:
10253:
10251:
10103:
9810:
9808:
9149:Al-Biţrūjī: On the Principles of Astronomy
9111:harv error: no target: CITEREFSaliba1981 (
8887:
8777:
8768:
8744:
8525:
8523:
8049:
8021:
8012:
7358:"The Zij as-Sanjari of Gregory Chioniades"
7351:
7349:
7347:
6437:and markings that are identical to modern
6165:Universal horary quadrant (Quadrans Novus)
5324:, also called a wheel chart, is a type of
4595:also established a similar observatory in
3567:Several Chinese astronomers worked at the
3343:
3144:observatories, was the possibility of the
2335:, which became an influential work in the
2325:Treatise on the configuration of the World
525:in general. An example of this is when an
402:. It involved setting up two intersecting
12391:"A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables"
12086:
10336:
10334:
9895:A History of Mathematics: An Introduction
9852:
9814:
9773:
9732:
9723:
9654:
9643:
9617:
9615:
9613:
9569:
9567:
9548:
9532:
9060:
9050:
8650:"Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni"
8616:
8614:
8530:Josep Puig Montada (September 28, 2007).
8477:
8475:
7859:
7789:
7651:
7625:
7623:
7621:
7619:
7617:
7615:
7613:
7421:
7314:
6935:Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī
4819:built several large observatories called
3853:'s astronomical and trigonometrical work
3805:Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī
3533:It is possible that Ma was influenced by
3235:in the context of his commentary" on the
2814:and continuing with astronomers from the
2092:) and religious (conflicts with orthodox
1804:and the earliest attempt at applying the
1724:Physical cosmology, kinematic astronomy,
1467:was also given by Abd Al-Rahman al-Sufi.
1433:(Azophi) carried out observations on the
172:Learn how and when to remove this message
13037:Journal of the American Oriental Society
12744:
12716:(4), Speculum, Vol. 40, No. 4: 744–746,
12348:Journal of the American Oriental Society
11432:
11430:
11428:
11228:
11209:Museum of the History of Science, Oxford
11184:Museum of the History of Science, Oxford
9965:
9914:, 14 (2001): at 249-288, at pp. 275-281.
9889:
9887:
9527:Six Millennium Catalog of Venus Transits
9521:
9377:
9375:
9345:
9343:
9228:"Seeking the Origins of Modern Science?"
9043:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd,
9002:
9000:
8784:Journal of the American Oriental Society
8751:Journal of the American Oriental Society
8482:Toomer, G. J. (December 1964), "Review:
8409:
8407:
8405:
8395:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd,
8254:
8242:
8162:The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Volume 1
8139:
7673:
7647:
7645:
7643:
7641:
7639:
7599:
7597:
7595:
7593:
7591:
7589:
7401:
7399:
7397:
7395:
7393:
7391:
7282:
6580:Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī
6196:
6096:
5805:
5775:
5764:for the purpose of finding the times of
5338:
5147:
5064:
5038:Whipple Museum of the History of Science
5027:
4837:
4768:
4716:
4617:
4220:
4171:
4078:. By the 15th century, the influence of
4050:due to similar arguments concerning the
4002:
3845:). The astronomical works translated by
3752:Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe
3735:
3704:had officially abandoned the science of
3607:, which was later known in China as the
3357:
3271:) to create a thousand thousand worlds (
3201:
3113:, Copernicus also cites the theories of
3047:
2967:
2600:
2577:
2401:hypotheses that cannot be observed from
2275:tradition of Islamic astronomy with his
2235:
1970:principles. Within the context of this
1775:Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī
1729:
1620:had an infinite past with no beginning,
1399:
1359:Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī
1260:
838:(the arc through the sun and the pole).
761:
686:and they thus had to develop a new one.
631:
47:
13281:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
13229:"How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs"
13198:
13071:
13055:
12891:Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996),
12460:
12434:
12412:
12388:
12366:
12340:
12318:
12296:
12053:
11986:(May-June 2007 ed.), pp. 2–16
11874:List of Iranian scientists and scholars
11804:
11655:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
11505:
11283:
11264:
11251:
11238:
11222:
10624:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
10533:
10390:
10300:
10248:
9991:King, David A. (March 1991), "Reviews:
9805:
9754:
9321:
9255:
9210:
9184:
9020:
8732:
8684:
8655:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
8554:
8520:
8440:
8104:
7983:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
7905:
7575:
7344:
7276:
6470:. These instruments were engraved with
6151:The first horary quadrant for specific
5649:, and for determining the times of the
5532:of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the
3993:Astronomical physics and Earth's motion
3170:Astronomical physics and Earth's motion
3133:were also known in Europe at the time.
3056:depicting an epicyclic planetary model.
2925:in the universe being only circular or
2026:of earth, water, air, and fire reside."
1942:of the stars during the lunar eclipse.
1897:and did not belong to the atmosphere."
1866:and had a significant influence on the
1554:Due to the scientific dominance of the
1162:
651:showing various historical figures and
621:Astronomical physics and Earth's motion
66:Revision as of 18:31, 8 August 2010 by
65:
14:
15137:
14078:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
13424:Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi
13185:
13180:Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber
13165:
13142:
13119:
13096:
13003:
12978:
12914:
12878:Italic or bold markup not allowed in:
12831:
12814:
11990:
11289:
10947:
10331:
10309:
10219:
10206:
10030:
9995:by Gregory Chioniades, David Pingree;
9610:
9564:
9334:
9222:
9197:
9106:
8978:
8965:
8952:
8939:
8926:
8913:
8611:
8481:
8472:
8380:Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences,
8222:
8159:
8091:
8078:
8006:
7954:. The Internet Encyclopedia of Science
7873:
7630:
7610:
7604:
7326:
7144:Many of the modern names for numerous
5952:
5756:device incorporating both a universal
5547:
4899:world, often as an aid to finding the
4510:
3952:, which later appeared in the work of
3756:Latin translations of the 12th century
3698:Muslim System of Calendrical Astronomy
3340:with an infinite number of universes.
3299:). The arguments of the philosophers (
3029:introduced by Ptolemy. Tusi's student
2243:(Alhacen) was a pioneer of the Muslim
1595:
861:is claimed to have provoked increased
314:
266:Latin translations of the 12th century
14651:
14099:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries
14037:
13291:
13253:
13177:
12962:
12938:
12549:
12523:
12274:
12256:
12006:
11979:
11928:
11916:
11790:Robert E. Hall (1973). "al-Khāzinī",
11702:
11689:
11583:
11425:
11386:
11308:
11277:
11076:
10925:
10823:
10368:
10340:
10283:
10186:
10132:Emilie Savage-Smith (November 2008),
10112:
10078:Emilie Savage-Smith (November 2008),
10055:
9884:
9855:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
9817:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
9776:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
9573:
9411:"Copernicus and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi"
9372:
9340:
9093:
8997:
8900:
8834:
8821:
8706:
8672:
8514:
8413:
8402:
8323:
8273:
8202:
7978:"Abu Said Sinan ibn Thabit ibn Qurra"
7745:Khalid Shaukat (September 23, 1997).
7636:
7586:
7546:
7520:
7493:
7388:
5576:which displayed moving models of the
5552:The Muslims constructed a variety of
5217:of the Sun, the time of day at which
5209:devices were invented to compute the
5025:developed by later Muslim engineers.
4417:Following the arrival of the British
4062:(d. 1274), who used the phenomena of
3732:Islamic astronomy in Christian Europe
3332:in greater detail in volume 5 of the
3148:. Supporters of this theory included
2877:resolved significant problems in the
1421:. The constellation pictured here is
1393:, in which he completely revised the
440:to find ways of using the stars. The
386:'s way to calculate the place of the
351:, whose timing was determined by the
44:
25:
14048:
13201:Introduction to Islamic Civilization
13061:Journal for the History of Astronomy
12757:
12615:
12606:
12584:
12574:Journal for the History of Astronomy
12571:
12503:
12491:
12469:
12435:Kennedy, Edward S. (1962), "Review:
12234:
12209:
12175:
12152:
12070:
11869:List of Arab scientists and scholars
11752:
11715:
11624:
11567:
11550:
11450:
11437:
11419:
11406:
11150:
10919:
10830:
10817:
10141:Journal for the History of Astronomy
10087:Journal for the History of Astronomy
9990:
9451:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
9415:Journal for the History of Astronomy
9350:
9308:
9080:
8991:
8466:
8453:
8314:6.3 (1998): 288–330, at pp. 317–18:
8153:
7918:
7680:
7133:
6373:
5814:was invented by Islamic astronomers.
5365:(Geber) (c. 1100-1150) invented the
5334:Arabic treateses on humoral medicine
4927:. The Arabs then took it during the
3873:1116-1142), who also translated the
2573:
2354:. His reform was not concerned with
2145:Astrophysics and celestial mechanics
2018:made up of a special element called
1753:, made significant contributions to
1329:A compendium of the science of stars
1276:and a Persian Astronomer, wrote the
1014:. The most notable of the texts was
728:the proper times for the prayers at
577:and instead propose the notion of a
121:
17:
14677:
13168:A Short History of Scientific Ideas
10687:Transactions of the Optical Society
10659:Transactions of the Optical Society
10548:
10268:
9682:
9446:"al-Razi, Fakhr al-Din (1149-1209)"
8536:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
8343:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
8164:, Willmann-Bell, Inc., p. 18,
7406:
6908:Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir
6352:Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din
6002:is emitted from every point of the
5423:which traveled across the top of a
5276:Mechanical geared calendar computer
5213:of the Sun, Moon, and planets, the
5200:
4774:Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din
4680:Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din
4583:also constructed an observatory in
4258:Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din
4167:
4090:who opposed to the interference of
3562:Beijing to construct an observatory
3510:Kitab al-Zij, 880, by Abu'Abdallah
3457:Muslim astronomers were brought to
3419:, Beg determined the length of the
3110:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
2417:was the first to conduct elaborate
1751:Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir
1501:relatively accurately computed the
1481:were still used centuries later in
394:. The method Ptolemy used to solve
119:
88:
14543:
13187:Tabatabaei, Seyyed Muhammad Husayn
13149:Lecture at SOAS, London - Part 3/7
12771:State University of New York Press
12133:
11971:
11919:La science chez les Turcs ottomans
11792:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
11093:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1976.tb00214.x
10906:
10375:State University of New York Press
10347:State University of New York Press
10231:
8318:concentrically envelops the other.
8066:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1985.tb00831.x
8038:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1985.tb00831.x
5993:Experimental device with apertures
5938:in order to produce these globes.
5667:, which they inherited from their
5271:'s mean and anomalistic position.
4803:built a personal observatory near
4495:, and building where astronomical
4355:built a personal observatory near
3587:. In 1267, the Persian astronomer
3125:as influences, while the works of
2620:and instead argued for a strictly
1833:in an experiment showing that the
1688:"An actual infinite cannot exist."
1495:Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn
553:, who opposed the interference of
426:Islamic attitude towards astronomy
120:
15166:
13222:
12601:10.1111/j.1600-0498.2003.450117.x
12275:Iqbal, Muzaffar (2003), "Review:
11613:King, Cleempoel & Moreno 2002
10737:University of Southern California
10312:Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy
10134:"Islamic Influence on Copernicus"
10080:"Islamic Influence on Copernicus"
9908:A Source Book in Medieval Science
9125:
7799:Syed Mohammad Hussain Tabatabai,
7356:Joseph Leichter (June 27, 2009).
7329:Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy
7122:Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1525)
6968:On the Configuration of the World
6820:, a "triangular instrument", the
6109:. This illustration was drawn by
5561:Water-powered astronomical clocks
3918:during this time. In particular,
3778:Arabic-Latin translation movement
3632:Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory
3439:Islamic astronomy in the Far East
3215:(1149–1209), in dealing with his
2793:
2778:(1029–1087) wrote further on the
1854:(1021), also maintained that the
1632:). This view was inspired by the
1179:, and some suggest he also wrote
1010:texts were first translated into
724:. Muslims need to determine from
295:, and astronomical terms such as
137:This article has multiple issues.
52:. The present address (URL) is a
14846:Reception in early modern Europe
14841:Contributions to Medieval Europe
14173:
13305:
12189:
11929:Ajram, K. (1992), "Appendix B",
11810:
11797:
11784:
11779:Glick, Livesey & Wallis 2005
11771:
11766:Glick, Livesey & Wallis 2005
11758:
11745:
11721:
11708:
11695:
11682:
11665:
11637:
11618:
11605:
11589:
11576:
11570:Islamic Astronomical Instruments
11526:
11517:
11492:
11477:
11456:
11443:
11412:
11399:
11380:
11356:
11325:
11301:
11270:
11257:
11244:
11215:
11197:
11172:
11156:
11143:
11070:
11030:
10985:
10941:
10912:
10899:
10855:
10836:
10777:
10749:
10725:
10697:
10650:
10634:
10606:
10579:
10477:
10448:
10419:
10362:
10277:
10225:
10212:
10199:
10180:
10157:
10049:
10036:
9984:
9952:
9943:
9930:
9917:
9900:
9846:
9767:
9676:
9586:
9515:
9486:
9467:
9437:
9420:
9403:
9389:
9356:
9327:
9314:
8559:, Penerbit UTM, pp. 49–50,
7071:Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī
7029:Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy
6514:
5556:for use in their observatories.
5460:movement based on the design of
5017:-wheels was also constructed by
4492:
4461:
4393:Jai Singh also invited European
3782:knowledge from the Islamic world
3780:, which saw the assimilation of
3593:Persian astronomical instruments
3592:
3185:Commentary on the First Book of
2979:, showing the multiplication of
2975:'s model for the appearances of
2869:
2847:Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī
2782:. His works were carried out by
2755:, citing his observation of the
2662:Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy
2409:
2299:, he was the first to criticize
2134:Al-Jawziyya also recognized the
1930:, he observed and described the
1900:Also in the early 11th century,
1314:The Book of Bodies and Distances
1080:
1002:During this period, a number of
627:
517:also show that he was generally
244:characteristics. These included
126:
13803:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi
13292:
12945:Journal of the History of Ideas
12848:Ancient Roots of Modern Science
12765:(2nd ed.), 1st edition by
12416:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
12215:Islamic Science And Engineering
10733:"Islam, Knowledge, and Science"
10455:S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002),
10426:S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002),
10397:S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002),
9739:Springer Science+Business Media
9661:Springer Science+Business Media
9493:S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002),
9480:Springer Science+Business Media
9364:International Education Journal
9301:
9261:
9248:
9216:
9203:
9190:
9154:
9141:
9119:
9099:
9086:
9073:
9033:
9013:
8984:
8971:
8958:
8945:
8932:
8919:
8906:
8893:
8880:
8840:
8827:
8814:
8801:
8738:
8725:
8712:
8699:
8678:
8665:
8637:
8623:"Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni"
8572:
8548:
8507:
8459:
8446:
8433:
8385:
8368:
8348:
8332:
8304:
8267:
8114:
8097:
8084:
8071:
8043:
7999:
7965:
7944:
7924:
7911:
7890:
7879:
7847:
7774:
7759:
7738:
7716:
7701:
7686:
7569:
7540:
7514:
7499:
7486:
7428:Springer Science+Business Media
6886:observatory, a double quadrant
6257:Universal quadrant (Shakkāzīya)
5490:will occur, and for performing
5221:will occur, and for performing
4782:Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf
4238:Ottoman observational astronomy
3762:Islamic-ruled regions of Europe
3677:translation and compilation of
3575:in 1259 under the patronage of
3037:, discussed the possibility of
2410:File:Al-Biruni Afghan stamp.jpg
1919:to be a collection of numerous
1745:In the 9th century, the eldest
1437:and described their positions,
752:Necessity of spherical geometry
145:or discuss these issues on the
14292:Schema for horizontal sundials
13808:Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi
13333:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
12917:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
12530:Astronomy before the telescope
12494:Islamic mathematical astronomy
12087:Gingerich, Owen (April 1986),
11933:, Knowledge House Publishers,
11849:Inventions in the Muslim world
11389:North American Sundial Society
11037:Bryan S. Turner (March 1987),
10310:Sharma, Virendra Nath (1995),
8484:Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik
8356:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
8160:Kepple, George Robert (1998),
7747:"The Science of Moon Sighting"
7465:
7461:The Timbuktu Astronomy Project
7454:
7443:
7415:
7327:Sharma, Virendra Nath (1995),
7320:
7269:
6918:Book on the motion of the orbs
6901:
6558:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
6503:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
6157:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
6130:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
6107:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
6086:, including several different
6010:(Alhazen) built an "ingenious
5918:in 998 AH (1589-90 CE) during
5799:had similar applications to a
5593:Mechanical observational clock
4895:were developed in much of the
4834:Inventions in the Muslim world
4827:
4345:and produced nearly a hundred
4341:continued to make advances in
3219:and the physical world in his
1994:"All Islamic astronomers from
1129:. The Islamic world called it
13:
1:
13245:History of Islamic Astrolabes
13009:Dictionary of the Middle Ages
11909:
11484:Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985),
9735:History of Oriental Astronomy
9657:History of Oriental Astronomy
9324:, pp. 254 & 256-257)
9213:, pp. 245, 250, 256–257)
9187:, pp. 233–234 & 240)
8720:Ragep, Teresi & Hart 2002
8230:"Observatoire de Paris (LMC)"
7424:History of Oriental Astronomy
7380:: CS1 maint: date and year (
7279:, pp. 245, 250, 256–257)
7059:Al-Tadhkirah fi'ilm al-hay'ah
5141:planetary model in which the
5083:Universal astrolabe (Saphaea)
4571:, who systematically revised
4058:for the Earth's rotation was
3922:, who had visited the famous
3603:, as well as an astronomical
3009:heliocentric Copernical model
2740:Ibn Bajjah also proposed the
2482:and others consider that the
2185:views of them not having any
1726:and astronomical observations
1676:(Saadia ben Joseph); and the
1566:wrote a scathing critique of
1257:Early observational astronomy
1219:astronomers and astrologers.
330:
15082:Arab Agricultural Revolution
14550:Constantinople (Taqi al-Din)
12058:monthly magazine created by
11043:British Journal of Sociology
10870:Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.
10596:, CIC's annual Ottawa dinner
10484:Ute Ballay (November 1990),
8778:Livingston, John W. (1971),
8745:Livingston, John W. (1971),
7886:What is the Hijrah Calendar?
7854:The history of the telescope
7535:10.1016/0083-6656(95)00033-X
6951:Kitab fi Jawami Ilm al-Nujum
6882:, the Fakhri sextant at the
6782:in the 12th century and the
6764:(Latinized as Azarqueil) in
6762:Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī
6306:in 994. It was a very large
6077:
5722:This was a universal horary
5371:spherical coordinate systems
5245:Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī
5121:Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī
3959:
3638:in 1281, Shoujing's work in
2913:, which would only save the
2763:(1106/1107 AD) as evidence.
