Groundwater pollution: Difference between revisions

1157:|title=Impact to Underground Sources of Drinking Water and Domestic Wells from Production Well Stimulation and Completion Practices in the Pavillion, Wyoming, Field |journal=] |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=4524–36 |date=April 2016 |pmid=27022977 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b04970 |s2cid=206553782 |bibcode=2016EnST...50.4524D}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ellsworth WL |title=Injection-induced earthquakes |journal=] |volume=341 |issue=6142 |pages=1225942 |date=July 2013 |pmid=23846903 |doi=10.1126/science.1225942 |s2cid=206543048}}</ref> (], Canada). Within one kilometer of these specific sites, a subset of shallow drinking water consistently showed higher concentration levels of ], ], and ] concentrations than normal. An evaluation of higher ] and other noble gas concentration along with the rise of hydrocarbon levels supports the distinction between hydraulic fracturing fugitive gas and naturally occurring "background" ] content. This contamination is speculated to be the result of leaky, failing, or improperly installed gas well casings.<ref name="Vengosh">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vengosh A, Jackson RB, Warner N, Darrah TH, Kondash A |title=A critical review of the risks to water resources from unconventional shale gas development and hydraulic fracturing in the United States |journal=] |volume=48 |issue=15 |pages=8334–48 |date=2014 |pmid=24606408 |doi=10.1021/es405118y |s2cid=22857048 |bibcode=2014EnST...48.8334V}}</ref> 1149:|title=Impact to Underground Sources of Drinking Water and Domestic Wells from Production Well Stimulation and Completion Practices in the Pavillion, Wyoming, Field |journal=] |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=4524–36 |date=April 2016 |pmid=27022977 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b04970 |s2cid=206553782 |bibcode=2016EnST...50.4524D}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ellsworth WL |title=Injection-induced earthquakes |journal=] |volume=341 |issue=6142 |pages=1225942 |date=July 2013 |pmid=23846903 |doi=10.1126/science.1225942 |s2cid=206543048}}</ref> (], Canada). Within one kilometer of these specific sites, a subset of shallow drinking water consistently showed higher concentration levels of ], ], and ] concentrations than normal. An evaluation of higher ] and other noble gas concentration along with the rise of hydrocarbon levels supports the distinction between hydraulic fracturing fugitive gas and naturally occurring "background" ] content. This contamination is speculated to be the result of leaky, failing, or improperly installed gas well casings.<ref name="Vengosh">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vengosh A, Jackson RB, Warner N, Darrah TH, Kondash A |title=A critical review of the risks to water resources from unconventional shale gas development and hydraulic fracturing in the United States |journal=] |volume=48 |issue=15 |pages=8334–48 |date=2014 |pmid=24606408 |doi=10.1021/es405118y |s2cid=22857048 |bibcode=2014EnST...48.8334V}}</ref> 1439:|last6=Møller |first6=Klaus N. |last7=Sarr |first7=Mamadou |last8=Johnson |first8=C. Annette |date=2008-05-15 |title=Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Fluoride Contamination in Groundwaters |journal=] |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=3662–3668 |doi=10.1021/es071958y |pmid=18546705 |issn=0013-936X |bibcode=2008EnST...42.3662A |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Amini |first1=Manouchehr |last2=Abbaspour |first2=Karim C. |last3=Berg |first3=Michael |last4=Winkel |first4=Lenny |last5=Hug |first5=Stephan J. |last6=Hoehn |first6=Eduard |last7=Yang |first7=Hong |last8=Johnson |first8=C. Annette |date=2008-05-15 |title=Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater |journal=] |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=3669–75 |doi=10.1021/es702859e |pmid=18546706 |issn=0013-936X |bibcode=2008EnST...42.3669A |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Winkel |first1=Lenny |last2=Berg |first2=Michael |last3=Amini |first3=Manouchehr |last4=Hug |first4=Stephan J. |last5=Johnson |first5=C. Annette |title=Predicting groundwater arsenic contamination in Southeast Asia from surface parameters |journal=] |volume=1 |issue=8 |pages=536–42 |doi=10.1038/ngeo254 |year=2008 |bibcode=2008NatGe...1..536W |url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A5777}}</ref> This provides an efficient way of determining which wells should be tested.{{cn}} 1331:

1139}}</ref> Interactions between ] and surface water are complex. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. For example, many rivers and lakes are fed by groundwater. This means that damage to groundwater aquifers e.g. by ] or over abstraction, could therefore affect the rivers and lakes that rely on it. ] into ]al aquifers is an example of such interactions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Costall |first1=A. R. |last2=Harris |first2=B. D. |last3=Teo |first3=B. |last4=Schaa |first4=R. |last5=Wagner |first5=F. M. |last6=Pigois |first6=J. P. |date=2020 |title=Groundwater Throughflow and Seawater Intrusion in High Quality Coastal Aquifers |journal=] |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=9866 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-66516-6 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=7300005 |pmid=32555499 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.9866C}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Han |first1=D.M. |last2=Song |first2=X.F. |last3=Currell |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Yang |first4=J.L. |last5=Xiao |first5=G.Q. |date=2014 |title=Chemical and isotopic constraints on evolution of groundwater salinization in the coastal plain aquifer of Laizhou Bay, China |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169413007695 |journal=] |language=en |volume=508 |pages=12–27 |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.10.040 |bibcode=2014JHyd..508...12H}}</ref>