1945:
1877:Ibn al-Haytham also refuted
1137:(greatest) with the article
1123:The Mathematical Composition
343:observed holy days, such as
7:
14539:University of al-Qarawiyyin
13743:Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi
13240:King Abdul Aziz Observatory
12461:Kennedy, Edward S. (1998),
12389:Kennedy, Edward S. (1956),
12341:Kennedy, Edward S. (1951),
12016:University of Chicago Press
11993:The Oxford History of Islam
11827:
11011:University of Chicago Press
9685:The "Mongol Atlas" of China
9395:N.K. Singh,M. Zaki Kirmani,
9293:: CS1 maint: date format (
9268:Dallal, Ahmad (2001–2002),
9147:Bernard R. Goldstein, ed.,
8557:Great Muslim Mathematicians
6730:
6282:
5171:In the early 11th century,
5000:Mechanical geared astrolabe
4807:in the 16th century, while
4666:Late medieval observatories
4387:
3685:, a Muslim astronomer, and
3679:Islamic astronomical tables
2759:of Jupiter and Mars in 500
1788:In the early 11th century,
1222:
1103:(c. 150) of the astronomer
986:texts were translated into
798:. Finding the direction of
307:, are still referred to by
24:of this page, as edited by
10:
15171:
14038:
13783:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi
13205:Cambridge University Press
13137:10.1162/106361400753373713
12925:Cambridge University Press
12825:Cambridge University Press
12806:CS1 maint: date and year (
12241:Cambridge University Press
12219:Edinburgh University Press
12045:CS1 maint: date and year (
11931:Miracle of Islamic Science
11879:List of Muslim astronomers
11834:Arab and Persian astrology
11464:Journal of Islamic Studies
11205:"History of the Astrolabe"
10786:The history of cartography
10758:The history of cartography
10710:Princeton University Press
10671:10.1088/1475-4878/24/5/302
10294:Cambridge University Press
10265:Kluwer Academic Publishers
10044:Cambridge University Press
9693:Fu Jen Catholic University
9135:Cambridge University Press
8955:, pp. 20 & 32-33)
8735:, pp. 60 & 67-69)
8517:, pp. 19–20 & 21)
8382:Beirut, 1983, pp. 573–595.
8363:Cambridge University Press
7137:
6518:
6219:, during the 15th century.
6014:device" showing "that the
5829:was first produced in the
5098:Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi
4887:Astrolabes and planisphere
4831:
4669:
4549:Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi
4310:
4307:Islamic astronomy in India
4241:
3996:
3749:
3595:, including a terrestrial
3442:
3347:
3205:
2803:
2797:
2232:Beginning of hay'a program
2200:Also in the 12th century,
2057:
1934:on April 8, 1019, and the
1605:
1599:
1558:in Islamic astronomy, the
1547:
1544:Rejection of Heliocentrism
1505:to be 23°32'19" (23.53°).
1306:Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi
965:
957:
942:In approximately 638 A.D,
930:
841:
755:
429:
204:, particularly during the
15074:
15034:Geography and cartography
15002:
14940:
14854:
14806:
14748:
14740:Influences on Western art
14685:
14624:Medieval European science
14606:
14575:
14516:
14305:
14172:
14108:
14055:
14044:
14033:
13994:
13958:
13897:
13884:Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar
13836:
13735:
13664:
13641:Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli
13583:
13452:
13356:
13315:
13304:
13300:
13287:
13081:New York University Press
12933:10.1017/S0957423907000355
12652:10.1080/00033790110095813
12536:Press, pp. 143–174,
12518:10.1080/03085699708592859
12465:, Brookfield, VT: Ashgate
12261:, Pelanduk Publications,
12170:10.1080/00033798500200141
11894:Science in medieval Islam
11889:Physics in medieval Islam
11884:List of Muslim scientists
11864:List of Arabic star names
11500:Rashed & Morelon 1996
11351:Rashed & Morelon 1996
10848:The Story of Civilization
10574:Rashed & Morelon 1996
10243:Rashed & Morelon 1996
9871:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z
9833:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z
9792:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z
9559:The Earth and Its Peoples
8555:Mohamed, Mohaini (2000),
7156:names. Examples include:
7140:List of Arabic star names
7025:Al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus
6999:Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi
6973:Doubts concerning Ptolemy
6537:Az-Zij ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab
6510:List of notable treatises
6006:'s illuminated surface,"
5771:
4567:was patronised by prince
4554:In the 10th century, the
4475:(as opposed to a private
4038:(d. 1474), who worked at
3875:Introduction to Astrology
3829:Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam
2658:al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus
2515:Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi
2456:Indian planetary theories
2437:, and suggested that the
2251:'s model, and introduced
2118:are much larger than the
2114:. He recognized that the
1491:Obliquity of the Ecliptic
1377:years, the prediction of
1145:or, after popular use in
1133:prefixing the Greek work
774:book. It shows different
549:school, most prominently
473:, in contrast to ancient
449:today have Arabic names.
335:In the 7th century, both
200:developments made in the
13874:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri
13768:Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi
13409:Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi
13152:, Muslim Heritage &
12767:Harvard University Press
12550:King, David A. (1999b),
12257:Ilyas, Mohammad (1997),
11917:Adnan, Abdulhak (1939),
11733:National Maritime Museum
11660:University of St Andrews
11368:National Maritime Museum
11364:"History of the sundial"
11295:The Observatory in Islam
10629:University of St Andrews
9960:The Crest of the Peacock
9597:, Franz Steiner Verlag,
9008:Baker & Chapter 2002
8660:University of St Andrews
7988:University of St Andrews
7263:
6979:The Resolution of Doubts
6874:instrument of Urdi, the
6792:Treatises on instruments
6360:mushabbaha bi'l manattiq
6070:, also helped spark the
5998:In order to prove that "
5949:until the 19th century.
5874:Seamless celestial globe
5726:invented in 9th century
5707:was aware that "using a
5636:
5284:also invented the first
5062:astrolabe in the 1000s.
5050:Orthographical astrolabe
5032:An 18th century Persian
4917:Hellenistic civilization
4493:astronomical instruments
4301:Copernican heliocentrism
4124:(I.8) and one in Ṭūsī’s
3786:Western European science
3654:, the systematic use of
2711:Averroes' contemporary,
2695:to be inconsistent with
2685:epicycles and eccentrics
2446:Early alternative models
2352:The Model of the Motions
2197:of the heavenly bodies.
2181:, and he criticized the
2054:Refutations of astrology
1998:in the ninth century to
1798:On the Light of the Moon
1765:are subject to the same
1662:early Muslim philosopher
1608:Early Islamic philosophy
1580:The Model of the Motions
1381:, and the phenomenon of
581:consisting of countless
529:occurred during his son
279:A significant number of
13976:Baha' al-din al-'Amili
13950:'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i
13828:Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati
13748:Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili
13172:Oxford University Press
13125:Perspectives on Science
13013:Charles Scribner's Sons
12968:Perspectives on Science
12897:, vol. 1 & 3,
12736:URL–wikilink conflict (
12616:King, David A. (2005),
12492:King, David A. (1986),
11997:Oxford University Press
11568:King, David A. (1987),
11135:URL–wikilink conflict (
10891:URL–wikilink conflict (
10790:Oxford University Press
10762:Oxford University Press
10508:10.1163/157005890X00050
9760:Ho, Peng Yoke. (2000).
9628:Leuven University Press
9258:, pp. 42 & 80)
8929:, pp. 20 & 53)
8872:URL–wikilink conflict (
8847:"Nicolaus Copernicus",
8809:Iqbal & Berjak 2003
8312:Perspectives on Science
7152:are derived from their
7045:Treatise on Instruments
6928:The Force of Attraction
6806:Treatise on Instruments
6505:in 9th century Baghdad.
6354:between 1577 and 1580,
6040:research to describe a
5916:Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman
4786:observatory in Istanbul
4724:, founder of the large
4692:under the patronage of
4343:observational astronomy
4270:astronomical catalogues
4204:commentator on earlier
4194:uniform circular motion
4139:'s notion of "circular
4109:uniform circular motion
3971:observational astronomy
3788:, including astronomy.
3665:Around 1384 during the
3495:(r. 960-976) appointed
3344:Observational astronomy
3261:khala' la nihayata laha
3052:Medieval manuscript by
2870:File:Al-Tusi Nasir.jpeg
2452:Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
2263:Between 1025 and 1028,
1982:, remaining within the
1848:Ibn al-Haytham, in his
1735:Mustansiriya University
1612:In contrast to ancient
1290:observational astronomy
1076:by Muslim astronomers.
669:The first issue is the
640:manuscript illumination
14257:Navigational astrolabe
14012:Al Achsasi al Mouakket
13778:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
13697:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi
13646:Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani
13575:Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi
12939:Rosen, Edward (1985),
12795:Check date values in:
12196:Mechanical Engineering
12034:Check date values in:
11671:Josef W. Meri (2006),
11474:
10590:) (October 15, 2001),
10369:Baber, Zaheer (1996),
10341:Baber, Zaheer (1996),
8621:Dr. A. Zahoor (1997).
8486:by Matthias Schramm",
8329:Qadir (1989), p. 5–10.
8320:
7558:Al Akhawayn University
7084:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
6810:scientific instruments
6623:Zij al-Kabir al-Hakimi
6304:Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi
6253:
6220:
6114:
5928:Muhammad Salih Tahtawi
5815:
5785:
5488:planetary conjunctions
5352:
5219:planetary conjunctions
5161:
5078:
5045:
4905:earliest known example
4859:
4777:
4737:
4648:Persian solar calendar
4627:
4581:Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi
4234:
4219:
4177:
4165:
4145:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
4072:Aristotelian cosmology
4031:
3747:
3640:spherical trigonometry
3548:, The Chinese scholar
3363:
3320:, as advocated by the
3305:
3057:
3054:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
2992:
2951:Aristotelian cosmology
2890:
2788:Ibn al‐Haim al‐Ishbili
2738:
2709:
2691:. They considered the
2625:
2624:model of the universe.
2598:
2511:
2478:). Biruni stated that
2442:
2321:
2277:Al-Shuku ala Batlamyus
2260:
2171:
2161:described the Earth's
2132:
2100:Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya
2028:
1794:Maqala fi daw al-qamar
1742:
1616:who believed that the
1499:Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi
1465:Large Magellanic Cloud
1426:
1419:Large Magellanic Cloud
1285:
1090:
1085:A page from Ptolemy's
885:The science historian
779:
659:
604:Aristotelian principle
559:Aristotelian cosmology
539:
507:
400:Menelaus of Alexandria
15017:Alchemy and chemistry
14593:Hellenistic astronomy
14564:Samarkand (Ulugh Beg)
14358:Deferent and epicycle
13758:Alam al-Din al-Hanafi
13727:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
13369:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
13026:; Sezgin, F. (1981),
12857:National Public Radio
11470:
10588:Georgetown University
10318:Publ., pp. 8–9,
9999:by Alexander Jones",
9976:Dumbarton Oaks Papers
9936:Charles Burnett, ed.
9276:University of Chicago
8994:, p. 135, n. 13)
8627:Hasanuddin University
8428:10.1093/bjps/30.2.165
8315:
6796:In the 12th century,
6788:in the 13th century.
6597:Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi
6328:In the 15th century,
6249:
6242:. It was invented in
6200:
6100:
6072:Scientific Revolution
5943:Great Pyramid of Giza
5865:In the 12th century,
5809:
5779:
5748:In the 13th century,
5504:In the 15th century,
5482:In the 15th century,
5477:Plate of Conjunctions
5445:In 1235, Abi Bakr of
5427:and caused automatic
5399:invented his largest
5342:
5306:knowledge processing
5255:and positions of the
5195:Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī
5179:, which was an early
5151:
5145:rather than the sky.
5068:
5031:
4960:astrology, horoscopes
4841:
4817:Jai Singh II of Amber
4772:
4746:Ulugh Beg Observatory
4726:Ulugh Beg Observatory
4720:
4676:Ulugh Beg Observatory
4670:Further information:
4621:
4565:Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi
4404:Copernican Revolution
4369:Jai Singh II of Amber
4224:
4210:
4175:
4149:
4117:Copernican Revolution
4006:
3967:theoretical astronomy
3912:Byzantine astronomers
3739:
3399:Ulugh Beg Observatory
3361:
3350:Ulugh Beg Observatory
3348:Further information:
3307:Al-Razi rejected the
3257:
3217:conception of physics
3202:Multiversal cosmology
3051:
2971:
2929:was not true, as the
2895:Scientific Revolution
2873:
2820:Samarkand observatory
2798:Further information:
2721:
2705:
2604:
2581:
2507:
2413:
2317:
2239:
2167:
2128:
2104:Miftah Dar al-SaCadah
1992:
1733:
1654:Christian philosopher
1622:medieval philosophers
1431:Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi
1429:In the 10th century,
1403:
1369:, the lengths of the
1284:in Islamic astronomy.
1280:, the first original
1264:
1207:over the years under
1167:Copernican Revolution
1153:. though much of the
1084:
1042:visited the court of
887:Donald Routledge Hill
766:An illustration from
765:
635:
535:
503:
15150:History of astronomy
14583:Babylonian astronomy
14398:Gravitational energy
13773:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
13763:Najm al‐Din al‐Misri
13444:Yahya ibn Abi Mansur
13343:Mashallah ibn Athari
13328:Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht
13207:, pp. 111–118,
11974:Philosophia Islamica
11844:History of astronomy
11794:, Vol. VII, p. 338b.
11646:Robertson, Edmund F.
11051:Blackwell Publishing
10862:"Linear astrolabe",
10850:IV: The Age of Faith
10645:Golden Age of Persia
10615:Robertson, Edmund F.
10586:Prof. Bakar, Osman (
10576:, pp. 985–1007)
9444:John Cooper (1998),
8646:Robertson, Edmund F.
7974:Robertson, Edmund F.
7063:Memento in astronomy
7053:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
7011:Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani
6993:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
6758:Almanac of Azarqueil
6667:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
5717:Navicula de Venetiis
5687:(timekeeper) of the
5492:linear interpolation
5462:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
5407:". It displayed the
5223:linear interpolation
5173:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
5158:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
5077:dating back to 1067.
5056:Abu Rayhan al-Biruni
5019:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
4946:), the direction of
4690:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
4686:Maragheh observatory
4672:Maragheh observatory
4654:, the most accurate
4638:. It was here where
4624:Maragheh observatory
4412:Zij-i Muhammad Shahi
4113:astronomical physics
4080:Aristotelian physics
4060:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
4024:Aristotelian physics
4020:astronomical physics
3936:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
3924:Maragheh observatory
3801:Elementa astronomica
3760:During this period,
3716:was also studied in
3652:ecliptic coordinates
3573:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
3569:Maragheh observatory
3560:brought Iranians to
3473:occurred during the
3301:dala'il al-falasifah
3213:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
3150:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
3033:(1236–1311), in his
3019:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
2961:of astronomy and of
2943:Aristotelian physics
2875:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
2843:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
2812:Maragheh observatory
2800:Maragheh observatory
2679:and the astronomer,
2556:Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani
2362:that was completely
2341:Epitome of Astronomy
2226:prophetic traditions
2202:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
2159:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
2102:(1292–1350), in his
2078:Abu Rayhan al-Biruni
2036:Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
2032:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
1902:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
1792:(Alhazen) wrote the
1636:shared by the three
1304:Between 825 to 835,
1127:The Great Astronomer
1093:Islamic interest in
1030:, and translated by
567:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
555:Aristotelian physics
531:Ibrahim ibn Muhammad
519:opposed to astrology
186:history of astronomy
45:18:31, 8 August 2010
14927:Early social change
14826:Early social change
14524:Al-Azhar University
14343:Celestial mechanics
14133:Book of Fixed Stars
14092:The Book of Healing
14071:Aja'ib al-Makhluqat
13813:Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi
13788:Zakariya al-Qazwini
13399:Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf
13394:Abu Hanifa Dinawari
13166:Singer, C. (1959),
13108:Columbia University
12609:Islam & Science
12526:Walker, Christopher
12290:Islam & Science
12281:Islam & Science
12279:by David A. King",
12235:Huff, Toby (2003),
12181:Scientific American
12094:Scientific American
12089:"Islamic astronomy"
11818:"Arabic Star names"
11807:, pp. 104–107)
11755:, pp. 238–239)
11644:O'Connor, John J.;
11553:, pp. 237–238)
11453:, pp. 547–548)
11353:, pp. 128–184)
11180:"Astrolabe gearing"
10833:, pp. 135–136)
10641:Richard Nelson Frye
10613:O'Connor, John J.;
10316:Motilal Banarsidass
10267:, ISBN 0792340663.
9741:, pp. 19–32 ,
9683:Zhu, Siben (1946),
9663:, pp. 19–32 ,
9434:62 (1971): 490-498.
9430:of Nicole Oresme,"
9096:, pp. 305–306)
8644:O'Connor, John J.;
8339:Nicolaus Copernicus
7972:O'Connor, John J.;
7658:Islam & Science
7523:Vistas in Astronomy
7473:"Arabic Star Names"
6898:which he invented.
6760:written in 1087 by
6608:Book of Fixed Stars
6298:was constructed in
5953:Optical instruments
5827:spherical astrolabe
5820:Spherical astrolabe
5812:spherical astrolabe
5574:astronomical clocks
5569:devised monumental
5554:astronomical clocks
5548:Astronomical clocks
4646:and formulated the
4511:Early observatories
4399:Philippe de La Hire
4331:Hindu computational
4296:from 1556 to 1580.
4294:astronomical clocks
4278:Nicolaus Copernicus
4231:Nicolaus Copernicus
4227:heliocentric system
4206:Maragha astronomers
4084:Islamic theologians
4048:Nicolaus Copernicus
3985:of Persia, and the
3954:Nicolaus Copernicus
3863:Astronomical tables
3819:, and the works of
3724:during the time of
3712:translation of the
3660:cubic interpolation
3644:Islamic mathematics
3425:Nicolaus Copernicus
3392:Qotb al-Din Shirazi
3192:Questiones de Spera
3166:Nicolaus Copernicus
3073:Nicolaus Copernicus
3031:Qotb al-Din Shirazi
2955:Ptolemaic astronomy
2851:Qotb al-Din Shirazi
2701:homocentric spheres
2675:, the philosopher,
2610:eccentric deferents
2155:celestial mechanics
2012:two-sphere universe
1906:experimental method
1806:experimental method
1759:celestial mechanics
1638:Abrahamic religions
1596:Universal cosmology
1448:Book of Fixed Stars
1410:Book of Fixed Stars
1062:Indian trigonometry
847:Pre-Islamic Arabian
758:Islamic mathematics
695:celestial longitude
543:Islamic theologians
485:and instead viewed
396:spherical triangles
378:On the other hand,
315:Islam and astronomy
228:, and later in the
95:← Previous revision
15155:Islamic Golden Age
14588:Egyptian astronomy
14529:House of Knowledge
14207:Astronomical clock
14017:Muhammad al-Rudani
13414:Banū Mūsā brothers
13364:Abu Ali al-Khayyat
13231:by De Lacy O'Leary
13178:Suter, H. (1902),
12853:Talk of the Nation
12834:Osiris, 2nd Series
12817:Science in Context
12439:by Aydin Sayili",
12060:Camille Flammarion
11983:Saudi Aramco World
11859:Islamic Golden Age
11679:, ISBN 0415966914.