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1447:|last6=Møller |first6=Klaus N. |last7=Sarr |first7=Mamadou |last8=Johnson |first8=C. Annette |date=2008-05-15 |title=Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Fluoride Contamination in Groundwaters |journal=] |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=3662–3668 |doi=10.1021/es071958y |pmid=18546705 |issn=0013-936X |bibcode=2008EnST...42.3662A |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Amini |first1=Manouchehr |last2=Abbaspour |first2=Karim C. |last3=Berg |first3=Michael |last4=Winkel |first4=Lenny |last5=Hug |first5=Stephan J. |last6=Hoehn |first6=Eduard |last7=Yang |first7=Hong |last8=Johnson |first8=C. Annette |date=2008-05-15 |title=Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater |journal=] |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=3669–75 |doi=10.1021/es702859e |pmid=18546706 |issn=0013-936X |bibcode=2008EnST...42.3669A |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Winkel |first1=Lenny |last2=Berg |first2=Michael |last3=Amini |first3=Manouchehr |last4=Hug |first4=Stephan J. |last5=Johnson |first5=C. Annette |title=Predicting groundwater arsenic contamination in Southeast Asia from surface parameters |journal=] |volume=1 |issue=8 |pages=536–42 |doi=10.1038/ngeo254 |year=2008 |bibcode=2008NatGe...1..536W |url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A5777}}</ref> This provides an efficient way of determining which wells should be tested.{{cn 713:

consequence, arsenic-rich groundwater is often iron-rich, although secondary processes often obscure the association of dissolved arsenic and dissolved iron.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}. Arsenic is found in groundwater most commonly as the reduced species ] and the oxidized species arsenate, the acute toxicity of arsenite being somewhat greater than that of arsenate.<ref name="EAWAG2015">{{cite book |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Forschung/Menschen/Trinkwasser/Wrq/Handbook/geogenic-contamination-handbook.pdf |title=Geogenic Contamination Handbook - Addressing Arsenic and Fluoride in Drinking Water |last=EAWAG |veditors=Johnson CA, Brezler A |publisher=Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG) |date=2015 |access-date=March 19, 2017 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511010040/https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Forschung/Menschen/Trinkwasser/Wrq/Handbook/geogenic-contamination-handbook.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Investigations by WHO indicated that 20% of 25,000 boreholes tested in Bangladesh had arsenic concentrations exceeding 50 μg/L.<ref name="WHO2006" />

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groundwater drinkable: Safer siting of sanitation systems |vauthors=Wolf L, Nick A, Cronin A |date=2015 |publisher=Sustainable Sanitation Alliance Working Group 11}}</ref><ref name="Wolf2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wolf J, Prüss-Ustün A, Cumming O, Bartram J, Bonjour S, Cairncross S, Clasen T, Colford JM, Curtis V, De France J, Fewtrell L, Freeman MC, Gordon B, Hunter PR, Jeandron A, Johnston RB, Mäusezahl D, Mathers C, Neira M, Higgins JP |display-authors=6 |title=Assessing the impact of drinking water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease in low- and middle-income settings: systematic review and meta-regression |journal=] |volume=19 |issue=8 |pages=928–42 |date=August 2014 |pmid=24811732 |doi=10.1111/tmi.12331 |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/51912/1/Wolf_2014_Assessing_impact_of_drinking_water.pdf |s2cid=22903164 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Of the four ] types that are present in feces (], ], ], and ]s or helminth eggs), the first three can be commonly found in polluted groundwater, whereas the relatively large helminth eggs are usually filtered out by the soil matrix.{{cn}}

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PJ, Chalmers AT, Gray JL, Kolpin DW, Foreman WT, Wall GR |title=Combined sewer overflows: an environmental source of hormones and wastewater micropollutants |journal=] |volume=46 |issue=10 |pages=5336–43 |date=May 2012 |pmid=22540536 |pmc=3352270 |doi=10.1021/es3001294 |bibcode=2012EnST...46.5336P}}</ref> For example, detected concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in groundwater were in the order of 50 mg/L in several locations in Germany.<ref>{{cite thesis |vauthors=Winker M |title=Pharmaceutical residues in urine and potential risks related to usage as fertiliser in agriculture |date=2009 |type=PhD |publisher=] (TUHH), Hamburg, Germany |location=Hamburg |isbn=978-3-930400-41-6 |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1007}}</ref> This is because in conventional sewage treatment plants, micro-pollutants such as ], ] residues and other micro-pollutants contained in ] and ] are only partially removed and the remainder is discharged into surface water, from where it may also reach the groundwater.

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the passage in the soil, pathogens can die off or be adsorbed significantly, mostly depending on the travel time between the pit and the well.<ref>{{cite report |date=2006 |url=http://www.beuth.de/en/technical-rule/dvgw-w-101/92562980 |title=Guidelines on drinking water protection areas – Part 1: Groundwater protection areas |location=Bonn |publisher=Deutsche Vereinigung des Gas- und Wasserfaches e.V. |work=Technical rule number W101:2006-06}}</ref> Most, but not all pathogens die within 50 days of travel through the subsurface.<ref name="Nick_2012">{{cite web |vauthors=Nick A, Foppen JW, Kulabako R, Lo D, Samwel M, Wagner F, Wolf L |date=2012 |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/98 |title=Sustainable sanitation and groundwater protection |work=Factsheet of Working Group 11 |publisher=Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA)}}</ref>

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1245:] from sanitary ]s can lead to groundwater pollution. Chemicals can reach into ground water through precipitation and runoff. New landfills are required to be lined with clay or another synthetic material, along with leachate to protect surrounding ground water. However, older landfills do not have these measures and are often close to surface waters and in permeable soils. Closed landfills can still pose a threat to ground water if they are not capped by an impermeable material before closure to prevent leaking of contaminants.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Environmental Protection Agency |title=Getting up to Speed: Ground Water Contamination |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-08/documents/mgwc-gwc1.pdf |website=EPA |publisher=] |access-date=30 September 2019|author1-link=Environmental Protection Agency }}</ref> 1238:] from sanitary ]s can lead to groundwater pollution. Chemicals can reach into ground water through precipitation and runoff. New landfills are required to be lined with clay or another synthetic material, along with leachate to protect surrounding ground water. However, older landfills do not have these measures and are often close to surface waters and in permeable soils. Closed landfills can still pose a threat to ground water if they are not capped by an impermeable material before closure to prevent leaking of contaminants.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Environmental Protection Agency |title=Getting up to Speed: Ground Water Contamination |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-08/documents/mgwc-gwc1.pdf |website=EPA |publisher=] |access-date=30 September 2019|author1-link=Environmental Protection Agency }}</ref> 825:|issue=5 |pages=521–30 |date=May 2013 |pmid=23518813 |pmc=3673197 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1206028}}</ref> For example, the unsaturated zone becomes "washed" during extended periods of heavy rain, providing hydraulic pathway for the quick pass of pathogens.<ref name="WHO2006" /> It is difficult to estimate the safe distance between a pit latrine or a septic tank and a water source. In any case, such recommendations about the safe distance are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe. This results in groundwater pollution and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.{{cn}} 833:|issue=5 |pages=521–30 |date=May 2013 |pmid=23518813 |pmc=3673197 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1206028}}</ref> For example, the unsaturated zone becomes "washed" during extended periods of heavy rain, providing hydraulic pathway for the quick pass of pathogens.<ref name="WHO2006" /> It is difficult to estimate the safe distance between a pit latrine or a septic tank and a water source. In any case, such recommendations about the safe distance are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe. This results in groundwater pollution and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.{{cn 1179:

permeability of rocks overlying shale formations are too low to allow this to ever happen sufficiently.<ref name="Howarth">{{cite journal |vauthors=Howarth RW, Ingraffea A, Engelder T |title=Natural gas: Should fracking stop? |journal=] |volume=477 |issue=7364 |pages=271–5 |date=September 2011 |pmid=21921896 |doi=10.1038/477271a |s2cid=205067220 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011Natur.477..271H}}</ref> To ultimately prove this theory, there would have to be traces of toxic ]s (THM) since they are often associated with the presence of stray gas contamination, and typically co-occur with high halogen concentrations in hyper-saline waters.<ref name="Howarth" /> Besides, highly saline waters are a common natural feature in deep groundwater systems.{{cn}}

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627:|vauthors=DeSimone LA, Hamilton PA, Gilliom RJ |title=Quality of water from domestic wells in principal aquifers of the United States, 1991-2004: overview of major findings |date=2009 |publisher=] |location=Reston, VA |isbn=9781411323506 |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1332/includes/circ1332.pdf}}</ref> Another study suggested that the major groundwater pollution problems in Africa, considering the order of importance are: (1) nitrate pollution, (2) pathogenic agents, (3) organic pollution, (4) salinization, and (5) acid mine drainage.<ref name="Xu2006">{{cite book |veditors=Xu Y, Usher B |title=Groundwater pollution in Africa |date=2006 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-41167-7 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292226330}}</ref> 619:|vauthors=DeSimone LA, Hamilton PA, Gilliom RJ |title=Quality of water from domestic wells in principal aquifers of the United States, 1991-2004: overview of major findings |date=2009 |publisher=] |location=Reston, VA |isbn=9781411323506 |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1332/includes/circ1332.pdf}}</ref> Another study suggested that the major groundwater pollution problems in Africa, considering the order of importance are: (1) nitrate pollution, (2) pathogenic agents, (3) organic pollution, (4) salinization, and (5) acid mine drainage.<ref name="Xu2006">{{cite book |veditors=Xu Y, Usher B |title=Groundwater pollution in Africa |date=2006 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-41167-7 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292226330}}</ref> 295:|title=Bacteria and Their Effects on Ground-Water Quality |url=https://mi.water.usgs.gov/h2oqual/GWBactHOWeb.html |date=2017-01-04 |website=] |publisher=] (USGS) |location=Lansing, MI}}</ref><ref name="Occurrence and Distribution of Microbiological Contamination and Enteric Viruses in Shallow Ground Water in Baltimore and Harford Counties, Maryland">{{cite report |vauthors=Banks WS, Battigelli DA |title=Occurrence and Distribution of Microbiological Contamination and Enteric Viruses in Shallow Ground Water in Baltimore and Harford Counties, Maryland |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/wri01-4216/wrir-01-4216.pdf |date=2002 |publisher=] |location=Baltimore, MD |id=Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4216}}</ref> 287:|title=Bacteria and Their Effects on Ground-Water Quality |url=https://mi.water.usgs.gov/h2oqual/GWBactHOWeb.html |date=2017-01-04 |website=] |publisher=] (USGS) |location=Lansing, MI}}</ref><ref name="Occurrence and Distribution of Microbiological Contamination and Enteric Viruses in Shallow Ground Water in Baltimore and Harford Counties, Maryland">{{cite report |vauthors=Banks WS, Battigelli DA |title=Occurrence and Distribution of Microbiological Contamination and Enteric Viruses in Shallow Ground Water in Baltimore and Harford Counties, Maryland |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/wri01-4216/wrir-01-4216.pdf |date=2002 |publisher=] |location=Baltimore, MD |id=Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4216}}</ref> 3474: 1708: 3649: 4053: 3592: 3055: 4310: 3743:("Fracking") wells in the United States has raised concerns regarding its potential risks of contaminating groundwater resources. EPA, along with many other researchers, has been delegated to study the relationship between hydraulic fracturing and drinking water resources. While it is possible to perform hydraulic fracturing without having a relevant impact on groundwater resources if stringent controls and quality management measures are in place, there are a number of cases where groundwater pollution due to improper handling or technical failures was observed. 1529:</sup>However, no general statement should be made regarding the minimum lateral separation distances required to prevent contamination of a well from a pit latrine.<ref name="Wolf2015"/> For example, even 50 m lateral separation distance might not be sufficient in a strongly ]ified system with a downgradient supply well or spring, while 10 m lateral separation distance is completely sufficient if there is a well developed clay cover layer and the annular space of the groundwater well is well sealed.{{cn}} 1537:</sup>However, no general statement should be made regarding the minimum lateral separation distances required to prevent contamination of a well from a pit latrine.<ref name="Wolf2015"/> For example, even 50 m lateral separation distance might not be sufficient in a strongly ]ified system with a downgradient supply well or spring, while 10 m lateral separation distance is completely sufficient if there is a well developed clay cover layer and the annular space of the groundwater well is well sealed.{{cn 1266:] was one of the most widely known examples of groundwater pollution. In 1978, residents of the Love Canal neighborhood in upstate ] noticed high rates of ] and an alarming number of ]s. This was eventually traced to ] and ] from an industrial landfill that the neighborhood had been built over and around, which had then infiltrated into the water supply and evaporated in basements to further contaminate the air. Eight hundred families were reimbursed for their homes and moved, after extensive legal battles and media coverage.{{cn}} 1273:] was one of the most widely known examples of groundwater pollution. In 1978, residents of the Love Canal neighborhood in upstate ] noticed high rates of ] and an alarming number of ]s. This was eventually traced to ] and ] from an industrial landfill that the neighborhood had been built over and around, which had then infiltrated into the water supply and evaporated in basements to further contaminate the air. Eight hundred families were reimbursed for their homes and moved, after extensive legal battles and media coverage.{{cn 4631:

into groundwater aquifers which supply drinking water to at least a million residents and used in irrigation for crops in some of the richest farmland in the US. Aquifers are made up of sand and gravel that are separated by thin layers of clay which acts as a sponge that holds onto water and arsenic. When water is pumped intensively, the aquifer compresses and ground sinks which leads to the clay releasing arsenic. Study shows that aquifers contaminated as a result from over pumping, they can recover if withdrawals stop.

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safe distance between a pit latrine or a septic tank and a water source. In any case, such recommendations about the safe distance are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe. This results in groundwater pollution and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.

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additives are available which can remove pathogens, chlorine, bad taste, odors, and heavy metals like lead and mercury.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Pooi CK, Ng HY |date=December 2018 |title=Review of low-cost point-of-use water treatment systems for developing communities |journal=npj Clean Water |language=en |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=11 |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0011-0 |issn=2059-7037 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018npjCW...1...11P }}</ref>

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495:|first4=William T. |last5=Furlong |first5=Edward T. |date=2019-03-19 |title=Hormones and Pharmaceuticals in Groundwater Used As a Source of Drinking Water Across the United States |journal=] |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=2950–2960 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.8b05592 |pmid=30834750 |bibcode=2019EnST...53.2950B |issn=0013-936X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Popular pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, antidepressants, decongestants, 487:|first4=William T. |last5=Furlong |first5=Edward T. |date=2019-03-19 |title=Hormones and Pharmaceuticals in Groundwater Used As a Source of Drinking Water Across the United States |journal=] |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=2950–2960 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.8b05592 |pmid=30834750 |bibcode=2019EnST...53.2950B |issn=0013-936X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Popular pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, antidepressants, decongestants, 2699: 1748: 68: 965:

UN-Water Analytical Brief |last=UN-Water |date=2015 |access-date=2017-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130125232/http://www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/UN-Water_Analytical_Brief_Wastewater_Management.pdf |archive-date=2016-11-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Over application of animal ] may also result in groundwater pollution with ] derived from veterinary drugs.{{cn}}

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3630:(MCP) appears to be one of a few hazardous, persistent, soluble and mobile (it does not bind with minerals in soils) pesticides able to reach a drinking-water source. In general, more pesticide compounds are being detected as groundwater quality monitoring programs have become more extensive; however, much less monitoring has been conducted in developing countries due to the high analysis costs. 943:

anthropogenic nitrogen in groundwater worldwide.<ref name="suthar2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Suthar S, Bishnoi P, Singh S, Mutiyar PK, Nema AK, Patil NS |title=Nitrate contamination in groundwater of some rural areas of Rajasthan, India |journal=] |volume=171 |issue=1–3 |pages=189–99 |date=November 2009 |pmid=19545944 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.05.111}}</ref>

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name="static.azdeq.gov"/><ref>{{cite report |vauthors=Benotti MJ, Fisher SC, Terracciano SA |title=Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals in Shallow Ground Water of Suffolk County, New York, 2002–2005 |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1297/OFR2006-1297.pdf |date=September 2006 |publisher=] |location=Reston, VA |id=Open-File Report 2006–1297}}</ref>

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344:]s (VOCs) are a dangerous contaminant of groundwater. They are generally introduced to the environment through careless industrial practices. Many of these compounds were not known to be harmful until the late 1960s and it was some time before regular testing of groundwater identified these substances in drinking water sources.{{cn}} 351:]s (VOCs) are a dangerous contaminant of groundwater. They are generally introduced to the environment through careless industrial practices. Many of these compounds were not known to be harmful until the late 1960s and it was some time before regular testing of groundwater identified these substances in drinking water sources.{{cn 3177:(VOCs) are a dangerous contaminant of groundwater. They are generally introduced to the environment through careless industrial practices. Many of these compounds were not known to be harmful until the late 1960s and it was some time before regular testing of groundwater identified these substances in drinking water sources. 4498:

consumption of water from temporary water sources of unknown quality (mainly shallow wells) has resulted in large numbers of people suffering from water-borne diseases. In Tanzania, 23,900 children under the age of 5 are reported to die each year from dysentery and diarrhoea associated with drinking unsafe water.