11677:Taylor and Francis
11572:, London: Variorum
11297:, pp. 289–305
10435:, pp. 133–4,
10377:, pp. 89–90,
10245:, pp. 58–127)
10189:Filozofski vestnik
10166:Filozofski vestnik
10115:Filozofski vestnik
10058:Filozofski vestnik
10046:, ISBN 0521000637.
9912:Science in Context
9707:Unknown parameter
9482:, pp. 570–572
9417:, 4 (1973): 128-30
9409:I. N. Veselovsky,
9381:Toby E.Huff(1993):
8709:, pp. 317–18)
8186:Unknown parameter
7652:Adi Setia (2004),
7430:, pp. 19–32,
6864:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi
6531:Muhammad al-Fazari
6450:: In 17th century
6230:The astrolabic or
6221:
6155:, was invented by
6115:
6050:(1021) written by
6022:through two small
5816:
5786:
5651:five daily prayers
5499:Planetary computer
5401:astronomical clock
5353:
5289:lunisolar calendar
5162:
5079:
5046:
4860:
4778:
4738:
4732:, honored on this
4628:
4622:Current status of
4473:research institute
4448:Zij-i Bahadurkhani
4419:East India Company
4235:
4178:
4076:natural philosophy
4056:empirical evidence
4032:
4028:natural philosophy
4012:empirical evidence
3891:Muhammad al-Fazari
3887:Walcher of Malvern
3748:
3636:Shoushili calendar
3372:transit of Mercury
3364:
3255:, Al-Razi states:
3229:Earth's centrality
3162:natural philosophy
3105:heliocentric model
3077:natural philosophy
3058:
3015:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi
3001:natural philosophy
2993:
2891:
2839:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi
2753:Earth's atmosphere
2626:
2616:. He rejected the
2599:
2597:in the year 976.AD
2443:
2383:natural philosophy
2339:tradition. In his
2261:
1858:do not consist of
1841:through two small
1743:
1670:Jewish philosopher
1614:Greek philosophers
1560:Muslim astronomers
1441:, brightness, and
1427:
1286:
1163:Maragha Revolution
1107:(c. 100-178). The
1091:
1032:Muhammad al-Fazari
796:spherical geometry
780:
776:phases of the moon
660:
592:Islamic theologian
571:Earth's centrality
475:Greek philosophers
447:navigational stars
353:phases of the moon
325:spherical geometry
309:their Arabic names
206:Islamic Golden Age
164:
15145:Islamic astronomy
15129:
15128:
15097:elementary school
14715:Geometric pattern
14645:
14644:
14641:
14640:
14637:
14636:
14619:Chinese astronomy
14614:Byzantine science
14488:Temporal finitism
14418:Islamic cosmology
14348:Celestial spheres
14168:
14167:
14060:Arabic star names
14029:
14028:
14025:
14024:
13889:Fathullah Shirazi
13823:Al-Ashraf Umar II
13535:Ibrahim ibn Sinan
13338:Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
12769:, 2nd edition by
12640:Annals of Science
12259:Islamic Astronomy
12158:Annals of Science
12071:Gill, M. (2005),
11960:Missing or empty
11854:Islamic astrology
11597:Annals of Science
11586:, pp. 167–8)
11339:Missing or empty
11311:, pp. 168–9)
10933:Turk J Elec Engin
10792:, pp. 28–9,
10562:Missing or empty
10349:, pp. 82–9,
10222:, pp. 152–3)
9576:Popular Astronomy
9311:, pp. 217–8)
9137:, pp. 233–53
8890:, pp. 25–34)
8824:, pp. 294–5)
8675:, pp. 293–8)
8292:. 1001 Inventions
7976:(November 1999),
7932:"Greek Astronomy"
7835:Missing or empty
7254:Arabian Peninsula
7134:Arabic star names
6912:Mohammed Ben Musa
6655:Az-Zij as-Sanjarī
6527:Ibrahim al-Fazari
6458:instruments with
6374:Other instruments
6211:, constructed in
6084:mural instruments
6064:parabolic mirrors
5631:Sidrat al-muntaha
5526:elliptical orbits
5449:invented a brass
5294:which employed a
5282:Abu Rayhan Biruni
5193:A famous work by
5023:mechanical clocks
4446:treatise was the
4122:De revolutionibus
4022:independent from
4018:and developed an
3999:Islamic cosmology
3975:gunpowder empires
3920:Gregory Choniades
3903:and the works of
3855:De motu stellarum
3793:Gerard of Cremona
3770:Emirate of Sicily
3522:The Sabian Tables
3445:Chinese astronomy
3287:) and the earth (
3273:alfa alfi 'awalim
3225:Islamic cosmology
3208:Islamic cosmology
2941:reality based on
2786:and confirmed by
2574:Andalusian Revolt
2527:celestial spheres
2503:geocentric models
2281:Doubts on Ptolemy
2222:divine revelation
2206:celestial spheres
2187:levity or gravity
2179:celestial spheres
2060:Islamic astrology
1856:celestial spheres
1808:to astronomy and
1763:celestial spheres
1678:Muslim theologian
1630:Temporal finitism
1602:Islamic cosmology
1586:Abu Rayhan Biruni
1572:Doubts on Ptolemy
1550:Islamic cosmology
1081:File:Almagest.jpg
1064:) instead of the
1040:Indian astronomer
1026:and the works of
949:introduced a new
893:Assimilation and
878:works which were
716:and orient their
650:
588:celestial spheres
495:scientific method
432:Islamic cosmology
408:Menelaus' theorem
371:. In the 19-year
270:Chinese astronomy
190:Islamic astronomy
182:
181:
174:
162:
160:
15162:
15004:Medieval science
14672:
14665:
14658:
14649:
14648:
14629:Indian astronomy
14598:Indian astronomy
14566:
14559:
14552:
14473:Sublunary sphere
14463:Specific gravity
14363:Earth's rotation
14252:Mural instrument
14197:Armillary sphere
14120:Alfonsine tables
14085:Tabula Rogeriana
14065:Islamic calendar
14053:
14052:
14046:
14045:
14035:
14034:
13930:Sibt al-Maridini
13915:Jamshid al-Kashi
13636:Said al-Andalusi
13439:Thābit ibn Qurra
13374:Abu Said Gorgani
13348:Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq
13302:
13301:
13289:
13288:
13274:
13267:
13260:
13251:
13250:
13217:
13195:
13182:
13174:
13162:
13161:
13160:
13139:
13116:
13115:
13114:
13093:
13068:
13052:
13019:
13000:
12975:
12959:
12935:
12911:
12887:
12881:
12880:|publisher=
12876:
12874:
12866:
12865:
12864:
12841:
12828:
12811:
12804:
12798:
12793:
12791:
12783:
12754:
12741:
12734:
12732:
12724:
12694:
12688:
12680:
12654:
12634:
12622:Brill Publishers
12611:
12603:
12595:(1–4): 204–226,
12581:
12568:
12556:Brill Publishers
12546:
12520:
12500:
12488:
12466:
12457:
12431:
12409:
12385:
12363:
12337:
12315:
12292:
12283:
12271:
12253:
12231:
12205:
12204:
12203:
12184:
12172:
12149:
12148:
12147:
12135:Hassan, Ahmad Y.
12130:
12108:
12107:
12106:
12083:
12082:
12081:
12067:
12050:
12043:
12037:
12032:
12030:
12022:
12003:
11987:
11976:
11969:
11963:
11958:
11956:
11948:
11943:
11925:
11839:Hebrew astronomy
11822:
11821:
11814:
11808:
11801:
11795:
11788:
11782:
11775:
11769:
11762:
11756:
11749:
11743:
11742:
11740:
11739:
11725:
11719:
11712:
11706:
11699:
11693:
11686:
11680:
11669:
11663:
11662:
11641:
11635:
11634:
11622:
11616:
11609:
11603:
11593:
11587:
11580:
11574:
11573:
11565:
11554:
11547:
11536:
11530:
11524:
11521:
11515:
11512:
11503:
11502:, pp. 1–19)
11496:
11490:
11489:
11481:
11475:
11460:
11454:
11447:
11441:
11434:
11423:
11416:
11410:
11403:
11397:
11396:
11384:
11378:
11377:
11375:
11374:
11360:
11354:
11348:
11342:
11337:
11335:
11327:
11323:
11312:
11305:
11299:
11298:
11287:
11281:
11274:
11268:
11261:
11255:
11248:
11242:
11235:
11226:
11219:
11213:
11212:
11201:
11195:
11194:
11192:
11191:
11176:
11170:
11160:
11154:
11147:
11141:
11140:
11133:
11131:
11123:
11122:
11121:
11105:
11096:
11095:
11074:
11068:
11067:
11066:
11065:
11034:
11028:
11027:
11026:
11025:
10989:
10983:
10982:
10971:
10969:
10961:
10959:
10958:
10945:
10939:
10929:
10923:
10916:
10910:
10903:
10897:
10896:
10889:
10887:
10879:
10878:
10877:
10859:
10853:
10840:
10834:
10827:
10821:
10814:
10803:
10802:
10781:
10775:
10774:
10753:
10747:
10746:
10744:
10743:
10729:
10723:
10722:
10701:
10695:
10694:
10683:
10681:
10673:
10654:
10648:
10638:
10632:
10631:
10610:
10604:
10603:
10602:
10601:
10583:
10577:
10571:
10565:
10560:
10558:
10550:
10546:
10537:
10530:
10517:
10516:
10515:
10514:
10500:Brill Publishers
10481:
10475:
10474:
10452:
10446:
10445:
10423:
10417:
10416:
10394:
10388:
10387:
10366:
10360:
10359:
10338:
10329:
10328:
10307:
10298:
10297:
10281:
10275:
10274:
10257:
10246:
10240:
10239:, pp. 123–4
10229:
10223:
10216:
10210:
10209:, pp. 63–4)
10203:
10197:
10196:
10184:
10178:
10177:
10161:
10155:
10154:
10153:
10152:
10138:
10129:
10123:
10122:
10110:
10101:
10100:
10099:
10098:
10084:
10075:
10066:
10065:
10053:
10047:
10040:
10034:
10027:
10018:
10017:
9988:
9982:
9969:
9963:
9956:
9950:
9947:
9941:
9934:
9928:
9921:
9915:
9904:
9898:
9891:
9882:
9881:
9850:
9844:
9843:
9812:
9803:
9802:
9771:
9765:
9758:
9752:
9751:
9730:
9721:
9720:
9714:
9710:
9709:|coauthors=
9705:
9703:
9695:
9680:
9674:
9673:
9652:
9641:
9640:
9619:
9608:
9607:
9590:
9584:
9583:
9571:
9562:
9555:
9546:
9539:
9530:
9529:
9519:
9513:
9512:
9490:
9484:
9483:
9471:
9465:
9464:
9463:
9462:
9441:
9435:
9424:
9418:
9407:
9401:
9393:
9387:
9379:
9370:
9360:
9354:
9347:
9338:
9331:
9325:
9318:
9312:
9305:
9299:
9298:
9292:
9284:
9283:
9282:
9265:
9259:
9252:
9246:
9245:
9244:
9243:
9220:
9214:
9207:
9201:
9194:
9188:
9181:
9168:
9158:
9152:
9145:
9139:
9138:
9123:
9117:
9116:
9103:
9097:
9090:
9084:
9077:
9071:
9070:
9057:
9048:
9037:
9031:
9030:
9017:
9011:
9004:
8995:
8988:
8982:
8981:, pp. 35–6)
8975:
8969:
8968:, pp. 51–2)
8962:
8956:
8949:
8943:
8942:, pp. 33–4)
8936:
8930:
8923:
8917:
8910:
8904:
8897:
8891:
8884:
8878:
8877:
8870:
8868:
8860:
8859:
8858:
8844:
8838:
8831:
8825:
8818:
8812:
8805:
8799:
8798:
8775:
8766:
8765:
8742:
8736:
8729:
8723:
8716:
8710:
8703:
8697:
8696:
8694:
8693:
8682:
8676:
8669:
8663:
8662:
8641:
8635:
8634:
8629:. Archived from
8618:
8609:
8608:
8602:
8594:
8592:
8591:
8585:
8576:
8570:
8569:
8552:
8546:
8545:
8543:
8542:
8527:
8518:
8511:
8505:
8504:
8479:
8470:
8463:
8457:
8450:
8444:
8437:
8431:
8430:
8411:
8400:
8389:
8383:
8372:
8366:
8352:
8346:
8336:
8330:
8327:
8321:
8308:
8302:
8300:
8298:
8297:
8283:
8271:
8265:
8264:
8251:
8240:
8239:
8237:
8236:
8226:
8220:
8219:
8217:
8216:
8206:
8200:
8199:
8193:
8189:
8188:|coauthors=
8184:
8182:
8174:
8157:
8151:
8149:
8133:
8118:
8112:
8101:
8095:
8088:
8082:
8075:
8069:
8068:
8047:
8041:
8040:
8019:
8010:
8003:
7997:
7996:
7995:
7994:
7969:
7963:
7962:
7960:
7959:
7948:
7942:
7941:
7939:
7938:
7928:
7922:
7915:
7909:
7894:
7888:
7883:
7877:
7870:
7857:
7851:
7845:
7844:
7838:
7832:
7826:
7822:
7820:
7812:
7811:
7810:
7796:
7787:
7778:
7772:
7763:
7757:
7756:
7754:
7753:
7742:
7736:
7735:
7734:
7733:
7720:
7714:
7705:
7699:
7690:
7684:
7677:
7671:
7670:
7669:
7668:
7649:
7634:
7627:
7608:
7601:
7584:
7583:
7573:
7567:
7566:
7565:
7564:
7555:
7544:
7538:
7537:
7518:
7512:
7503:
7497:
7490:
7484:
7483:
7481:
7480:
7469:
7463:
7458:
7452:
7447:
7441:
7440:
7419:
7413:
7412:
7403:
7386:
7385:
7379:
7371:
7369:
7368:
7362:Internet Archive
7353:
7342:
7341:
7324:
7318:
7311:
7280:
7273:
7041:Risala fi'l-alat
7037:(fl. 1115–1130)
7031:) (11th century)
7003:Canon Mas’udicus
6852:armillary sphere
6831:In 14th century
6802:Risala fi'l-alat
6785:Alfonsine tables
6779:Tables of Toledo
6747:, Ptolemaic and
6687:Jamshīd al-Kāshī
6651:(fl. 1115–1130)
6641:Tables of Toledo
6366:similar to what
6273:Mamluk Sultanate
6105:was invented by
5959:Observation tube
5936:lost-wax casting
5844:Celestial globes
5838:Celestial globes
5797:armillary sphere
5790:Armillary sphere
5782:armillary sphere
5347:was invented by
5201:Analog computers
5188:Linear astrolabe
5156:was invented by
5115:in 11th century
5109:Arabic herbalist
5009:astrolabes with
4784:founded a large
4754:Jamshīd al-Kāshī
4740:In 1420, prince
4575:'s catalogue of
4477:observation post
4327:Indian astronomy
4313:Indian astronomy
4288:rather than the
4284:notation in his
4256:, who built the
4168:Planetary theory
4052:Earth's rotation
3817:Hunayn ibn Ishaq
3813:Thabit ibn Qurra
3746:, England, 1388.
3726:Sejong the Great
3626:) and the large
3601:armillary sphere
3405:, in modern-day
3368:transit of Venus
3326:Islamic theology
3295:) and the moon (
3291:), and the sun (
3283:), the heavens (
3172:section below).
3146:Earth's rotation
3079:or Aristotelian
2997:Earth's rotation
2935:circular motions
2887:Copernican model
2879:Ptolemaic system
2871:
2780:Tables of Toledo
2523:Canon Mas’udicus
2495:Earth's rotation
2439:Earth's rotation
2411:
2387:Earth's rotation
2297:geocentric model
2214:celestial models
2094:Islamic scholars
2044:Copernican model
2016:celestial sphere
1996:Thabit ibn Qurra
1976:Ptolemaic system
1872:Tychonic systems
1668:(Alkindus); the
1576:Earth's rotation
1570:'s model in his
1556:Ptolemaic system
1520:, the brightest
1453:Andromeda Galaxy
1415:Andromeda Galaxy
1347:movement of the
1268:, the father of
1229:Ptolemaic system
1082:
1060:(inherited from
908:(825—1025
906:Ptolemaic system
882:and built upon.
808:celestial sphere
802:and the time of
726:celestial bodies
684:Hebrew calendars
671:Islamic calendar
646:
624:section below).
274:Malian astronomy
238:Islamic sciences
194:Arabic astronomy
177:
170:
152:
130:
129:
122:
107:Newer revision →
85:
82:
61:
59:current revision
51:
50:
46:
42:
41:
15170:
15169:
15165:
15164:
15163:
15161:
15160:
15159:
15135:
15134:
15132:
15130:
15125:
15070:
14998:
14987:Early sociology
14936:
14900:decision-making
14850:
14831:Early conquests
14802:
14744:
14681:
14679:Islamic studies
14676:
14646:
14633:
14602:
14571:
14562:
14555:
14548:
14534:House of Wisdom
14512:
14468:Spherical Earth
14301:
14232:Equatorial ring
14212:Celestial globe
14187:Analog computer
14164:
14159:Sullam al-sama'
14104:
14040:
14021:
13990:
13954:
13893:
13832:
13731:
13717:Jabir ibn Aflah
13660:
13591:Abu Nasr Mansur
13579:
13560:Abolfadl Harawi
13495:Ahmad ibn Yusuf
13448:
13352:
13323:Ahmad Nahavandi
13311:
13296:
13283:
13278:
13225:
13220:
13215:
13192:Tafsir al-Mizan
13158:
13156:
13112:
13110:
13091:
13011:, vol. 2,
12957:10.2307/2709773
12909:
12879:
12877:
12868:
12867:
12862:
12860:
12805:
12796:
12794:
12785:
12784:
12781:
12759:Nasr, Seyyed H.
12735:
12726:
12725:
12722:10.2307/2851429
12682:
12681:
12678:
12632:
12566:
12544:
12407:10.2307/1005726
12269:
12251:
12229:
12211:Hill, Donald R.
12201:
12199:
12191:Hill, Donald R.
12177:Hill, Donald R.
12154:Hill, Donald R.
12145:
12143:
12128:
12104:
12102:
12079:
12077:
12066:, vol. 119
12044:
12035:
12033:
12024:
12023:
11961:
11959:
11950:
11949:
11941:
11912:
11830:
11825:
11816:
11815:
11811:
11802:
11798:
11789:
11785:
11776:
11772:
11763:
11759:
11750:
11746:
11737:
11735:
11729:"Shadow square"
11727:
11726:
11722:
11713:
11709:
11700:
11696:
11687:
11683:
11670:
11666:
11642:
11638:
11623:
11619:
11610:
11606:
11594:
11590:
11581:
11577:
11566:
11557:
11548:
11539:
11531:
11527:
11522:
11518:
11513:
11506:
11497:
11493:
11482:
11478:
11461:
11457:
11448:
11444:
11435:
11426:
11417:
11413:
11404:
11400:
11385:
11381:
11372:
11370:
11362:
11361:
11357:
11340:
11338:
11329:
11328:
11324:
11315:
11306:
11302:
11288:
11284:
11275:
11271:
11262:
11258:
11249:
11245:
11236:
11229:
11220:
11216:
11203:
11202:
11198:
11189:
11187:
11178:
11177:
11173:
11161:
11157:
11148:
11144:
11134:
11125:
11124:
11119:
11117:
11115:History Channel
11107:
11106:
11099:
11075:
11071:
11063:
11061:
11035:
11031:
11023:
11021:
10990:
10986:
10972:
10963:
10962:
10956:
10954:
10946:
10942:
10930:
10926:
10917:
10913:
10904:
10900:
10890:
10881:
10880:
10875:
10873:
10861:
10860:
10856:
10841:
10837:
10828:
10824:
10815:
10806:
10800:
10788:, vol. 2,
10782:
10778:
10772:
10760:, vol. 2,
10754:
10750:
10741:
10739:
10731:
10730:
10726:
10720:
10712:, p. 519,
10702:
10698:
10684:
10675:
10674:
10655:
10651:
10639:
10635:
10611:
10607:
10599:
10597:
10584:
10580:
10563:
10561:
10552:
10551:
10547:
10540:
10531:
10520:
10512:
10510:
10482:
10478:
10472:
10464:, p. 138,
10453:
10449:
10443:
10424:
10420:
10414:
10406:, p. 141,
10395:
10391:
10385:
10367:
10363:
10357:
10339:
10332:
10326:
10308:
10301:
10282:
10278:
10258:
10249:
10230:
10226:
10217:
10213:
10204:
10200:
10185:
10181:
10172:(2): 125–142 ,
10162:
10158:
10150:
10148:
10136:
10130:
10126:
10111:
10104:
10096:
10094:
10093:(137): 538–541
10082:
10076:
10069:
10054:
10050:
10041:
10037:
10028:
10021:
9989:
9985:
9970:
9966:
9957:
9953:
9948:
9944:
9935:
9931:
9922:
9918:
9905:
9901:
9892:
9885:
9851:
9847:
9813:
9806:
9772:
9768:
9759:
9755:
9749:
9731:
9724:
9712:
9708:
9706:
9697:
9696:
9681:
9677:
9671:
9653:
9644:
9638:
9620:
9611:
9605:
9591:
9587:
9572:
9565:
9556:
9549:
9543:Early Astronomy
9541:Hugh Thurston,
9540:
9533:
9520:
9516:
9510:
9502:, p. 137,
9491:
9487:
9472:
9468:
9460:
9458:
9442:
9438:
9425:
9421:
9408:
9404:
9394:
9390:
9380:
9373:
9361:
9357:
9348:
9341:
9332:
9328:
9319:
9315:
9306:
9302:
9286:
9285:
9280:
9278:
9266:
9262:
9253:
9249:
9241:
9239:
9226:(Autumn 1999),
9221:
9217:
9208:
9204:
9195:
9191:
9182:
9171:
9159:
9155:
9146:
9142:
9124:
9120:
9110:
9104:
9100:
9091:
9087:
9078:
9074:
9064:
9058:
9051:
9038:
9034:
9024:
9018:
9014:
9005:
8998:
8989:
8985:
8976:
8972:
8963:
8959:
8950:
8946:
8937:
8933:
8924:
8920:
8911:
8907:
8898:
8894:
8888:Langermann 1990
8885:
8881:
8871:
8862:
8861:
8856:
8854:
8846:
8845:
8841:
8832:
8828:
8819:
8815:
8806:
8802:
8776:
8769:
8743:
8739:
8730:
8726:
8717:
8713:
8704:
8700:
8691:
8689:
8683:
8679:
8670:
8666:
8642:
8638:
8619:
8612:
8596:
8595:
8589:
8587:
8583:
8577:
8573:
8567:
8553:
8549:
8540:
8538:
8528:
8521:
8512:
8508:
8496:(4): 463–465 ,
8480:
8473:
8464:
8460:
8451:
8447:
8438:
8434:
8422:(2): 165–170 ,
8412:
8403:
8390:
8386:
8373:
8369:
8353:
8349:
8337:
8333:
8328:
8324:
8309:
8305:
8295:
8293:
8288:
8272:
8268:
8258:
8252:
8243:
8234:
8232:
8228:
8227:
8223:
8214:
8212:
8208:
8207:
8203:
8191:
8187:
8185:
8176:
8175:
8172:
8158:
8154:
8143:
8120:
8119:
8115:
8102:
8098:
8089:
8085:
8076:
8072:
8048:
8044:
8020:
8013:
8004:
8000:
7992:
7990:
7970:
7966:
7957:
7955:
7950:
7949:
7945:
7936:
7934:
7930:
7929:
7925:
7916:
7912:
7895:
7891:
7884:
7880:
7871:
7860:
7852:
7848:
7836:
7834:
7824:
7823:
7814:
7813:
7808:
7806:
7801:Tafsir al-Mizan
7797:
7790:
7779:
7775:
7764:
7760:
7751:
7749:
7743:
7739:
7731:
7729:
7726:Tafsir al-Mizan
7721:
7717:
7706:
7702:
7691:
7687:
7678:
7674:
7666:
7664:
7650:
7637:
7628:
7611:
7602:
7587:
7579:Reader's Digest
7574:
7570:
7562:
7560:
7553:
7545:
7541:
7519:
7515:
7504:
7500:
7491:
7487:
7478:
7476:
7471:
7470:
7466:
7459:
7455:
7448:
7444:
7438:
7420:
7416:
7405:Saliba (1999).
7404:
7389:
7373:
7372:
7366:
7364:
7354:
7345:
7339:
7325:
7321:
7312:
7283:
7274:
7270:
7266:
7154:Arabic language
7142:
7136:
6904:
6794:
6733:
6679:Ilkhanic Tables
6659:Sinjaric Tables
6572:Zij al-Sindhind
6568:) (c. 780-850)
6545:Yaqūb ibn Tāriq
6523:
6517:
6512:
6489:attached to it.
6376:
6285:
6269:analog computer
6174:in 9th century
6146:Horary quadrant
6132:in 9th century
6080:
6042:magnifying lens
6031:Magnifying lens
5955:
5920:Akbar the Great
5890:, specifically
5884:celestial globe
5867:Jabir ibn Aflah
5848:Right Ascension
5801:celestial globe
5774:
5760:and a magnetic
5639:
5623:right ascension
5609:which show the
5550:
5363:Jabir ibn Aflah
5349:Jabir ibn Aflah
5330:analog computer
5241:analog computer
5207:analog computer
5203:
5181:analog computer
5143:Earth is moving
4987:Large astrolabe
4938:, the hours of
4889:
4836:
4830:
4706:Ptolemaic model
4688:was founded by
4682:
4668:
4652:jalali calendar
4593:Sharaf al-Daula
4513:
4487:, astronomical
4464:
4337:astronomers in
4319:
4309:
4246:
4240:
4225:A model of the
4170:
4147:'s arguments):
4137:Galileo Galilei
4092:Aristotelianism
4001:
3995:
3983:Safavid dynasty
3962:
3900:Surya Siddhanta
3867:Adelard of Bath
3847:Plato of Tivoli
3839:(including the
3811:, the works of
3797:Jabir ibn Aflah
3758:
3734:
3550:Yeh-lu Chu'tsai
3455:
3441:
3356:
3346:
3210:
3204:
3063:(1304–1375) of
2959:mathematization
2903:physical bodies
2828:Ptolemaic model
2816:Damascus mosque
2808:
2802:
2796:
2693:Ptolemaic model
2683:, rejected the
2654:Ptolemaic model
2618:Ptolemaic model
2576:
2472:Ta'rikh al-Hind
2448:
2391:Johannes Kepler
2345:laws of physics
2253:experimentation
2234:
2195:innate property
2191:circular motion
2175:heavenly bodies
2147:
2062:
2056:
1948:
1904:introduced the
1767:laws of physics
1728:
1725:
1658:John Philoponus
1610:
1604:
1598:
1578:on its axis in
1552:
1546:
1325:Kitab fi Jawani
1259:
1225:
1036:Yaqūb ibn Tāriq
1023:Surya Siddhanta
1020:, based on the
1017:Zij al-Sindhind
1000:
968:
960:
933:
844:
760:
754:
644:twelfth century
630:
434:
428:
404:right triangles
333:
317:
264:astronomy (see
210:Arabic language
178:
167:
166:
131:
127:
118:
117:
116:
115:
114:
99:Latest revision
87:
86:
83:
72:
70:
57:
48:
31:
29:
12:
11:
5:
15168:
15158:
15157:
15152:
15147:
15127:
15126:
15124:
15123:
15122:
15121:
15116:
15111:
15101:
15100:
15099:
15094:
15084:
15078:
15076:
15072:
15071:
15069:
15068:
15063:
15058:
15057:
15056:
15046:
15041:
15036:
15031:
15030:
15029:
15019:
15014:
15008:
15006:
15000:
14999:
14997:
14996:
14995:
14994:
14984:
14979:
14974:
14969:
14968:
14967:
14957:
14952:
14946:
14944:
14938:
14937:
14935:
14934:
14929:
14924:
14919:
14914:
14909:
14908:
14907:
14902:
14897:
14895:use of analogy
14887:
14882:
14881:
14880:
14875:
14864:
14862:
14852:
14851:
14849:
14848:
14843:
14838:
14833:
14828:
14823:
14821:Historiography
14818:
14812:
14810:
14804:
14803:
14801:
14800:
14795:
14790:
14785:
14780:
14775:
14770:
14765:
14760:
14754:
14752:
14746:
14745:
14743:
14742:
14737:
14732:
14727:
14722:
14717:
14712:
14707:
14702:
14697:
14691:
14689:
14683:
14682:
14675:
14674:
14667:
14660:
14652:
14643:
14642:
14639:
14638:
14635:
14634:
14632:
14631:
14626:
14621:
14616:
14610:
14608:
14604:
14603:
14601:
14600:
14595:
14590:
14585:
14579:
14577:
14573:
14572:
14570:
14569:
14568:
14567:
14560:
14553:
14541:
14536:
14531:
14526:
14520:
14518:
14514:
14513:
14511:
14510:
14505:
14500:
14495:
14490:
14485:
14480:
14475:
14470:
14465:
14460:
14455:
14450:
14445:
14440:
14435:
14430:
14425:
14420:
14415:
14410:
14405:
14400:
14395:
14390:
14385:
14380:
14378:Elliptic orbit
14375:
14370:
14365:
14360:
14355:
14353:Circular orbit
14350:
14345:
14340:
14335:
14330:
14325:
14320:
14315:
14309:
14307:
14303:
14302:
14300:
14299:
14294:
14289:
14284:
14279:
14274:
14269:
14264:
14259:
14254:
14249:
14244:
14239:
14234:
14229:
14224:
14219:
14214:
14209:
14204:
14199:
14194:
14189:
14184:
14178:
14176:
14170:
14169:
14166:
14165:
14163:
14162:
14155:
14148:
14141:
14139:Toledan Tables
14136:
14129:
14122:
14116:
14114:
14106:
14105:
14103:
14102:
14095:
14088:
14081:
14074:
14067:
14062:
14056:
14050:
14042:
14041:
14031:
14030:
14027:
14026:
14023:
14022:
14020:
14019:
14014:
14009:
14004:
14002:Yang Guangxian
13998:
13996:
13992:
13991:
13989:
13988:
13983:
13978:
13973:
13968:
13962:
13960:
13956:
13955:
13953:
13952:
13947:
13942:
13937:
13932:
13927:
13922:
13917:
13912:
13907:
13901:
13899:
13895:
13894:
13892:
13891:
13886:
13881:
13876:
13871:
13866:
13861:
13856:
13851:
13846:
13840:
13838:
13834:
13833:
13831:
13830:
13825:
13820:
13815:
13810:
13805:
13800:
13795:
13790:
13785:
13780:
13775:
13770:
13765:
13760:
13755:
13750:
13745:
13739:
13737:
13733:
13732:
13730:
13729:
13724:
13719:
13714:
13709:
13704:
13699:
13694:
13689:
13684:
13679:
13674:
13668:
13666:
13662:
13661:
13659:
13658:
13656:Ali ibn Khalaf
13653:
13648:
13643:
13638:
13633:
13631:Kushyar Gilani
13628:
13623:
13618:
13613:
13608:
13603:
13601:Ali ibn Ridwan
13598:
13593:
13587:
13585:
13581:
13580:
13578:
13577:
13572:
13567:
13565:Haseb-i Tabari
13562:
13557:
13552:
13547:
13542:
13537:
13532:
13527:
13522:
13517:
13512:
13507:
13502:
13497:
13492:
13487:
13482:
13477:
13472:
13467:
13462:
13456:
13454:
13450:
13449:
13447:
13446:
13441:
13436:
13434:Sahl ibn Bishr
13431:
13426:
13421:
13416:
13411:
13406:
13401:
13396:
13391:
13386:
13381:
13376:
13371:
13366:
13360:
13358:
13354:
13353:
13351:
13350:
13345:
13340:
13335:
13330:
13325:
13319:
13317:
13313:
13312:
13310:
13309:
13298:
13297:
13285:
13284:
13277:
13276:
13269:
13262:
13254:
13248:
13247:
13242:
13237:
13232:
13224:
13223:External links
13221:
13219:
13218:
13213:
13196:
13183:
13175:
13163:
13144:Saliba, George
13140:
13121:Saliba, George
13117:
13098:Saliba, George
13094:
13089:
13073:Saliba, George
13069:
13057:Saliba, George
13053:
13050:10.2307/601763
13024:Saliba, George
13020:
13005:Saliba, George
13001:
12998:10.1086/352344
12992:(4): 571–576,
12980:Saliba, George
12976:
12960:
12936:
12912:
12907:
12888:
12842:
12829:
12812:
12779:
12755:
12742:
12695:
12676:
12655:
12646:(4): 331–362,
12635:
12630:
12613:
12604:
12582:
12569:
12564:
12547:
12542:
12534:British Museum
12521:
12501:
12489:
12486:10.1086/353360
12480:(4): 531–555,
12467:
12458:
12455:10.1086/349558
12449:(2): 237–239,
12432:
12429:10.1086/371617
12410:
12386:
12383:10.1086/349363
12364:
12361:10.2307/595221
12338:
12335:10.1086/349146
12329:(2): 180–183,
12316:
12313:10.1086/348036
12307:(1–2): 56–59,
12294:
12285:
12272:
12267:
12254:
12249:
12232:
12227:
12207:
12173:
12150:
12131:
12126:
12109:
12084:
12068:
12056:L'Astronomie (
12051:
12010:(1908, 1969),
12004:
11988:
11977:
11944:
11939:
11926:
11913:
11911:
11908:
11907:
11906:
11901:
11899:Sufi cosmology
11896:
11891:
11886:
11881:
11876:
11871:
11866:
11861:
11856:
11851:
11846:
11841:
11836:
11829:
11826:
11824:
11823:
11809:
11796:
11783:
11770:
11757:
11744:
11720:
11707:
11694:
11681:
11664:
11636:
11617:
11615:, p. 333)
11604:
11588:
11575:
11555:
11537:
11533:Richard Powers
11525:
11516:
11504:
11491:
11476:
11469:(2): 296-299.
11455:
11442:
11424:
11411:
11398:
11379:
11355:
11313:
11300:
11282:
11269:
11256:
11243:
11227:
11214:
11196:
11171:
11155:
11142:
11097:
11069:
11059:10.2307/590576
11029:
11019:10.1086/352410
10995:(March 1980),
10984:
10940:
10924:
10911:
10898:
10854:
10835:
10822:
10820:, p. 533)
10804:
10798:
10776:
10770:
10764:, p. 29,
10748:
10724:
10718:
10696:
10649:
10633:
10605:
10578:
10538:
10518:
10476:
10470:
10447:
10441:
10418:
10412:
10389:
10383:
10361:
10355:
10330:
10324:
10299:
10276:
10247:
10233:Saliba, George
10224:
10211:
10198:
10179:
10156:
10124:
10102:
10067:
10048:
10035:
10019:
10015:10.1086/355661
9983:
9964:
9958:G. G. Joseph,
9951:
9942:
9929:
9916:
9899:
9883:
9845:
9804:
9766:
9753:
9747:
9722:
9675:
9669:
9642:
9636:
9630:, p. 38,
9609:
9603:
9585:
9563:
9547:
9531:
9514:
9508:
9485:
9466:
9436:
9419:
9402:
9388:
9371:
9355:
9339:
9326:
9313:
9300:
9260:
9247:
9224:Saliba, George
9215:
9202:
9200:, p. 171)
9189:
9169:
9153:
9140:
9118:
9109:, p. 219)
9098:
9085:
9083:, p. 134)
9072:
9061:Covington 2007
9049:
9032:
9012:
8996:
8983:
8970:
8957:
8944:
8931:
8918:
8905:
8892:
8879:
8839:
8837:, p. 300)
8826:
8813:
8800:
8796:10.2307/600445
8767:
8763:10.2307/600445
8737:
8724:
8711:
8698:
8677:
8664:
8636:
8633:on 2008-01-18.