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Arsenic removal filters (ARF) are dedicated technologies typically installed to remove arsenic. Many of these technologies require a capital investment and long-term maintenance. Filters in Bangladesh are usually abandoned by the users due to their high cost and complicated maintenance, which is also

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The stratigraphy of the area plays an important role in the transport of pollutants. An area can have layers of sandy soil, fractured bedrock, clay, or hardpan. Areas of karst topography on limestone bedrock are sometimes vulnerable to surface pollution from groundwater. Earthquake faults can also be

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The degree of pathogen removal strongly varies with soil type, aquifer type, distance and other environmental factors. For example, the unsaturated zone becomes "washed" during extended periods of heavy rain, providing hydraulic pathway for the quick pass of pathogens. It is difficult to estimate the

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The degree of pathogen removal strongly varies with soil type, aquifer type, distance and other environmental factors.<ref name="Graham2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Graham JP, Polizzotto ML |title=Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review |journal=] |volume=121

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Factors controlling the fate and transport of pathogens are quite complex and the interaction among them is not well understood.<ref name="WHO2006" /> If the local hydrogeological conditions (which can vary within a space of a few square kilometers) are ignored, simple on-site ] infrastructures

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Other organic pollutants include a range of ]s and other chemical compounds, ] ]s, various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and ] products, drug pollution involving ]s and their metabolites. Inorganic pollutants might include other nutrients such as ] and ], and ]s such as ] (U) or ] (Rn)

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Trace amounts of ] from treated wastewater infiltrating into the aquifer are among emerging ground-water contaminants being studied throughout the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bexfield |first1=Laura M. |last2=Toccalino |first2=Patricia L. |last3=Belitz |first3=Kenneth |last4=Foreman

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Intensive pumping in San Joaquin county, California, has resulted in arsenic pollution. San Joaquin county has faced serious intensive pumping which has caused the ground below San Joaquin to sink and in turn damaged infrastructure. This intensive pumping into groundwater has allowed arsenic to move

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It refers to the capture areas around an individual groundwater source, such as a water well or a spring, to especially protect them from pollution. Thus, potential sources of degradable pollutants, such as pathogens, can be located at distances which travel times along the flowpaths are long enough

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Herbicide use can contribute to groundwater contamination through arsenic infiltration. Herbicides contribute to arsenic desorption through mobilization and transportation of the contaminant. Chlorinated herbicides exhibit a lower impact on arsenic desorption than phosphate type herbicides. This can

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spreading. This is because only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to produce and other plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or lost as run-off. High application rates of nitrogen-containing fertilizers combined with the high water-solubility of nitrate leads to

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Liquids leach from the pit and pass the unsaturated soil zone (which is not completely filled with water). Subsequently, these liquids from the pit enter the groundwater where they may lead to groundwater pollution. This is a problem if a nearby ] is used to supply groundwater for ] purposes. During

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tranquilizers, etc. are normally found in treated wastewater.<ref name="static.azdeq.gov">{{cite web |url=http://static.azdeq.gov/wqd/apec_emerging_cont_final.pdf |title=Emerging Contaminants In Arizona Water |date=September 2016 |page=4.3.1}}</ref> This wastewater is discharged from the

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In India the government has proceeded to promote sanitation development in order to combat the rise in ground water contamination in several regions of the country. The effort has proved to show results and has decreased the groundwater pollution and has decreased the chance of sickness for mothers

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Pollutants and contaminants can be removed from ground water by applying various techniques thereby making it safe for use. Ground water treatment (or remediation) techniques span biological, chemical, and physical treatment technologies. Most ground water treatment techniques utilize a combination

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can lead to groundwater pollution. Chemicals can reach into ground water through precipitation and runoff. New landfills are required to be lined with clay or another synthetic material, along with leachate to protect surrounding ground water. However, older landfills do not have these measures and

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While conclusions regarding groundwater pollution as the result to hydraulic fracturing fluid flow is restricted in both space and time, researchers have hypothesized that the potential for systematic stray gas contamination depends mainly on the integrity of the shale oil/gas well structure, along

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1212:

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The treated effluent from ]s may also reach the aquifer if the effluent is infiltrated or discharged to local surface water bodies. Therefore, those substances that are not removed in conventional sewage treatment plants may reach the groundwater as well.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Phillips

908:

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Preparation of the vulnerability maps typically involves overlaying several thematic maps of physical factors that have been selected to describe the aquifer vulnerability. The index-based parametric mapping method GOD developed by Foster and Hirata (1988) uses three generally available or readily

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is a highly utilized solvent in the dry cleaning industry because of its cleaning effectiveness and relatively low cost. It has also been used for metal-degreasing operations. Because it is highly volatile, it is more frequently found in groundwater than in surface water. TCE has historically been

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Groundwater pollution can be caused by untreated waste discharge leading to diseases like skin lesions, bloody diarrhea and dermatitis. This is more common in locations having limited wastewater treatment infrastructure, or where there are systematic failures of the on-site sewage disposal system.

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has recently developed the interactive Groundwater Assessment Platform (GAP), where the geogenic risk of contamination in a given area can be estimated using geological, topographical and other environmental data without having to test samples from every single groundwater resource. This tool also

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There is an increasing concern over the groundwater pollution by gasoline leaked from petroleum ]s (USTs) of ].<ref name="WHO2006" /> BTEX compounds are the most common additives of the gasoline. BTEX compounds, including benzene, have densities lower than water (1 g/mL). Similar to

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The natural arsenic pollution occurs because aquifer sediments contain organic matter that generates ] conditions in the aquifer. These conditions result in the microbial dissolution of ]s in the sediment and, thus, the release of the ], normally strongly bound to iron oxides, into the water. As a

704:

452:

Organic pollutants can also be found in groundwater as ] and ]. As many other synthetic organic compounds, most pesticides have very complex molecular structures. This complexity determines the water solubility, adsorption capacity, and mobility of pesticides in the groundwater system. Thus, some

444:

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The lack of proper sanitation measures, as well as improperly placed ], can lead to drinking water contaminated with ] carried in ] and ]. Such ] diseases include ], ] and ].<ref name="Wolf2015">{{cite book |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2155 |title=How to keep your

252:

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from an industrial landfill that the neighborhood had been built over and around, which had then infiltrated into the water supply and evaporated in basements to further contaminate the air. Eight hundred families were reimbursed for their homes and moved, after extensive legal battles and media

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formations. While the damage can be obvious, and much more effort is being done to prevent these accidents from occurring so frequently, the lack of data from fracking oil spills continue to leave researchers in the dark. In many of these events, the data acquired from the leakage or spillage is

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Groundwater pollution is a worldwide issue. A study of the groundwater quality of the principal aquifers of the United States conducted between 1991 and 2004, showed that 23% of domestic wells had contaminants at levels greater than human-health benchmarks. Another study suggested that the major

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Scientists have developed methods by which hazard maps could be produced for geogenic toxic substances in groundwater.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Amini |first1=Manouchehr |last2=Mueller |first2=Kim |last3=Abbaspour |first3=Karim C. |last4=Rosenberg |first4=Thomas |last5=Afyuni |first5=Majid

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Other organic pollutants present in groundwater and derived from industrial operations are the ]s (PAHs). Due to its molecular weight, ] is the most soluble and mobile PAH found in groundwater, whereas ] is the most toxic one. PAHs are generally produced as byproducts by incomplete combustion of

410:

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As a very general guideline it is recommended that the bottom of the pit should be at least 2 m above groundwater level, and a minimum horizontal distance of 30 m between a pit and a water source is normally recommended to limit exposure to microbial contamination.However, no general

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strata due to their high surface area to volume ratio relative to sand-sized particles. Most pumped groundwater travels through sands and gravels with low arsenic concentration. However, during over-pumping, a high vertical gradient pulls water from less-permeable clays, thus promoting arsenic

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As a very general guideline it is recommended that the bottom of the pit should be at least 2 m above groundwater level, and a minimum horizontal distance of 30 m between a pit and a water source is normally recommended to limit exposure to microbial contamination.<sup>

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As a very general guideline it is recommended that the bottom of the pit should be at least 2 m above groundwater level, and a minimum horizontal distance of 30 m between a pit and a water source is normally recommended to limit exposure to microbial contamination.<sup>

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Furthermore, it is theorized that contamination could also result from the ] of deep residual hyper-saline water and hydraulic fracturing fluid, slowly flowing through faults and fractures until finally making contact with ];<ref name="Vengosh" /> however, many researchers argue that the

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Feedlots/animal corrals can also lead to the potential leaching of nitrogen and metals to groundwater.<ref name="UNWATER2015">{{cite web |url=http://www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/UN-Water_Analytical_Brief_Wastewater_Management.pdf |title=Wastewater Management - A

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Sufficient investment should be given to continue monitoring over the long term. When a problem is found, action should be taken to correct it. Waterborne outbreaks in the United States decreased with the introduction of more stringent monitoring (and treatment) requirements in the early 90s.

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may also reach the aquifer if the effluent is infiltrated or discharged to local surface water bodies. Therefore, those substances that are not removed in conventional sewage treatment plants may reach the groundwater as well. For example, detected concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in

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and children who were mainly affected by this issue. This was something greatly needed as according to the study, over 117,000 children under five die every year due to consuming polluted water. The countries effort has seen success in the more economically developed sections of the country.

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In Tanzania, many residents rely on groundwater sources, mainly from shallow on-site wells, for drinking and other domestic purposes. The cost of the official water supply has resulted in many households relying on private wells rather than Babati's urban water and sanitation facilities. The

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Portable water purification devices or "point-of-use" (POU) water treatment systems and field water disinfection techniques can be used to remove some forms of groundwater pollution prior to drinking, namely any fecal pollution. Many commercial portable water purification systems or chemical

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As the health effects of most toxic chemicals arise after prolonged exposure, risk to health from chemicals is generally lower than that from pathogens. Thus, the quality of the source protection measures is an important component in controlling whether pathogens may be present in the final

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The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater. The heavy use of nitrogenous fertilizers in cropping systems is the largest contributor to

3433:, normally strongly bound to iron oxides, into the water. As a consequence, arsenic-rich groundwater is often iron-rich, although secondary processes often obscure the association of dissolved arsenic and dissolved iron.. Arsenic is found in groundwater most commonly as the reduced species 3316:

from treated wastewater infiltrating into the aquifer are among emerging ground-water contaminants being studied throughout the United States. Popular pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, antidepressants, decongestants, tranquilizers, etc. are normally found in treated

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882:

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Deep, confined aquifers are usually considered the safest source of drinking water with respect to pathogens. Pathogens from treated or untreated wastewater can contaminate certain, especially shallow, aquifers.<ref name="Bacteria and Their Effects on Ground-Water Quality">{{cite web

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Although interrelated, ] and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources.<ref name="circ1139">{{cite web |work=] |location=Denver, CO |date=1998 |url=http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/circ1139/ |title=Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource. |id=Circular

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Despite the EPA's lack of profound widespread evidence, other researchers have made significant observations of rising groundwater contamination in close proximity to major shale oil/gas drilling sites located in ]<ref name="digiulio">{{cite journal |vauthors=DiGiulio DC, Jackson RB

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The peri-urban areas of Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, have ground conditions which are strongly karstified and for this reason – together with the increasing population density in these peri-urban areas – pollution of water wells from pit latrines is a major public health threat there.

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Runoff of pesticides may leach into groundwater causing human health problems from contaminated water wells. Pesticide concentrations found in groundwater are typically low, and often the regulatory human health-based limits exceeded are also very low. The organophosphorus insecticide

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Ore mining and metal processing facilities are the primary responsible of the presence of metals in groundwater of anthropogenic origin, including arsenic. The low pH associated with ] contributes to the solubility of potential toxic metals that can eventually enter the groundwater

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Trace amounts of pharmaceuticals in both groundwater and surface water are far below what is considered dangerous or of concern in most areas, but it could be an increasing problem as population grows and more reclaimed wastewater is utilized for municipal water supplies.<ref

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Nitrate is the most common chemical contaminant in the world's groundwater and aquifers. In some low-income countries, nitrate levels in groundwater are extremely high, causing significant health problems. It is also stable (it does not degrade) under high oxygen conditions.