8610:
8571:
8565:
8547:
8519:
8506:
8502:10.1086/349914
8471:
8469:, p. 326)
8458:
8445:
8443:, p. 116)
8432:
8401:
8384:
8367:
8347:
8331:
8322:
8303:
8266:
8241:
8221:
8201:
8170:
8152:
8132:, October 2001
8113:
8096:
8094:, p. 151)
8083:
8081:, p. 164)
8070:
8042:
8011:
8009:, p. 163)
7998:
7964:
7943:
7923:
7921:, p. 240)
7910:
7889:
7878:
7876:, p. 162)
7858:
7846:
7825:|chapter=
7788:
7773:
7758:
7737:
7715:
7700:
7685:
7683:, p. 175)
7672:
7635:
7609:
7585:
7568:
7539:
7529:(4): 395–403,
7513:
7498:
7485:
7464:
7453:
7442:
7436:
7414:
7387:
7343:
7337:
7319:
7315:Gingerich 1986
7281:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7150:constellations
7138:Main article:
7135:
7132:
7131:
7130:
7129:
7128:
7120:
7119:
7118:
7107:
7106:
7105:
7094:
7093:
7092:
7081:
7080:
7079:
7077:Hikmat al-'Ain
7068:
7067:
7066:
7050:
7049:
7048:
7032:
7022:
7021:
7020:
7017:Tarik al-Aflak
7008:
7007:
7006:
7001:(Latinized as
6990:
6989:
6988:
6982:
6976:
6970:
6960:(Latinized as
6958:Ibn al-Haytham
6955:
6954:
6953:
6948:
6937:(Latinized as
6932:
6931:
6930:
6925:
6920:
6910:(Latinized as
6903:
6900:
6858:armillary and
6793:
6790:
6732:
6729:
6728:
6727:
6726:
6725:
6713:
6712:
6711:
6697:
6696:
6695:
6684:
6683:
6682:
6664:
6663:
6662:
6646:
6645:
6644:
6636:) (1028–1087)
6632:(Latinized as
6627:
6626:
6625:
6619:(c. 950–1009)
6614:
6613:
6612:
6599:(Latinized as
6594:
6593:
6592:
6590:Az-Zij as-Sabi
6582:(Latinized as
6577:
6576:
6575:
6555:
6554:
6553:
6542:
6541:
6540:
6519:Main article:
6516:
6513:
6511:
6508:
6507:
6506:
6490:
6452:Safavid Persia
6442:
6414:
6388:
6375:
6372:
6348:
6347:
6345:Framed sextant
6326:
6325:
6323:Fakhri sextant
6292:
6291:
6284:
6281:
6260:
6259:
6228:
6227:
6168:
6167:
6149:
6148:
6128:, invented by
6122:
6121:
6079:
6076:
6068:camera obscura
6052:Ibn al-Haytham
6047:Book of Optics
6034:
6033:
6008:Ibn al-Haytham
5996:
5995:
5962:
5961:
5954:
5951:
5877:
5876:
5841:
5840:
5823:
5822:
5793:
5792:
5773:
5770:
5746:
5745:
5720:
5719:
5689:Umayyad Mosque
5681:time of prayer
5675:predecessors.
5661:
5660:
5638:
5635:
5596:
5595:
5564:
5563:
5549:
5546:
5502:
5501:
5480:
5479:
5472:in existence.
5443:
5442:
5431:to open every
5393:
5392:
5360:
5359:
5318:
5317:
5279:
5278:
5269:celestial body
5247:(Arzachel) in
5233:
5232:
5202:
5199:
5191:
5190:
5169:
5168:
5131:
5130:
5086:
5085:
5060:orthographical
5053:
5052:
5036:, kept at The
5003:
5002:
4990:
4989:
4888:
4885:
4881:times of Salah
4875:(direction to
4829:
4826:
4821:Yantra Mandirs
4667:
4664:
4656:solar calendar
4569:'Adud al-Dawla
4512:
4509:
4463:
4460:
4373:Yantra Mandirs
4317:Islam in India
4308:
4305:
4239:
4236:
4229:attributed to
4169:
4166:
4016:Earth's motion
3994:
3991:
3979:Ottoman Empire
3961:
3958:
3916:Medieval Greek
3897:(based on the
3895:Great Sindhind
3842:Book of Optics
3837:Ibn al-Haytham
3774:southern Italy
3733:
3730:
3722:Joseon Dynasty
3544:During Mongol
3531:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3518:al-Zij al-sabi
3515:
3453:Islam in Korea
3449:Islam in China
3440:
3437:
3345:
3342:
3279:), the chair (
3206:Main article:
3203:
3200:
3127:Ibn al-Haytham
3043:Hikmat al-'Ain
2795:
2794:Maragha School
2792:
2687:introduced by
2612:introduced by
2593:depicting the
2575:
2572:
2564:Tarik al-Aflak
2474:(Latinized as
2454:discussed the
2447:
2444:
2265:Ibn al-Haytham
2241:Ibn al-Haytham
2233:
2230:
2146:
2143:
2070:Ibn al-Haytham
2055:
2052:
2040:Maragha school
1947:
1944:
1874:of astronomy.
1851:Book of Optics
1790:Ibn al-Haytham
1727:
1722:
1710:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1696:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1600:Main article:
1597:
1594:
1545:
1542:
1514:Ali ibn Ridwan
1258:
1255:
1224:
1221:
1008:Middle Persian
999:
996:
984:Middle Persian
967:
964:
959:
956:
951:lunar calendar
932:
929:
928:
927:
920:
913:
902:
895:syncretization
843:
840:
820:celestial pole
753:
750:
629:
626:
513:attributed to
499:Muhammad Iqbal
436:Islam advised
427:
424:
406:; by applying
363:430 BC by the
332:
329:
316:
313:
196:refers to the
180:
179:
135:
134:
132:
125:
68:
54:permanent link
27:
16:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
15167:
15156:
15153:
15151:
15148:
15146:
15143:
15142:
15140:
15133:
15120:
15117:
15115:
15112:
15110:
15107:
15106:
15105:
15102:
15098:
15095:
15093:
15090:
15089:
15088:
15085:
15083:
15080:
15079:
15077:
15073:
15067:
15064:
15062:
15059:
15055:
15054:ophthalmology
15052:
15051:
15050:
15047:
15045:
15042:
15040:
15037:
15035:
15032:
15028:
15025:
15024:
15023:
15020:
15018:
15015:
15013:
15010:
15009:
15007:
15005:
15001:
14993:
14990:
14989:
14988:
14985:
14983:
14980:
14978:
14975:
14973:
14970:
14966:
14963:
14962:
14961:
14958:
14956:
14953:
14951:
14948:
14947:
14945:
14943:
14939:
14933:
14930:
14928:
14925:
14923:
14920:
14918:
14915:
14913:
14910:
14906:
14903:
14901:
14898:
14896:
14893:
14892:
14891:
14890:Jurisprudence
14888:
14886:
14883:
14879:
14876:
14874:
14871:
14870:
14869:
14866:
14865:
14863:
14861:
14857:
14853:
14847:
14844:
14842:
14839:
14837:
14834:
14832:
14829:
14827:
14824:
14822:
14819:
14817:
14814:
14813:
14811:
14809:
14805:
14799:
14796:
14794:
14791:
14789:
14786:
14784:
14781:
14779:
14776:
14774:
14771:
14769:
14766:
14764:
14761:
14759:
14756:
14755:
14753:
14751:
14747:
14741:
14738:
14736:
14733:
14731:
14728:
14726:
14723:
14721:
14718:
14716:
14713:
14711:
14708:
14706:
14703:
14701:
14698:
14696:
14693:
14692:
14690:
14688:
14684:
14680:
14673:
14668:
14666:
14661:
14659:
14654:
14653:
14650:
14630:
14627:
14625:
14622:
14620:
14617:
14615:
14612:
14611:
14609:
14605:
14599:
14596:
14594:
14591:
14589:
14586:
14584:
14581:
14580:
14578:
14574:
14565:
14561:
14558:
14554:
14551:
14547:
14546:
14545:
14544:Observatories
14542:
14540:
14537:
14535:
14532:
14530:
14527:
14525:
14522:
14521:
14519:
14515:
14509:
14506:
14504:
14501:
14499:
14498:Triangulation
14496:
14494:
14491:
14489:
14486:
14484:
14481:
14479:
14476:
14474:
14471:
14469:
14466:
14464:
14461:
14459:
14456:
14454:
14451:
14449:
14446:
14444:
14441:
14439:
14436:
14434:
14431:
14429:
14426:
14424:
14421:
14419:
14416:
14414:
14411:
14409:
14408:Heliocentrism
14406:
14404:
14401:
14399:
14396:
14394:
14391:
14389:
14386:
14384:
14381:
14379:
14376:
14374:
14371:
14369:
14366:
14364:
14361:
14359:
14356:
14354:
14351:
14349:
14346:
14344:
14341:
14339:
14336:
14334:
14331:
14329:
14326:
14324:
14321:
14319:
14316:
14314:
14311:
14310:
14308:
14304:
14298:
14295:
14293:
14290:
14288:
14285:
14283:
14282:Shadow square
14280:
14278:
14275:
14273:
14270:
14268:
14265:
14263:
14260:
14258:
14255:
14253:
14250:
14248:
14245:
14243:
14240:
14238:
14235:
14233:
14230:
14228:
14225:
14223:
14220:
14218:
14215:
14213:
14210:
14208:
14205:
14203:
14200:
14198:
14195:
14193:
14190:
14188:
14185:
14183:
14180:
14179:
14177:
14175:
14171:
14161:
14160:
14156:
14154:
14153:
14152:Zij-i Sultani
14149:
14147:
14146:
14145:Zij-i Ilkhani
14142:
14140:
14137:
14135:
14134:
14130:
14128:
14127:
14123:
14121:
14118:
14117:
14115:
14113:
14112:
14107:
14101:
14100:
14096:
14094:
14093:
14089:
14087:
14086:
14082:
14080:
14079:
14075:
14073:
14072:
14068:
14066:
14063:
14061:
14058:
14057:
14054:
14051:
14047:
14043:
14036:
14032:
14018:
14015:
14013:
14010:
14008:
14005:
14003:
14000:
13999:
13997:
13993:
13987:
13984:
13982:
13979:
13977:
13974:
13972:
13969:
13967:
13964:
13963:
13961:
13957:
13951:
13948:
13946:
13943:
13941:
13938:
13936:
13933:
13931:
13928:
13926:
13923:
13921:
13920:Kadızade Rumi
13918:
13916:
13913:
13911:
13908:
13906:
13903:
13902:
13900:
13896:
13890:
13887:
13885:
13882:
13880:
13877:
13875:
13872:
13870:
13867:
13865:
13862:
13860:
13857:
13855:
13852:
13850:
13847:
13845:
13844:Ibn al-Shatir
13842:
13841:
13839:
13835:
13829:
13826:
13824:
13821:
13819:
13818:Ibn al‐Raqqam
13816:
13814:
13811:
13809:
13806:
13804:
13801:
13799:
13796:
13794:
13791:
13789:
13786:
13784:
13781:
13779:
13776:
13774:
13771:
13769:
13766:
13764:
13761:
13759:
13756:
13754:
13751:
13749:
13746:
13744:
13741:
13740:
13738:
13734:
13728:
13725:
13723:
13720:
13718:
13715:
13713:
13712:Ibn al-Kammad
13710:
13708:
13705:
13703:
13700:
13698:
13695:
13693:
13690:
13688:
13685:
13683:
13680:
13678:
13675:
13673:
13670:
13669:
13667:
13663:
13657:
13654:
13652:
13649:
13647:
13644:
13642:
13639:
13637:
13634:
13632:
13629:
13627:
13626:Ibn al-Saffar
13624:
13622:
13619:
13617:
13614:
13612:
13609:
13607:
13604:
13602:
13599:
13597:
13594:
13592:
13589:
13588:
13586:
13582:
13576:
13573:
13571:
13568:
13566:
13563:
13561:
13558:
13556:
13553:
13551:
13548:
13546:
13543:
13541:
13538:
13536:
13533:
13531:
13528:
13526:
13523:
13521:
13518:
13516:
13513:
13511:
13508:
13506:
13503:
13501:
13498:
13496:
13493:
13491:
13488:
13486:
13483:
13481:
13478:
13476:
13473:
13471:
13468:
13466:
13463:
13461:
13458:
13457:
13455:
13451:
13445:
13442:
13440:
13437:
13435:
13432:
13430:
13427:
13425:
13422:
13420:
13417:
13415:
13412:
13410:
13407:
13405:
13402:
13400:
13397:
13395:
13392:
13390:
13387:
13385:
13382:
13380:
13377:
13375:
13372:
13370:
13367:
13365:
13362:
13361:
13359:
13355:
13349:
13346:
13344:
13341:
13339:
13336:
13334:
13331:
13329:
13326:
13324:
13321:
13320:
13318:
13314:
13307:
13306:
13303:
13299:
13295:
13290:
13286:
13282:
13275:
13270:
13268:
13263:
13261:
13256:
13255:
13252:
13246:
13243:
13241:
13238:
13236:
13233:
13230:
13227:
13226:
13216:
13210:
13206:
13202:
13197:
13194:
13193:
13188:
13184:
13181:
13176:
13173:
13169:
13164:
13155:
13151:
13150:
13145:
13141:
13138:
13134:
13130:
13126:
13122:
13118:
13109:
13105:
13104:
13099:
13095:
13092:
13086:
13082:
13078:
13074:
13070:
13066:
13062:
13058:
13054:
13051:
13047:
13043:
13039:
13038:
13033:
13032:by F. Sezgin"
13031:
13025:
13021:
13018:
13014:
13010:
13006:
13002:
12999:
12995:
12991:
12987:
12986:
12981:
12977:
12973:
12969:
12965:
12961:
12958:
12954:
12950:
12946:
12942:
12937:
12934:
12930:
12926:
12922:
12918:
12913:
12910:
12904:
12900:
12896:
12895:
12889:
12885:
12872:
12858:
12854:
12850:
12849:
12843:
12839:
12835:
12830:
12826:
12822:
12818:
12813:
12809:
12802:
12789:
12782:
12776:
12772:
12768:
12764:
12760:
12756:
12752:
12748:
12743:
12739:
12730:
12723:
12719:
12715:
12711:
12710:
12705:
12703:
12696:
12692:
12686:
12679:
12673:
12669:
12665:
12661:
12656:
12653:
12649:
12645:
12641:
12636:
12633:
12627:
12623:
12619:
12614:
12610:
12605:
12602:
12598:
12594:
12590:
12589:
12583:
12579:
12575:
12570:
12567:
12561:
12557:
12553:
12548:
12545:
12543:0-7141-2733-7
12539:
12535:
12531:
12527:
12522:
12519:
12515:
12511:
12507:
12502:
12499:
12495:
12490:
12487:
12483:
12479:
12475:
12474:
12468:
12464:
12459:
12456:
12452:
12448:
12444:
12443:
12438:
12433:
12430:
12426:
12423:(2): 98–108,
12422:
12418:
12417:
12411:
12408:
12404:
12400:
12396:
12392:
12387:
12384:
12380:
12376:
12372:
12371:
12365:
12362:
12358:
12354:
12350:
12349:
12344:
12339:
12336:
12332:
12328:
12324:
12323:
12317:
12314:
12310:
12306:
12302:
12301:
12295:
12291:
12286:
12282:
12278:
12273:
12270:
12264:
12260:
12255:
12252:
12246:
12242:
12238:
12233:
12230:
12228:0-7486-0455-3
12224:
12220:
12216:
12212:
12208:
12198:
12197:
12192:
12188:
12182:
12178:
12174:
12171:
12167:
12163:
12159:
12155:
12151:
12142:
12141:
12136:
12132:
12129:
12123:
12119:
12115:
12110:
12100:
12096:
12095:
12090:
12085:
12076:
12075:
12069:
12065:
12061:
12057:
12052:
12048:
12041:
12028:
12021:
12017:
12013:
12009:
12008:Duhem, Pierre
12005:
12002:
11998:
11994:
11989:
11985:
11984:
11978:
11975:
11967:
11954:
11945:
11942:
11936:
11932:
11927:
11924:
11920:
11915:
11914:
11905:
11902:
11900:
11897:
11895:
11892:
11890:
11887:
11885:
11882:
11880:
11877:
11875:
11872:
11870:
11867:
11865:
11862:
11860:
11857:
11855:
11852:
11850:
11847:
11845:
11842:
11840:
11837:
11835:
11832:
11831:
11819:
11813:
11806:
11800:
11793:
11787:
11781:, p. 30)
11780:
11774:
11768:, p. 29)
11767:
11761:
11754:
11748:
11734:
11730:
11724:
11718:, p. 62)
11717:
11711:
11704:
11698:
11692:, p. 17)
11691:
11685:
11678:
11674:
11668:
11661:
11657:
11656:
11651:
11650:"Al-Khujandi"
11647:
11640:
11632:
11628:
11621:
11614:
11608:
11601:
11598:
11592:
11585:
11579:
11571:
11564:
11562:
11560:
11552:
11546:
11544:
11542:
11534:
11529:
11520:
11511:
11509:
11501:
11495:
11487:
11480:
11473:
11468:
11465:
11459:
11452:
11446:
11439:
11433:
11431:
11429:
11421:
11415:
11408:
11402:
11394:
11390:
11383:
11369:
11365:
11359:
11352:
11346:
11333:
11322:
11320:
11318:
11310:
11304:
11296:
11292:
11291:Sayili, Aydin
11286:
11279:
11273:
11266:
11260:
11253:
11247:
11240:
11234:
11232:
11225:, p. 56)
11224:
11218:
11210:
11206:
11200:
11185:
11181:
11175:
11168:
11165:
11159:
11152:
11146:
11138:
11129:
11116:
11112:
11111:
11104:
11102:
11094:
11090:
11086:
11082:
11081:
11073:
11060:
11056:
11052:
11048:
11044:
11040:
11033:
11020:
11016:
11012:
11008:
11004:
11003:
10998:
10994:
10988:
10980:
10976:
10967:
10953:
10952:
10944:
10937:
10934:
10928:
10921:
10915:
10908:
10902:
10894:
10885:
10871:
10867:
10866:
10858:
10851:
10849:
10844:
10839:
10832:
10826:
10819:
10813:
10811:
10809:
10801:
10795:
10791:
10787:
10780:
10773:
10767:
10763:
10759:
10752:
10738:
10734:
10728:
10721:
10715:
10711:
10707:
10700:
10692:
10688:
10679:
10672:
10668:
10664:
10660:
10653:
10646:
10642:
10637:
10630:
10626:
10625:
10620:
10616:
10609:
10595:
10594:
10589:
10582:
10575:
10569:
10556:
10545:
10543:
10535:
10529:
10527:
10525:
10523:
10509:
10505:
10501:
10497:
10493:
10492:
10487:
10480:
10473:
10467:
10463:
10459:
10451:
10444:
10438:
10434:
10430:
10422:
10415:
10409:
10405:
10401:
10393:
10386:
10380:
10376:
10372:
10365:
10358:
10352:
10348:
10344:
10337:
10335:
10327:
10321:
10317:
10313:
10306:
10304:
10295:
10291:
10287:
10280:
10272:
10266:
10262:
10256:
10254:
10252:
10244:
10238:
10234:
10228:
10221:
10215:
10208:
10202:
10195:(2): 125–142
10194:
10190:
10183:
10176:
10171:
10167:
10160:
10147:(4): 538–541
10146:
10142:
10135:
10128:
10121:(2): 125–142
10120:
10116:
10109:
10107:
10092:
10088:
10081:
10074:
10072:
10064:(2): 125–142
10063:
10059:
10052:
10045:
10039:
10032:
10026:
10024:
10016:
10012:
10008:
10004:
10003:
9998:
9994:
9987:
9980:
9977:
9973:
9972:David Pingree
9968:
9961:
9955:
9946:
9939:
9933:
9926:
9923:D. Campbell,
9920:
9913:
9909:
9903:
9896:
9890:
9888:
9880:
9876:
9872:
9868:
9864:
9860:
9856:
9849:
9842:
9838:
9834:
9830:
9826:
9822:
9818:
9811:
9809:
9801:
9797:
9793:
9789:
9785:
9781:
9777:
9770:
9763:
9757:
9750:
9744:
9740:
9736:
9729:
9727:
9718:
9713:|author=
9701:
9694:
9690:
9686:
9679:
9672:
9666:
9662:
9658:
9651:
9649:
9647:
9639:
9633:
9629:
9625:
9618:
9616:
9614:
9606:
9600:
9596:
9589:
9582:(5): 233–238
9581:
9577:
9570:
9568:
9560:
9554:
9552:
9544:
9538:
9536:
9528:
9524:
9518:
9511:
9505:
9501:
9497:
9489:
9481:
9477:
9470:
9457:
9453:
9452:
9447:
9440:
9433:
9429:
9423:
9416:
9412:
9406:
9400:
9398:
9392:
9386:
9384:
9378:
9376:
9369:(4): 395-396.
9368:
9365:
9359:
9352:
9346:
9344:
9336:
9330:
9323:
9317:
9310:
9304:
9296:
9290:
9277:
9273:
9272:
9264:
9257:
9251:
9237:
9233:
9229:
9225:
9219:
9212:
9206:
9199:
9193:
9186:
9180:
9178:
9176:
9174:
9166:
9163:
9157:
9150:
9144:
9136:
9132:
9128:
9122:
9114:
9108:
9102:
9095:
9089:
9082:
9076:
9068:
9062:
9056:
9054:
9046:
9042:
9036:
9028:
9022:
9016:
9009:
9003:
9001:
8993:
8987:
8980:
8974:
8967:
8961:
8954:
8948:
8941:
8935:
8928:
8922:
8915:
8909:
8903:, p. 28)
8902:
8896:
8889:
8883:
8875:
8866:
8852:
8851:
8843:
8836:
8830:
8823:
8817:
8810:
8804:
8797:
8793:
8789:
8785:
8781:
8774:
8772:
8764:
8760:
8756:
8752:
8748:
8741:
8734:
8728:
8721:
8715:
8708:
8702:
8688:
8685:Dennis Duke.
8681:
8674:
8668:
8661:
8657:
8656:
8651:
8647:
8640:
8632:
8628:
8624:
8617:
8615:
8606:
8600:
8582:
8575:
8568:
8562:
8558:
8551:
8537:
8533:
8526:
8524:
8516:
8510:
8503:
8499:
8495:
8491:
8490:
8485:
8478:
8476:
8468:
8462:
8456:, p. 57)
8455:
8449:
8442:
8436:
8429:
8425:
8421:
8417:
8410:
8408:
8406:
8398:
8394:
8388:
8381:
8377:
8371:
8364:
8360:
8357:
8351:
8344:
8340:
8335:
8326:
8319:
8313:
8307:
8291:
8287:
8281:
8277:
8270:
8262:
8256:
8255:Zaimeche 2002
8250:
8248:
8246:
8231:
8225:
8211:
8205:
8197:
8192:|author=
8180:
8173:
8171:0-943396-58-1
8167:
8163:
8156:
8147:
8141:
8140:Zaimeche 2002
8137:
8131:
8127:
8123:
8117:
8110:
8106:
8100:
8093:
8087:
8080:
8074:
8067:
8063:
8059:
8055:
8054:
8046:
8039:
8035:
8031:
8027:
8026:
8018:
8016:
8008:
8002:
7989:
7985:
7984:
7979:
7975:
7968:
7953:
7947:
7933:
7927:
7920:
7914:
7907:
7903:
7899:
7893:
7887:
7882:
7875:
7869:
7867:
7865:
7863:
7855:
7850:
7842:
7830:
7818:
7805:
7802:
7795:
7793:
7786:
7782:
7777:
7771:
7767:
7762:
7748:
7741:
7728:
7727:
7719:
7713:
7709:
7704:
7698:
7694:
7689:
7682:
7676:
7663:
7659:
7655:
7648:
7646:
7644:
7642:
7640:
7632:
7626:
7624:
7622:
7620:
7618:
7616:
7614:
7606:
7600:
7598:
7596:
7594:
7592:
7590:
7581:
7580:
7572:
7559:
7552:
7551:
7543:
7536:
7532:
7528:
7524:
7517:
7511:
7507:
7502:
7495:
7489:
7474:
7468:
7462:
7457:
7451:
7446:
7439:
7433:
7429:
7425:
7418:
7410:
7402:
7400:
7398:
7396:
7394:
7392:
7383:
7377:
7363:
7359:
7352:
7350:
7348:
7340:
7334:
7330:
7323:
7316:
7310:
7308:
7306:
7304:
7302:
7300:
7298:
7296:
7294:
7292:
7290:
7288:
7286:
7278:
7272:
7268:
7261:
7259:
7258:ancient Greek
7255:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7239:
7235:
7231:
7227:
7223:
7219:
7215:
7211:
7207:
7203:
7199:
7195:
7191:
7187:
7183:
7179:
7175:
7171:
7167:
7163:
7159:
7155:
7151:
7147:
7141:
7127:
7124:
7123:
7121:
7117:
7114:
7113:
7111:
7110:Ali al-Qushji
7108:
7104:
7101:
7100:
7098:
7097:Ibn al-Shatir
7095:
7091:
7088:
7087:
7085:
7082:
7078:
7075:
7074:
7072:
7069:
7064:
7060:
7057:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7046:
7042:
7039:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7030:
7026:
7023:
7018:
7015:
7014:
7012:
7009:
7004:
7000:
6997:
6996:
6994:
6991:
6986:
6983:
6980:
6977:
6974:
6971:
6969:
6966:
6965:
6964:) (965-1039)
6963:
6959:
6956:
6952:
6949:
6946:
6943:
6942:
6940:
6936:
6933:
6929:
6926:
6924:
6923:Astral Motion
6921:
6919:
6916:
6915:
6913:
6909:
6906:
6905:
6899:
6897:
6893:
6889:
6885:
6881:
6877:
6873:
6869:
6865:
6862:armillary of
6861:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6836:
6834:
6829:
6827:
6823:
6819:
6815:
6811:
6807:
6803:
6799:
6789:
6787:
6786:
6781:
6780:
6775:
6771:
6767:
6763:
6759:
6755:
6750:
6746:
6742:
6738:
6723:
6722:Unbored Pearl
6720:
6719:
6717:
6714:
6709:
6708:
6707:Zij-i-Sultani
6704:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6694:
6691:
6690:
6688:
6685:
6680:
6676:
6675:
6674:Zij-i Ilkhani
6671:
6670:
6668:
6665:
6661:) (1115–1116)
6660:
6656:
6653:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6643:
6642:
6638:
6637:
6635:
6631:
6628:
6624:
6621:
6620:
6618:
6615:
6610:
6609:
6605:
6604:
6602:
6598:
6595:
6591:
6588:
6587:
6585:
6581:
6578:
6573:
6570:
6569:
6567:
6563:
6559:
6556:
6552:
6549:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6538:
6535:
6534:
6533:(d. 796/806)
6532:
6529:(d. 777) and
6528:
6525:
6524:
6522:
6515:Zij treatises
6504:
6500:
6496:
6495:
6494:Shadow square
6491:
6488:
6484:
6480:
6476:
6473:
6469:
6465:
6461:
6457:
6454:, two unique
6453:
6449:
6447:
6443:
6440:
6436:
6435:regular grids
6432:
6428:
6424:
6423:
6422:regular grids
6419:
6415:
6412:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6398:Ibn al-Shatir
6395:
6393:
6389:
6386:
6385:
6381:
6380:
6379:
6371:
6369:
6365:
6361:
6358:invented the
6357:
6353:
6346:
6343:
6342:
6341:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6324:
6321:
6320:
6319:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6290:
6289:Mural sextant
6287:
6286:
6280:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6258:
6255:
6254:
6252:
6248:
6245:
6241:
6237:
6233:
6226:
6223:
6222:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6181:
6177:
6173:
6166:
6163:
6162:
6161:
6158:
6154:
6147:
6144:
6143:
6142:
6139:
6135:
6131:
6127:
6120:
6119:Sine quadrant
6117:
6116:
6112:
6108:
6104:
6099:
6095:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6075:
6073:
6069:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6048:
6043:
6039:
6032:
6029:
6028:
6027:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6009:
6005:
6001:
5994:
5991:
5990:
5989:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5960:
5957:
5956:
5950:
5948:
5944:
5939:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5925:
5921:
5917:
5913:
5909:
5905:
5901:
5897:
5893:
5889:
5885:
5882:
5875:
5872:
5871:
5870:
5868:
5863:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5839:
5836:
5835:
5834:
5832:
5831:Islamic world
5828:
5821:
5818:
5817:
5813:
5808:
5804:
5802:
5798:
5791:
5788:
5787:
5783:
5778:
5769:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5750:Ibn al-Shatir
5744:
5741:
5740:
5739:
5737:
5733:
5729:
5725:
5718:
5715:
5714:
5713:
5710:
5706:
5705:Ibn al-Shatir
5700:
5698:
5697:Ibn al-Shatir
5694:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5670:
5666:
5659:
5656:
5655:
5654:
5652:
5648:
5644:
5634:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5594:
5591:
5590:
5589:
5587:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5572:
5571:water-powered
5568:
5562:
5559:
5558:
5557:
5555:
5545:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5500:
5497:
5496:
5495:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5478:
5475:
5474:
5473:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5456:
5452:
5448:
5441:
5438:
5437:
5436:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5391:
5388:
5387:
5386:
5384:
5380:
5376:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5358:
5355:
5354:
5350:
5346:
5341:
5337:
5335:
5331:
5327:
5323:
5316:
5313:
5312:
5311:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5293:
5290:
5287:
5283:
5277:
5274:
5273:
5272:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5231:
5228:
5227:
5226:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5212:
5208:
5198:
5196:
5189:
5186:
5185:
5184:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5167:
5164:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5150:
5146:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5129:
5126:
5125:
5124:
5122:
5118:
5114:
5110:
5105:
5103:
5099:
5095:
5091:
5084:
5081:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5067:
5063:
5061:
5057:
5051:
5048:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5030:
5026:
5024:
5020:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5001:
4998:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4988:
4985:
4984:
4983:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4910:
4907:is dated 315
4906:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4884:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4864:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4825:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4797:Mughal Empire
4793:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4775:
4771:
4767:
4765:
4764:
4763:Zij-i-Sultani
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4713:
4712:
4711:Zij-i Ilkhani
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4663:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4650:, a.k.a. the
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4625:
4620:
4616:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4599:. Reports by
4598:
4594:
4590:
4589:mural sextant
4586:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4550:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4508:
4504:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4462:Observatories
4459:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4400:
4396:
4391:
4389:
4384:
4383:
4382:Zij-i-Sultani
4378:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4349:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4323:Mughal Empire
4318:
4314:
4304:
4302:
4297:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4282:decimal point
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4266:Unbored Pearl
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4245:
4232:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4216:
4209:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4198:George Saliba
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4182:Ibn al-Shatir
4174:
4164:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4148:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4129:
4127:
4123:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4104:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4036:Ali al-Qushji
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4008:Ali al-Qushji
4005:
4000:
3990:
3988:
3987:Mughal Empire
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3957:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3942:
3941:Zij-i Ilkhani
3938:(such as the
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3908:
3906:
3902:
3901:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3883:Peter Alfonsi
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3843:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3789:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3757:
3753:
3745:
3742:
3738:
3729:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3693:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3671:Zhu Yuanzhang
3668:
3663:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3571:, founded by
3570:
3565:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3542:
3540:
3536:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3436:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3421:sidereal year
3418:
3417:
3416:Zij-i Sultani
3412:
3409:. Founded by
3408:
3404:
3400:
3395:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3360:
3355:
3354:Zij-i Sultani
3351:
3341:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3314:
3310:
3304:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3256:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3209:
3199:
3197:
3196:Nicole Oresme
3193:
3189:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3134:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3061:Ibn al-Shatir
3055:
3050:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3039:heliocentrism
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3005:philosophical
3002:
2998:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2973:Ibn al-Shatir
2970:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2859:Ali al-Qushji
2857:(1304–1375),
2856:
2855:Ibn al-Shatir
2852:
2848:
2845:(1201–1274),
2844:
2840:
2836:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2807:
2806:Zij-i Ilkhani
2801:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2784:Ibn al-Kammad
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2764:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2743:
2737:
2735:
2730:
2726:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2638:Ibn al-Saffar
2635:
2631:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2608:rejected the
2607:
2603:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2558:, a pupil of
2557:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2533:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2510:
2506:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2487:
2485:
2484:earth rotates
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2440:
2436:
2435:heliocentrism
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2395:Occam's razor
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2369:
2368:infinitesimal
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2316:
2314:
2310:
2309:observational
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2229:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2170:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2131:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2027:
2025:
2024:four elements
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
2000:Ibn al-Shatir
1997:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1936:lunar eclipse
1933:
1932:solar eclipse
1929:
1925:
1922:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1875:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1852:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1714:Immanuel Kant
1707:
1704:
1701:
1700:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1634:creation myth
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1609:
1603:
1593:
1591:
1590:Masudic Canon
1587:
1583:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1551:
1541:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1508:In 1006, the
1506:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1483:Simon Newcomb
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1457:constellation
1454:
1450:
1449:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1390:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1299:
1298:al-Khwarizimi
1295:
1291:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1149:translation,
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1101:
1096:
1088:
1083:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1058:sine function
1054:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1005:
995:
991:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
963:
955:
952:
948:
945:
940:
938:
925:
921:
918:
914:
911:
907:
903:
900:
896:
892:
891:
890:
888:
883:
881:
877:
873:
869:
864:
860:
856:
852:
849:knowledge of
848:
839:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
777:
773:
769:
764:
759:
749:
747:
744:, and in the
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
722:time of Salah
719:
715:
711:
706:
704:
700:
699:crescent moon
696:
692:
687:
685:
681:
676:
672:
667:
665:
658:
654:
649:
645:
641:
638:
634:
628:Islamic rules
625:
623:
622:
617:
613:
609:
608:Ali al-Qushji
605:
601:
600:occasionalism
597:
593:
589:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
538:
534:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
506:
502:
500:
496:
492:
491:contemplation
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
465:
461:
460:
455:
450:
448:
443:
439:
433:
423:
421:
420:trigonometric
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
376:
374:
373:Metonic cycle
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
328:
326:
321:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
277:
275:
271:
268:) as well as
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
202:Islamic world
199:
195:
191:
187:
176:
173:
165:
159:
157:
150:
149:
144:
143:
138:
133:
124:
123:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
80:
76:
71:
64:
63:
60:
55:
39:
35:
30:
23:
15131:
15104:Sufi studies
15075:Other fields
15021:
14955:Contemporary
14878:consultation
14700:Architecture
14517:Institutions
14368:Eccentricity
14328:Astrophysics
14222:Compass rose
14157:
14150:
14143:
14131:
14124:
14109:
14097:
14090:
14083:
14076:
14069:
13935:Ibn al-Majdi
13910:Abd al‐Wajid
13869:Al-Wabkanawi
13864:Abū al‐ʿUqūl
13753:Jamal ad-Din
13722:Omar Khayyam
13550:Al-ʻIjliyyah
13525:Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī
13510:Ibn al-A'lam
13429:Al-Khwarizmi
13280:
13200:
13190:
13179:
13167:
13157:, retrieved
13148:
13128:
13124:
13111:, retrieved
13102:
13076:
13064:
13060:
13041:
13035:
13029:
13008:
12989:
12983:
12971:
12967:
12964:Sabra, A. I.
12948:
12944:
12920:
12916:
12892:
12861:, retrieved
12847:
12837:
12833:
12820:
12816:
12762:
12750:
12746:
12713:
12707:
12701:
12659:
12643:
12639:
12617:
12608:
12592:
12586:
12577:
12573:
12551:
12529:
12509:
12505:
12493:
12477:
12471:
12462:
12446:
12440:
12436:
12420:
12414:
12398:
12394:
12377:(1): 42–50,
12374:
12368:
12352:
12346:
12326:
12320:
12304:
12298:
12289:
12280:
12276:
12258:
12236:
12214:
12200:, retrieved
12195:
12180:
12161:
12157:
12144:, retrieved
12139:
12113:
12103:, retrieved
12098:
12092:
12078:, retrieved
12073:
12063:
12055:
12011:
11992:
11981:
11973:
11962:|title=
11930:
11918:
11812:
11805:Kennedy 1961
11799:
11791:
11786:
11773:
11760:
11747:
11736:. Retrieved
11723:
11710:
11697:
11684:
11672:
11667:
11653:
11639:
11630:
11626:
11620:
11607:
11599:
11596:
11591:
11578:
11569:
11528:
11519:
11494:
11485:
11479:
11471:
11466:
11463:
11458:
11445:
11414:
11401:
11392:
11388:
11382:
11371:. Retrieved
11358:
11341:|title=
11303:
11294:
11285:
11272:
11265:Kennedy 1951
11259:
11252:Kennedy 1952
11246:
11239:Kennedy 1950
11223:Kennedy 1947
11217:
11199:
11188:. Retrieved
11174:
11166:
11163:
11158:
11145:
11118:, retrieved
11109:
11087:(1): 11–34,
11084:
11078:
11072:
11062:, retrieved
11046:
11042:
11032:
11022:, retrieved
11013:: 122–127 ,
11006:
11000:
10987:
10955:, retrieved
10950:
10948:Nick Kanas,
10943:
10938:(1): 63-70 .
10935:
10932:
10927:
10914:
10901:
10874:, retrieved
10864:
10857:
10852:, p. 239-45.
10846:
10838:
10825:
10785:
10779:
10757:
10751:
10740:. Retrieved
10727:
10705:
10699:
10665:: 289–303 ,
10662:
10658:
10652:
10644:
10636:
10622:
10608:
10598:, retrieved
10592:
10581:
10564:|title=
10534:Kennedy 1962
10511:, retrieved
10502:: 389–392 ,
10495:
10489:
10479:
10456:
10450:
10427:
10421:
10398:
10392:
10370:
10364:
10342:
10311:
10289:
10285:
10279:
10260:
10236:
10227:
10214:
10201:
10192:
10188:
10182:
10173:
10169:
10165:
10159:
10149:, retrieved
10144:
10140:
10127:
10118:
10114:
10095:, retrieved
10090:
10086:
10061:
10057:
10051:
10038:
10009:(1): 116–8,
10006:
10000:
9996:
9992:
9986:
9978:
9975:
9967:
9959:
9954:
9945:
9937:
9932:
9924:
9919:
9911:
9907:
9902:
9894:
9893:V. J. Katz,
9858:
9854:
9848:
9820:
9816:
9779:
9775:
9769:
9761:
9756:
9734:
9715:suggested) (
9684:
9678:
9656:
9623:
9594:
9588:
9579:
9575:
9558:
9542:
9526:
9523:Fred Espenak
9517:
9494:
9488:
9475:
9469:
9459:, retrieved
9449:
9439:
9431:
9427:
9422:
9414:
9405:
9396:
9391:
9382:
9366:
9363:
9358:
9329:
9322:Saliba 1994b
9316:
9303:
9279:, retrieved
9270:
9263:
9256:Saliba 1994b
9250:
9240:, retrieved
9235:
9231:
9218:
9211:Saliba 1994b
9205:
9192:
9185:Saliba 1994b
9167:(1): 39-47 .