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A spill or ongoing release of chemical or ] contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic ]. The movement of the plume, may be analyzed through a ] or

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Primary VOC pollutants found in groundwater include ]s such as ] compounds (], ], ] and ]s), and chlorinated solvents including ] (PCE), ] (TCE), and ] (VC). BTEX are important components of ]. PCE and TCE are industrial solvents used in ] processes and as a metal degreaser,

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into groundwater, thereby causing groundwater pollution. The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached.

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4079:, is important in protecting groundwater resources from pollution. The precautionary principle provides that "where there are threats of irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent 4145:

can play an important role in retarding (and in some cases eliminating) pathogens and so must be considered when assessing aquifer vulnerability. The biological activity is greatest in the top soil layers where the attenuation of pathogens is generally most effective.

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and surface water are complex. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. For example, many rivers and lakes are fed by groundwater. This means that damage to groundwater aquifers e.g. by

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The migration of metals (and metalloids) in groundwater will be affected by several factors, in particular by chemical reactions which determine the partitioning of contaminants among different phases and species. Thus, the mobility of metals primarily depends on the

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Analytical methods using equations to define groundwater flow and contaminant transport are the most widely used. The WHPA is a semi-analytical groundwater flow simulation program developed by the US EPA for delineating capture zones in a wellhead protection area.

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The ] (EPA) and the ] are seriously dealing with the nitrate problem related to agricultural development, as a major water supply problem that requires appropriate management and governance.<ref name="GEF" /><ref>{{cite EU directive |serial=91/676/EEC

998:

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Groundwater quality monitoring programs have been implemented regularly in many countries around the world. They are important components to understand the hydrogeological system, and for the development of conceptual models and aquifer vulnerability maps.

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Factors controlling the fate and transport of pathogens are quite complex and the interaction among them is not well understood. If the local hydrogeological conditions (which can vary within a space of a few square kilometers) are ignored, simple on-site

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Groundwater quality must be regularly monitored across the aquifer to determine trends. Effective groundwater monitoring should be driven by a specific objective, for example, a specific contaminant of concern. Contaminant levels can be compared to the

3809:(THM) since they are often associated with the presence of stray gas contamination, and typically co-occur with high halogen concentrations in hyper-saline waters. Besides, highly saline waters are a common natural feature in deep groundwater systems. 60: 3720:

Although non-miscible, both LNAPLs and DNAPLs still have the potential to slowly dissolve into the aqueous (miscible) phase to create a plume and thus become a long-term source of contamination. DNAPLs (chlorinated solvents, heavy PAHs, creosote,

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Groundwater pollution with pathogens and nitrate can also occur from the liquids infiltrating into the ground from on-site ] systems such as ]s and ]s, depending on the population density and the hydrogeological conditions.<ref name="Wolf2015"

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Though widespread, systematic contamination by hydraulic fracturing has been heavily disputed, one major source of contamination that has the most consensus among researchers of being the most problematic is site-specific accidental spillage of

3250:. As many other synthetic organic compounds, most pesticides have very complex molecular structures. This complexity determines the water solubility, adsorption capacity, and mobility of pesticides in the groundwater system. Thus, some types of 3841:

conducted a model study for a deep shale-gas formation in the North German Basin. They concluded that the probability is small that the rise of fracking fluids through the geological underground to the surface will impact shallow groundwater.

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High concentrations of parameters like salinity, iron, manganese, uranium, radon and chromium, in groundwater, may also be of geogenic origin. This contaminants can be important locally but they are not as widespread as arsenic and fluoride.

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purposes. During the passage in the soil, pathogens can die off or be adsorbed significantly, mostly depending on the travel time between the pit and the well. Most, but not all pathogens die within 50 days of travel through the subsurface.

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and the oxidized species arsenate, the acute toxicity of arsenite being somewhat greater than that of arsenate. Investigations by WHO indicated that 20% of 25,000 boreholes tested in Bangladesh had arsenic concentrations exceeding 50 μg/L.

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entry routes for downward contaminant entry. Water table conditions are of great importance for drinking water supplies, agricultural irrigation, waste disposal (including nuclear waste), wildlife habitat, and other ecological issues.

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statement should be made regarding the minimum lateral separation distances required to prevent contamination of a well from a pit latrine. For example, even 50 m lateral separation distance might not be sufficient in a strongly

7929:

Mukherjee, Abhijit; Duttagupta, Srimanti; Chattopadhyay, Siddhartha; Bhanja, Soumendra Nath; Bhattacharya, Animesh; Chakraborty, Swagata; Sarkar, Soumyajit; Ghosh, Tilottama; Bhattacharya, Jayanta; Sahu, Sohini (October 23, 2019).

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system with a downgradient supply well or spring, while 10 m lateral separation distance is completely sufficient if there is a well developed clay cover layer and the annular space of the groundwater well is well sealed.

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If treatment or remediation of the polluted groundwater is deemed to be too difficult or expensive, then abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water is the only other option.

3664:. BTEX compounds are the most common additives of the gasoline. BTEX compounds, including benzene, have densities lower than water (1 g/mL). Similar to the oil spills on the sea, the non-miscible phase, referred to as 4229:

On-site sanitation systems can be designed in such a way that groundwater pollution from these sanitation systems is prevented from occurring. Detailed guidelines have been developed to estimate safe distances to protect

4125:

The development of land-use zoning maps has been implemented by several water authorities at different scales around the world. There are two types of zoning maps: aquifer vulnerability maps and source protection maps.