9164:
9161:
9156:
9148:
9143:
9130:
9127:Sabra, A. I.
9121:
9101:
9088:
9075:
9040:
9035:
9021:Marmura 1965
9015:
8986:
8973:
8960:
8947:
8934:
8921:
8908:
8895:
8882:
8855:, retrieved
8849:
8842:
8829:
8816:
8803:
8787:
8783:
8754:
8750:
8740:
8733:Saliba 1994b
8727:
8714:
8701:
8690:. Retrieved
8680:
8667:
8653:
8639:
8631:the original
8588:. Retrieved
8574:
8556:
8550:
8539:. Retrieved
8509:
8493:
8487:
8483:
8461:
8448:
8441:Saliba 1994a
8435:
8419:
8415:
8392:
8387:
8379:
8375:
8370:
8358:
8355:
8350:
8334:
8325:
8316:
8311:
8306:
8294:. Retrieved
8290:"References"
8279:
8275:
8269:
8233:. Retrieved
8224:
8213:. Retrieved
8204:
8194:suggested) (
8161:
8155:
8121:
8116:
8105:Wickens 1976
8099:
8086:
8073:
8060:: 108–128 ,
8057:
8051:
8045:
8032:: 108–128 ,
8029:
8023:
8001:
7991:, retrieved
7981:
7967:
7956:. Retrieved
7946:
7935:. Retrieved
7926:
7913:
7906:Kennedy 1956
7901:
7898:Zij al-Sindh
7897:
7892:
7881:
7853:
7849:
7837:|title=
7807:, retrieved
7800:
7776:
7761:
7750:. Retrieved
7740:
7730:, retrieved
7725:
7718:
7703:
7688:
7675:
7665:, retrieved
7661:
7657:
7577:
7571:
7561:, retrieved
7549:
7542:
7526:
7522:
7516:
7501:
7488:
7477:. Retrieved
7467:
7456:
7445:
7423:
7417:
7365:. Retrieved
7328:
7322:
7277:Saliba 1994b
7271:
7178:Baten Kaitos
7143:
7125:
7115:
7102:
7099:(1304–1375)
7089:
7086:(1236–1311)
7076:
7062:
7058:
7055:(1201–1274)
7044:
7040:
7028:
7024:
7016:
7002:
6998:
6984:
6978:
6972:
6967:
6961:
6950:
6944:
6938:
6927:
6922:
6917:
6914:) (800-873)
6911:
6843:
6837:
6830:
6805:
6801:
6795:
6783:
6777:
6757:
6753:
6734:
6721:
6718:(1526–1585)
6705:
6702:(1394–1449)
6692:
6689:(1380–1429)
6678:
6672:
6669:(1201–1274)
6658:
6654:
6639:
6633:
6622:
6606:
6603:) (903-986)
6600:
6589:
6586:) (853-929)
6583:
6571:
6565:
6550:
6536:
6492:
6472:cartographic
6444:
6416:
6390:
6382:
6377:
6370:later used.
6359:
6349:
6344:
6327:
6322:
6315:
6312:astronomical
6293:
6288:
6261:
6256:
6250:
6236:trigonometry
6229:
6224:
6172:al-Khwarizmi
6169:
6164:
6150:
6145:
6123:
6118:
6082:A number of
6081:
6045:
6035:
6030:
6012:experimental
5997:
5992:
5963:
5958:
5947:architecture
5940:
5888:Mughal India
5878:
5873:
5864:
5858:ring of the
5842:
5837:
5824:
5819:
5794:
5789:
5747:
5743:Compass dial
5742:
5721:
5716:
5701:
5684:
5677:Al-Khwarizmi
5662:
5657:
5640:
5630:
5597:
5592:
5565:
5560:
5551:
5524:in terms of
5503:
5498:
5481:
5476:
5444:
5439:
5417:lunar orbits
5405:castle clock
5394:
5389:
5361:
5356:
5319:
5314:
5280:
5275:
5243:invented by
5234:
5229:
5204:
5192:
5187:
5170:
5165:
5139:heliocentric
5132:
5127:
5106:
5087:
5082:
5054:
5049:
5004:
4999:
4991:
4986:
4890:
4865:
4861:
4794:
4779:
4761:
4739:
4709:
4683:
4651:
4640:Omar Khayyám
4632:Malik Shah I
4629:
4560:
4553:
4514:
4505:
4501:observations
4465:
4455:
4452:Bahadur Khan
4447:
4443:
4431:
4424:heliocentric
4416:
4411:
4392:
4380:
4346:
4320:
4298:
4286:observations
4265:
4247:
4214:
4211:
4179:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4150:
4130:
4125:
4121:
4105:
4095:
4034:The work of
4033:
3963:
3939:
3909:
3898:
3894:
3874:
3862:
3859:Al-Khwarizmi
3854:
3840:
3833:Abu al-Qasim
3808:
3800:
3790:
3759:
3713:
3702:Qing Dynasty
3697:
3690:
3673:ordered the
3667:Ming Dynasty
3664:
3623:
3620:Guo Shoujing
3617:
3608:
3589:Jamal ad-Din
3566:
3554:Genghis Khan
3552:accompanied
3546:Yuan Dynasty
3543:
3532:
3505:
3489:Song dynasty
3479:
3475:Song dynasty
3456:
3414:
3396:
3365:
3333:
3309:Aristotelian
3306:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3258:
3252:
3223:, discusses
3220:
3211:
3191:
3184:
3174:
3135:
3108:
3097:observations
3068:
3059:
3042:
3034:
3013:
2994:
2939:
2919:Aristotelian
2907:mathematical
2892:
2835:observations
2809:
2765:
2739:
2722:
2719:(Avempace):
2710:
2706:
2670:
2661:
2657:
2650:North Africa
2627:
2563:
2553:
2541:solar apogee
2537:acceleration
2530:
2522:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2499:heliocentric
2488:
2475:
2471:
2468:Varahamihira
2449:
2427:solar apogee
2423:acceleration
2399:cosmological
2351:
2349:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2313:experimental
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2262:
2257:astrophysics
2244:
2217:
2209:
2199:
2183:Aristotelian
2172:
2168:
2151:astrophysics
2148:
2133:
2129:
2103:
2098:
2088:rather than
2063:
2048:heliocentric
2029:
1993:
1971:
1964:mathematical
1959:
1949:
1899:
1876:
1849:
1847:
1830:experimental
1810:astrophysics
1797:
1793:
1787:
1755:astrophysics
1744:
1711:
1697:
1646:Christianity
1611:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1571:
1553:
1507:
1494:
1490:
1469:
1446:
1428:
1408:
1394:
1386:
1357:
1345:precessional
1332:
1328:
1324:
1318:
1313:
1303:
1294:Zij al-Sindh
1293:
1287:
1278:Zij al-Sindh
1277:
1266:Al-Khwarizmi
1226:
1187:
1185:
1180:
1174:
1170:
1154:
1150:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1131:The Greatest
1130:
1126:
1122:
1116:
1108:
1098:
1092:
1086:
1055:
1050:
1021:
1015:
1001:
992:
972:Muslim world
969:
961:
941:
934:
884:
845:
818:, the north
781:
707:
688:
668:
664:observations
661:
655:in medieval
619:
616:moving Earth
598:doctrine of
563:Aristotelian
540:
536:
523:superstition
508:
504:
477:such as the
457:
451:
435:
377:
360:
334:
318:
278:
254:Indian works
226:North Africa
218:Central Asia
198:astronomical
193:
189:
183:
168:
161:
153:
146:
140:
139:Please help
136:
22:old revision
19:
18:
15044:Mathematics
14705:Calligraphy
14503:Tusi couple
14493:Trepidation
14458:Salah times
14393:Geocentrism
14267:Planisphere
14247:Graph paper
14174:Instruments
14126:Huihui Lifa
14007:Ehmedê Xanî
13966:Al-Birjandi
13945:al-Kubunani
13702:Abu al-Salt
13651:Al-Isfizari
13611:Ibn al-Samh
13490:Abu al-Wafa
13475:al-Khojandi
13379:Al-Farghani
13294:Astronomers
13131:: 328–341,
12797:|date=
12612:, June 2004
12506:Imago Mundi
12293:, June 2003
12284:, June 2003
12164:: 139–163,
12036:|date=
11602:(1): 1-47 .
10977:" ignored (
10843:Will Durant
10689:" ignored (
10220:Ragep 2001a
10207:Ragep 2001b
10031:Saliba 2000
9335:Saliba 1979
9198:Dallal 1999
9107:Saliba 1981
8979:Rashed 2007
8966:Rashed 2007
8953:Rashed 2007
8940:Rashed 2007
8927:Rashed 2007
8914:Rashed 2007
8532:"Ibn Bajja"
8361:, p. 7–55.
8107:, pp.
8092:Singer 1959
8079:Dallal 1999
8007:Dallal 1999
7874:Dallal 1999
7631:Ragep 2001b
7605:Ragep 2001a
6995:(973–1048)
6987:(1029–1039)
6941:) (d. 850)
6902:Other works
6880:al-Khujandi
6856:equinoctial
6724:(1577–1580)
6716:Taqi al-Din
6693:Khaqani Zij
6439:graph paper
6411:Renaissance
6368:Tycho Brahe
6356:Taqi al-Din
6302:, Iran, by
6188:Middle Ages
6138:graph paper
6111:Tycho Brahe
5926:Astronomer
5904:engineering
5852:Declination
5754:timekeeping
5736:Renaissance
5673:Hellenistic
5647:timekeeping
5605:with three
5599:Taqi al-Din
5326:slide chart
5177:planisphere
5166:Planisphere
5154:planisphere
5104:in Persia.
4972:timekeeping
4828:Instruments
4790:Tycho Brahe
4702:Hulagu Khan
4694:Hulegu Khan
4591:in 994 AD.
4469:observatory
4458:tradition.
4436:omnipotence
4351:treatises.
4290:sexagesimal
4274:Tycho Brahe
4254:Taqi al-Din
4252:astronomer
4133:Al-Birjandi
3950:Tusi-couple
3905:Brahmagupta
3879:Abū Ma'shar
3714:Huihui Lifa
3708:in 1659. A
3577:Hulagu Khan
3558:Kublai Khan
3467:Mathematics
3433:Tycho Brahe
3390:astronomer
3382:astronomer
3265:al-mumkinat
3154:al-Birjandi
3093:lunar model
3023:Tusi-couple
2985:Tusi-couple
2931:Tusi-couple
2899:Renaissance
2897:before the
2883:Tusi-couple
2863:al-Birjandi
2861:(c. 1474),
2849:(d. 1277),
2841:(d. 1266),
2774:astronomer
2757:conjunction
2727:occur, but
2697:Aristotle's
2642:Abu al-Salt
2480:Brahmagupta
2464:Brahmagupta
2419:experiments
2381:, separate
2329:Maqâlah fî
2208:or orbits (
2163:gravitation
2122:, and that
2096:) reasons.
2086:conjectural
1988:A. I. Sabra
1928:Afghanistan
1910:experiments
1674:Saadia Gaon
1626:theologians
1582:(c. 1038).
1534:Benedictine
1512:astronomer
1423:Sagittarius
1391:al-Mumtahan
1321:al-Farghani
1310:observatory
1251:financially
1181:Tetrabiblon
1074:timekeeping
1051:Zij al-Shah
1028:Brahmagupta
876:Hellenistic
836:hour circle
573:within the
521:as well as
471:observation
454:set of laws
380:astronomers
367:astronomer
250:Hellenistic
214:Middle East
20:This is an
15139:Categories
15119:philosophy
15066:Psychology
15039:Inventions
14992:solidarity
14942:Philosophy
14922:Secularism
14836:Golden Age
14773:Capitalism
14720:Literature
14607:Influenced
14576:Influences
14448:Precession
14428:Multiverse
14333:Axial tilt
14313:Almucantar
14297:Triquetrum
14237:Equatorium
13986:Takiyüddin
13859:al-Battiwi
13854:Ibn Shuayb
13849:Al-Khalili
13692:Al-Khazini
13687:Al-Kharaqī
13682:Ibn Tufail
13672:Al-Bitruji
13606:Al-Zarqālī
13570:al-Majriti
13520:Al-Saghani
13515:Al-Nayrizi
13500:al-Battani
13419:Iranshahri
13404:Al-Marwazi
13308:by century
13214:052109948X
13159:2008-01-22
13113:2008-01-22
13090:0814780237
12908:0415124107
12863:2008-01-22
12780:0791415155
12677:0824000412
12631:900414188X
12565:9004113673
12268:9679785491
12250:0521529948
12202:2008-01-22
12146:2008-01-22
12127:0415969301
12105:2008-05-18
12080:2008-01-22
11940:0911119434
11910:References
11738:2008-01-22
11703:Iqbal 2003
11690:King 1999b
11584:King 1999a
11373:2008-07-02
11309:King 1999a
11278:Ajram 1992
11190:2008-01-22
11169:(5): 1-69.
11120:2008-09-06
11064:2009-10-13
11024:2009-10-13
10993:David Kahn
10957:2009-10-13
10876:2008-01-22
10799:0226316351
10771:0226316351
10742:2008-01-22
10719:0691114854
10600:2008-01-22
10513:2010-03-29
10471:1402006578
10442:1402006578
10413:1402006578
10384:0791429199
10356:0791429199
10325:8120812565
10151:2010-03-25
10097:2010-03-25
9865:: 25–60 ,
9827:: 25–60 ,
9786:: 25–60 ,
9748:1402006578
9670:1402006578
9637:9058673154
9604:3515082239
9509:1402006578
9461:2010-03-07
9281:2008-02-02
9242:2008-01-25
9094:Sabra 1998
8901:Duhem 1969
8857:2008-01-22
8835:Sabra 1998
8822:Sabra 1998
8707:Sabra 1998
8692:2008-01-22
8673:Sabra 1998
8590:2008-07-08
8566:9835201579
8541:2008-07-11
8515:Rosen 1985
8296:2008-01-22
8235:2007-04-19
8215:2007-04-19
7993:2008-01-15
7958:2008-01-15
7952:"Almagest"
7937:2008-01-15
7809:2008-01-24
7752:2008-01-24
7732:2008-01-24
7667:2010-03-02
7563:2008-01-31
7494:Ilyas 1997
7479:2008-01-24
7437:1402006578
7367:2009-10-02
7338:8120812565
7112:(d. 1474)
7073:(d. 1277)
7035:Al-Khazini
7013:(c. 1070)
6939:Alfraganus
6860:solsticial
6848:triquetrum
6842:wrote the
6826:reflection
6814:triquetrum
6800:wrote the
6798:al-Khazini
6770:Al-Andalus
6745:Babylonian
6735:The word "
6649:Al-Khazini
6630:Al-Zarqali
6464:world maps
6448:indicators
6431:orthogonal
6425:: Islamic
6418:Orthogonal
6404:and polar
6394:instrument
6392:Compendium
6338:Uzbekistan
6294:The first
6232:almucantar
6217:Uzbekistan
6060:refraction
6036:The first
5966:al-Battani
5932:Shah Jahan
5900:metallurgy
5752:devised a
5617:, and the
5520:, and the
5379:equatorial
5298:and eight
5296:gear train
5286:mechanical
5253:longitudes
5249:al-Andalus
5237:Equatorium
5230:Equatorium
5117:Al-Andalus
5113:apothecary
5075:Al-Andalus
5044:, England.
5007:mechanical
5005:The first
4964:navigation
4893:astrolabes
4832:See also:
4813:Shah Jahan
4758:Ali Qushji
4605:al-Zarqall
4408:telescopes
4365:Shah Jahan
4311:See also:
4242:See also:
4217:tradition.
4186:Ali Qushji
4088:Al-Ghazali
4066:to refute
3997:See also:
3989:of India.
3944:and other
3932:Al-Khazini
3851:Al-Battani
3827:brothers,
3766:Al-Andalus
3764:, such as
3750:See also:
3741:Astrolabic
3720:under the
3683:Mashayihei
3669:, Emperor
3648:equatorial
3609:Wannian Li
3581:Fu Mengchi
3539:Al-Hamdani
3535:Al-Battani
3512:al-Battani
3501:Yingtianli
3443:See also:
3429:axial tilt
3407:Uzbekistan
3384:Ibn Bajjah
3380:Andalusian
3324:school of
3313:Avicennian
3285:al-samawat
3281:al-kursiyy
3233:multiverse
3177:Copernicus
3115:al-Battani
2983:using the
2911:hypothesis
2804:See also:
2776:Al-Zarqali
2749:refraction
2717:Ibn Bajjah
2713:Maimonides
2681:al-Bitruji
2673:Ibn Tufail
2646:Al-Andalus
2634:Al-Majriti
2630:al-Andalus
2622:concentric
2591:Al-Andalus
2545:precession
2431:precession
2379:eccentrics
2360:kinematics
2293:physically
2112:divination
2058:See also:
1984:geocentric
1883:atmosphere
1868:Copernican
1682:Al-Ghazali
1606:See also:
1548:See also:
1503:axial tilt
1439:magnitudes
1274:algorithms
1215:and other
1161:until the
1143:Al-megiste
880:translated
756:See also:
579:multiverse
551:Al-Ghazali
479:Platonists
430:See also:
357:solar year
337:Christians
331:Background
305:almucantar
287:, such as
222:Al-Andalus
142:improve it
15114:cosmology
15109:mysticism
15087:Education
15027:cosmology
15022:Astronomy
14982:Astrology
14965:dialectic
14873:consensus
14868:Democracy
14783:Socialism
14750:Economics
14695:Arabesque
14483:Supernova
14438:Obliquity
14423:Moonlight
14323:Astrology
14202:Astrolabe
13981:Piri Reis
13971:al-Khafri
13940:al-Wafa'i
13925:Ulugh Beg
13905:Ali Kuşçu
13879:al-Jadiri
13798:al-Abhari
13596:al-Biruni
13530:Ibn Yunus
13505:Al-Qabisi
13480:al-Khazin
13389:Al-Mahani
13075:(1994b),
13067:: 115–141
13028:"Review:
12974:: 288–330
12899:Routledge
12827:: 145–163
12700:"Review:
12588:Centaurus
12580:: 237–255
12512:: 62–82,
12118:Routledge
11753:King 2002
11716:King 1997
11675:, p. 75,
11551:King 2002
11451:King 1983
11438:King 2004
11420:King 2003
11407:King 2005
11151:Hill 1991
11080:Centaurus
11053:: 1–23 ,
10920:Hill 1985
10831:Nasr 1993
10818:King 1983
10647:, p. 163.
10271:help page
9897:, p. 291.
9879:1432-0657
9841:1432-0657
9800:1432-0657
9711:ignored (
9456:Routledge
9351:Gill 2005
9309:Huff 2003
9081:Nasr 1993
8992:Nasr 1993
8467:Huff 2003
8454:Huff 2003
8376:Al-Abhath
8190:ignored (
8053:Centaurus
8025:Centaurus
7919:King 2002
7827:ignored (
7681:Huff 2003
7409:help page
7162:Aldebaran
6981:(c. 1029)
6975:(c. 1028)
6884:Samarqand
6838:In 1416,
6700:Ulugh Beg
6617:Ibn Yunus
6584:Albategni
6566:Algorismi
6562:Latinized
6547:(d. 796)
6462:-centred
6427:quadrants
6364:equinoxes
6334:Samarkand
6330:Ulugh Beg
6240:astrolabe
6213:Samarkand
6202:Ulugh Beg
6153:latitudes
6124:The sine
6088:quadrants
6078:Quadrants
6024:apertures
6020:moonlight
6016:intensity
5986:telescope
5970:al-Biruni
5768:prayers.
5567:Al-Jazari
5530:latitudes
5510:longitude
5451:astrolabe
5397:Al-Jazari
5395:In 1206,
5367:torquetum
5357:Torquetum
5345:torquetum
5211:latitudes
5071:astrolabe
5042:Cambridge
5034:astrolabe
4993:Ibn Yunus
4968:surveying
4932:Caliphate
4883:prayers.
4879:) or the
4852:astrolabe
4780:In 1577,
4750:Samarkand
4742:Ulugh Beg
4730:Samarkand
4722:Ulugh Beg
4601:Ibn Yunus
4517:al-Ma'mun
4428:universes
4410:. In the
4377:Ulugh Beg
4100:empirical
4042:and then
4040:Samarkand
4010:provided
3960:1450-1900
3928:Ibn Yunus
3849:included
3825:Banū Mūsā
3706:Astronomy
3687:Wu Bozong
3613:latitudes
3585:Fu Mezhai
3514:(858-929)
3471:Astronomy
3411:Ulugh Beg
3403:Samarkand
3182:Proclus's
3138:Samarkand
3131:al-Biruni
3085:empirical
3081:cosmology
2981:epicycles
2915:phenomena
2881:with the
2832:empirical
2742:Milky Way
2729:eccentric
2725:epicycles
2585:art from
2554:In 1070,
2519:Latinized
2489:Abu Said
2460:Aryabhata
2450:In 1030,
2415:Al-Biruni
2364:geometric
2356:cosmology
2305:empirical
2269:Latinized
2218:al-khabar
2193:being an
2136:Milky Way
2108:empirical
2090:empirical
2066:al-Farabi
2050:context.
1990:, noted:
1956:Aristotle
1946:1025-1450
1940:latitudes
1914:Milky Way
1885:, in the
1879:Aristotle
1843:apertures
1839:moonlight
1835:intensity
1816:reflects
1783:empirical
1749:brother,
1747:Banū Mūsā
1536:abbey at
1522:supernova
1516:observed
1475:astrolabe
1471:Ibn Yunus
1363:excentric
1337:obliquity
1176:Harmonica
1095:astronomy
1047:Al-Mansur
855:empirical
768:al-Biruni
738:afternoon
736:, in the
680:Christian
642:from the
612:empirical
464:empirical
289:Aldebaran
258:Byzantine
148:talk page
69:Bloodofox
28:Bloodofox
15049:Medicine
15012:Timeline
14960:Theology
14917:Quietism
14885:Feminism
14860:politics
14816:Timeline
14557:Maragheh
14508:Universe
14478:Sunlight
14443:Parallax
14433:Muwaqqit
14373:Ecliptic
14306:Concepts
14272:Quadrant
14192:Aperture
13707:Averroes
13677:Avempace
13621:Avicenna
13555:Nastulus
13545:al-Sijzi
13470:Al-Adami
13384:Al-Kindi
13146:(2007),
13100:(1999),
13017:New York
12927:: 7–55,
12871:citation
12788:citation
12729:citation
12709:Speculum
12685:citation
12664:New York
12213:(1993),
12101:(10): 74
12027:citation
12001:New York
11953:citation
11828:See also
11633:: 219–42
11332:citation
11293:(1991),
11128:citation
10966:citation
10884:citation
10845:(1950).
10678:citation
10555:citation
10462:Springer
10433:Springer
10404:Springer
9981:: 135-60
9962:, p. 306
9863:Springer
9825:Springer
9784:Springer
9700:citation
9500:Springer
9428:De spera
9289:citation
8865:citation
8599:cite web
8179:citation
7817:citation
7376:cite web
7005:) (1031)
6947:(c. 833)
6896:alhidade
6892:altitude
6840:al-Kashi
6822:quadrant
6754:Almagest
6739:" is an
6731:Almanacs
6681:) (1272)
6634:Arzachel
6611:(c. 964)
6574:(c. 830)
6539:(c. 750)
6402:alhidade
6384:Alhidade
6283:Sextants
6279:times."
6184:altitude
6180:latitude
6126:quadrant
6103:quadrant
6092:sextants
5881:seamless
5856:meridian
5732:latitude
5693:Damascus
5685:muwaqqit
5665:sundials
5658:Sundials
5538:alhidade
5534:ecliptic
5506:al-Kashi
5484:al-Kashi
5458:calendar
5411:and the
5383:ecliptic
5351:(Geber).
5322:volvelle
5315:Volvelle
5292:computer
5215:ecliptic
5205:Various
5135:Al-Sijzi
5102:Al-Sijzi
5094:latitude
4921:azimuths
4809:Jahangir
4776:in 1577.
4766:(1437).
4698:Maragheh
4556:Buwayhid
4533:meridian
4525:Damascus
4497:research
4491:, large
4485:director
4390:below).
4361:Jahangir
4359:, while
4126:Tadhkira
4086:such as
4044:Istanbul
4014:for the
3821:Arzachel
3744:quadrant
3656:decimals
3376:Avicenna
3297:al-qamar
3293:al-shams
3245:universe
3237:Qur'anic
3142:Istanbul
3123:Averroes
3119:Arzachel
3065:Damascus
2921:view of
2677:Averroes
2632:such as
2606:Averroes
2560:Avicenna
2543:and the
2532:Almagest
2491:al-Sijzi
2371:geometry
2333:al-‛âlam
2082:Averroes
2074:Avicenna
2008:Averroes
2004:al-Kindi
1980:paradigm
1968:physical
1921:nebulous
1891:parallax
1818:sunlight
1666:Al-Kindi
1618:universe
1538:St. Gall
1510:Egyptian
1479:eclipses
1397:values.
1395:Almagest
1383:parallax
1379:eclipses
1375:sidereal
1367:new moon
1341:ecliptic
1333:Almagest
1319:In 850,
1247:Damascus
1239:al-Mamun
1223:825-1025
1192:Assyrian
1188:Almagest
1155:Almagest
1151:Almagest
1118:Elements
1109:Almagest
1100:Almagest
1087:Almagest
1004:Sanskrit
980:Sanskrit
937:new moon
872:Sassanid
828:meridian
824:latitude
814:are the
812:vertices
788:ecliptic
691:new moon
653:scholars
575:universe
515:Muhammad
509:Several
501:writes:
422:method.
416:altitude
365:Athenian
349:Passover
297:alhidade
262:European
246:Sassanid
230:Far East
79:contribs
38:contribs
15061:Physics
14905:schools
14808:History
14798:Welfare
14778:Poverty
14768:Banking
14758:History
14735:Pottery
14710:Gardens
14413:Inertia
14403:Gravity
14338:Azimuth
14287:Sundial
14277:Sextant
14227:Dioptra
14217:Compass
14182:Alidade
13793:al-Urdi
13616:Alhazen
13540:Ma Yize
13485:al-Qūhī
13460:al-Sufi
13154:YouTube
12823:(1–2),
12668:Garland
12528:(ed.),
12183:: 64–69
12062:in 1882
12020:Chicago
10975:Mercury
10491:Arabica
9927:, p. 6.
8345:(2004).
8282:: 26–46
7904:, see (
7582:: 68–70
7226:Nashira
7190:Edasich
6962:Alhacen
6888:Azimuth
6876:sextant
6872:versine
6854:, the
6818:dioptra
6737:Almanac
6499:alidade
6487:compass
6483:sundial
6479:Baghdad
6413:Europe.
6406:sundial
6350:At the
6296:sextant
6277:Ottoman
6209:sextant
6176:Baghdad
6134:Baghdad
6038:optical
5896:Kashmir
5762:compass
5758:sundial
5728:Baghdad
5625:of the
5619:seconds
5615:minutes
5522:planets
5512:of the
5470:machine
5453:with a
5447:Isfahan
5425:gateway
5421:pointer
5403:, the "
5375:horizon
5308:machine
5265:planets
5239:was an
4982:, etc.
4956:Al-Sufi
4936:Ramadan
4929:Abbasid
4925:horizon
4923:on the
4897:Islamic
4869:Islamic
4848:Iranian
4844:Persian
4801:Humayun
4795:In the
4662:today.
4636:Isfahan
4630:It was
4613:Cordoba
4597:Baghdad
4573:Ptolemy
4545:planets
4529:Baghdad
4489:program
4353:Humayun
4321:In the
4264:(named
4250:Ottoman
4202:Safavid
4190:Mercury
4157:tajriba
4141:inertia
4068:Ptolemy
3675:Chinese
3630:at the
3605:almanac
3599:and an
3497:Ma Yize
3481:Ma Yize
3463:Abbasid
3388:Maragha
3334:Matalib
3322:Ash'ari
3318:atomism
3277:al-arsh
3253:Matalib
3221:Matalib
3101:testing
2977:Mercury
2947:physics
2751:in the
2689:Ptolemy
2614:Ptolemy
2595:Alcázar
2549:Ptolemy
2470:in his
2301:Ptolemy
2283:). The
2249:Ptolemy
2189:and of
2124:Mercury
2120:planets
2106:, used
1952:Ptolemy
1820:like a
1802:physics
1779:testing
1739:Baghdad
1642:Judaism
1568:Ptolemy
1564:Alhazen
1518:SN 1006
1487:Laplace
1461:Isfahan
1349:apogees
1339:of the
1270:algebra
1243:Baghdad
1233:Abbasid
1213:Persian
1196:Persian
1147:Western
1135:megiste
1105:Ptolemy
966:Impetus
958:700-825
931:610-700
842:History
792:horizon
784:Ptolemy
772:Persian
746:evening
730:sunrise
718:mosques
596:Ash'ari
547:Ash'ari
545:of the
527:eclipse
511:hadiths
438:Muslims
384:Ptolemy
301:azimuth
283:in the
242:Islamic
184:In the
15092:Ijazah
14972:Ethics
14763:Agency
14730:Poetry
14388:Galaxy
14383:Equant
14318:Apogee
14262:Octant
14039:Topics
13211:
13087:
12905:
12777:
12674:
12628:
12562:
12540:
12498:London
12265:
12247:
12225:
12124:
11937:
11349:, in (
11186:. 2005
10973:Text "
10907:Hassan
10872:, 2007
10796:
10768:
10716:
10685:Text "
10572:, in (
10468:
10439:
10410:
10381:
10353:
10322:
10296:: 1–28
10241:, in (
9877:
9839:
9798:
9745:
9689:Taipei
9667:
9634:
9601:
9506:
9232:BRIIFS
9045:UNESCO
8853:, 2004
8563:
8397:UNESCO
8168:
8126:Aleppo
8109:117–18
7900:. On
7783:
7768:
7710:
7695:
7508:
7434:
7335:
7248:, and
7218:Lesath
7210:Jabbah
7198:Gienah
7170:Altair
7158:Acamar
7019:(1070)
6866:, the
6812:: the
6766:Toledo
6741:Arabic
6710:(1437)
6601:Azophi
6056:Europe
5974:lenses
5924:Sindhi
5908:globes
5906:. All
5892:Lahore
5772:Globes
5709:gnomon
5669:Indian
5613:, the
5584:, and
5528:; the
5455:geared
5409:zodiac
5381:, and
5263:, and
5137:for a
5128:Zuraqi
4940:prayer
4913:Fazari
4903:. The
4891:Brass
4736:stamp.
4734:Soviet
4678:, and
4609:Toledo
4543:, and
4440:galaxy
4432:awalim
4395:Jesuit
4388:Globes
4268:) and
4064:comets
3981:, the
3977:: the
3969:, but
3835:, and
3823:, the
3772:, and
3768:, the
3710:Korean
3692:Huihui
3628:gnomon
3624:jianyi
3451:, and
3338:vacuum
3289:al-ard
3249:cosmos
3241:worlds
3187:Euclid
3158:comets
3027:equant
2989:equant
2963:nature
2937:only.
2927:linear
2923:motion
2824:equant
2772:Muladi
2768:Toledo
2745:galaxy
2666:revolt
2587:Toledo
2583:Muladi
2568:equant
2476:Indica
2375:equant
2331:hay'at
2220:) of "
2139:galaxy
2020:aether
1917:galaxy
1864:Witelo
1822:mirror
1652:. The
1443:colour
1405:Azophi
1343:, the
1323:wrote
1236:caliph
1217:Muslim
1202:, and
1171:Optics
1159:Europe
1113:Euclid
1066:chords
1044:Caliph
1012:Arabic
988:Arabic
944:Caliph
868:Indian
816:zenith
742:sunset
734:midday
675:Qur'an
673:. The
637:Arabic
583:worlds
487:reason
483:senses
459:tawhîd
442:Qur'an
345:Easter
303:, and
293:Altair
224:, and
14977:Logic
14950:Early
14932:State
14912:Peace
14793:Usury
14788:Trust
14725:Music
14453:Qibla
14242:Globe
14049:Works
11970:, in
11923:Paris
11049:(1),
11009:(1),
10498:(3),
10137:(PDF)
10083:(PDF)
9861:(1),
9823:(1),
9782:(1),
8584:(PDF)
8130:Syria
7902:zijes
7785:2:150
7781:Quran
7770:2:144
7766:Quran
7712:2:189
7708:Quran
7693:Quran
7554:(PDF)
7506:Quran
7264:Notes
7238:Rigel
7222:Mirak
7202:Hadar
7194:Furud
7186:Dabih
7174:Baham
7166:Algol
7146:stars
6833:Egypt
6774:Latin
6475:grids
6468:Qibla
6460:Mecca
6456:brass
6446:Qibla
6308:mural
6265:Syria
6244:Egypt
6206:mural
6192:Salah
6000:light
5982:Latin
5978:light
5912:seams
5860:globe
5766:Salah
5643:dials
5637:Dials
5627:stars
5611:hours
5607:dials
5603:clock
5586:stars
5542:ruler
5429:doors
5413:solar
5304:wired
5073:from
5011:gears
4980:Salah
4976:Qibla
4952:Qibla
4948:Mecca
4944:Salah
4901:qibla
4877:Mecca
4873:Qibla
4854:from
4805:Delhi
4748:, in
4577:stars
4471:as a
4357:Delhi
4339:India
4335:Hindu
4215:hay'a
4161:hissi
3718:Korea
3597:globe
3583:, or
3493:Taizu
3459:China
3269:qadir
3089:solar
3067:, in
2734:stars
2403:Earth
2337:hay'a
2327:, or
2289:hay'a
2285:hay'a
2273:hay'a
2210:falak
2116:stars
2046:in a
1972:hay'a
1960:hay'a
1926:. In
1924:stars
1895:earth
1860:solid
1771:Earth
1650:Islam
1526:Venus
1435:stars
1371:solar
1353:Latin
1204:Roman
1200:Greek
976:Greek
859:Islam
851:stars
830:(the
804:Salah
800:Mecca
740:, at
732:, at
714:Mecca
710:Kaaba
657:Islam
392:stars
382:used
369:Meton
361:circa
320:Islam
281:stars
234:India
14858:and
14687:Arts
13995:17th
13959:16th
13898:15th
13837:14th
13736:13th
13665:12th
13584:11th
13453:10th
13209:ISBN
13085:ISBN
12985:Isis
12903:ISBN
12884:help
12808:link
12801:help
12775:ISBN
12738:help
12691:link
12672:ISBN
12626:ISBN
12560:ISBN
12538:ISBN
12473:Isis
12442:Isis
12370:Isis
12322:Isis
12300:Isis
12263:ISBN
12245:ISBN
12223:ISBN
12122:ISBN
12047:link
12040:help
11966:help
11935:ISBN
11345:help
11137:help
11002:Isis
10979:help
10893:help
10794:ISBN
10766:ISBN
10714:ISBN
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10568:help
10466:ISBN
10458:1997
10437:ISBN
10429:1997
10408:ISBN
10400:1997
10379:ISBN
10351:ISBN
10320:ISBN
10002:Isis
9875:ISSN
9837:ISSN
9796:ISSN
9743:ISBN
9717:help
9665:ISBN
9632:ISBN
9599:ISBN
9504:ISBN
9496:1997
9432:Isis
9295:link
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9113:help
9067:help
9027:help
8874:help
8605:link
8561:ISBN
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8261:help
8196:help
8166:ISBN
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7841:help
7829:help
7697:9:36
7510:6:97
7432:ISBN
7382:link
7333:ISBN
7250:Vega
7246:Tarf
7242:Sadr
7234:Phad
7230:Okda
7214:Keid
7206:Izar
7182:Caph
7148:and
6870:and
6868:sine
6850:and
6485:and
6433:and
6420:and
6101:The
6090:and
6004:moon
5902:and
5894:and
5879:The
5850:and
5825:The
5810:The
5724:dial
5671:and
5645:for
5582:Moon
5540:and
5518:Moon
5516:and
5466:gear
5433:hour
5415:and
5343:The
5320:The
5300:gear
5257:Moon
5235:The
5152:The
5015:gear
4856:1208
4811:and
4756:and
4660:Iran
4611:and
4603:and
4541:Moon
4521:Iraq
4499:and
4363:and
4315:and
4276:and
4153:sath
4074:and
4026:and
3885:and
3815:and
3754:and
3694:Lifa
3650:and
3537:and
3469:and
3370:and
3366:The
3352:and
3330:void
3311:and
3140:and
3129:and
3121:and
2953:and
2818:and
2636:and
2501:and
2466:and
2429:and
2377:and
2311:and
2245:haya
2177:and
2165:as:
2153:and
2080:and
2034:and
1966:and
1870:and
1814:moon
1757:and
1718:time
1648:and
1624:and
1530:Moon
1493:and
1417:and
1373:and
1272:and
1245:and
1209:Arab
1186:The
1165:and
1034:and
1006:and
982:and
947:Umar
874:and
863:Arab
853:was
703:Hajj
557:and
467:data
390:and
388:moon
347:and
341:Jews
339:and
291:and
272:and
260:and
252:and
232:and
111:diff
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103:diff
91:diff
75:talk
34:talk
14856:Law
14111:Zij
13465:Ibn
13357:9th
13316:8th
13133:doi
13046:doi
13042:101
12994:doi
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12929:doi
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12718:doi
12648:doi
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12425:doi
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12166:doi
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11089:doi
11055:doi
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10667:doi
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10119:XXV
10062:XXV
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6878:of
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