3805:; however, many researchers argue that the permeability of rocks overlying shale formations are too low to allow this to ever happen sufficiently. To ultimately prove this theory, there would have to be traces of toxic 2911:

Contaminants found in groundwater cover a broad range of physical, inorganic chemical, organic chemical, bacteriological, and radioactive parameters. Principally, many of the same pollutants that play a role in surface

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partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity; however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to

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The linkages between nitrates in drinking water and blue baby syndrome have been disputed in other studies. The syndrome outbreaks might be due to other factors than elevated nitrate concentrations in drinking water.

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Techniques include boiling, filtration, activated charcoal absorption, chemical disinfection, ultraviolet purification, ozone water disinfection, solar water disinfection, solar distillation, homemade water filters.

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are often close to surface waters and in permeable soils. Closed landfills can still pose a threat to ground water if they are not capped by an impermeable material before closure to prevent leaking of contaminants.

3765:

3124:

7932:"Impact of sanitation and socio-economy on groundwater fecal pollution and human health towards achieving sustainable development goals across India from ground-observations and satellite-derived nightlight" 1624:

1616:

4577:'s standards for drinking water. As a result, individuals who are exposed suffer from diseases that affect their dermal, neurological, reproductive and cognitive functioning, and can even result in cancer. 3477:

A traditional housing compound near Herat, Afghanistan, where a shallow water supply well (foreground) is in close proximity to the pit latrine (behind the white greenhouse) leading to contamination of the

2895:, groundwater quality monitoring, land zoning for groundwater protection, locating on-site sanitation systems correctly and applying legislation. When pollution has occurred, management approaches include 5145: 6624:

Vengosh A, Jackson RB, Warner N, Darrah TH, Kondash A (2014). "A critical review of the risks to water resources from unconventional shale gas development and hydraulic fracturing in the United States".

7480: 6521:

DiGiulio DC, Jackson RB (April 2016). "Impact to Underground Sources of Drinking Water and Domestic Wells from Production Well Stimulation and Completion Practices in the Pavillion, Wyoming, Field".

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groundwater pollution problems in Africa, considering the order of importance are: (1) nitrate pollution, (2) pathogenic agents, (3) organic pollution, (4) salinization, and (5) acid mine drainage.

5831: 4201:

There is a particular debate among hydrogeologists as to whether aquifer vulnerability should be established in a general (intrinsic) way for all contaminants, or specifically for each pollutant.

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Scientists have developed methods by which hazard maps could be produced for geogenic toxic substances in groundwater. This provides an efficient way of determining which wells should be tested.

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It refers to the intrinsic (or natural) vulnerability of a groundwater system to pollution. Intrinsically, some aquifers are more vulnerable to pollution than other aquifers. Shallow unconfined

15: 6121: 5386: 3705:. Once they reach the aquifer, they will "sink" and eventually accumulate on the top of low-permeability layers. Historically, wood-treating facilities have also release insecticides such as 7090: 4303: 1221:

with its relative geological location to local fracture systems that could potentially provide flow paths for fugitive gas migration.<ref name="Vengosh" /><ref name="Howarth" />

1213:

with its relative geological location to local fracture systems that could potentially provide flow paths for fugitive gas migration.<ref name="Vengosh" /><ref name="Howarth" />

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system.<ref name="Graham2013" /> Along with pathogens and nutrients, untreated sewage can also have an important load of heavy metals that may seep into the groundwater system.{{cn}}

883:

system.<ref name="Graham2013" /> Along with pathogens and nutrients, untreated sewage can also have an important load of heavy metals that may seep into the groundwater system.{{cn

7043: 6297:

Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources

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Groundwater pollution can also occur from leaking sewers which has been observed for example in Germany. This can also lead to potential cross-contamination of drinking-water supplies.

6180: 3641:

Ore mining and metal processing facilities are the primary responsible of the presence of metals in groundwater of anthropogenic origin, including arsenic. The low pH associated with

3137:

Elevated nitrate levels in groundwater can be caused by on-site sanitation, sewage sludge disposal and agricultural activities. It can therefore have an urban or agricultural origin.

2467: 7587: 7882: 2646: 5314: 3790:

and other noble gas concentration along with the rise of hydrocarbon levels supports the distinction between hydraulic fracturing fugitive gas and naturally occurring "background"

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Several trace metals occur naturally in certain rock formations and can enter in the environment from natural processes such as weathering. However, industrial activities such as

2828:

and surface water, such as seeps and springs, making the water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a

2641: 7831: 5302: 5388:

Integration of Groundwater Management into Transboundary Basin Organizations in Africa: Groundwater Hazards - a Training Manual by AGW-Net, BGR, IWMI, CapNet, ANBO, & IGRAC

4569:. The arsenic levels are up to 4730 μg/L in the groundwater, ~1000 μg/L in irrigation water, and up to 3947 μg/kg in food materials all of which all exceed the 5472:"Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption, ANNEX I: PARAMETERS AND PARAMETRIC VALUES, PART B: Chemical parameters" 2761:

can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant, or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as

6801: 8227: 4032:

contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic

3121:

or helminth eggs), the first three can be commonly found in polluted groundwater, whereas the relatively large helminth eggs are usually filtered out by the soil matrix.

147: 4245:

Guideline values for horizontal separation distances between on-site sanitation systems and water sources vary widely (e.g. 15 to 100 m horizontal distance between

3622:

are seriously dealing with the nitrate problem related to agricultural development, as a major water supply problem that requires appropriate management and governance.

1007:|eurlextag=31991L0676|description=concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources |date=12 December 1991}}</ref> 999:|eurlextag=31991L0676|description=concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources |date=12 December 1991}}</ref> 4162:

epth to groundwater. A further approach developed by EPA, a rating system named "DRASTIC", employs seven hydrogeological factors to develop an index of vulnerability:

3652:

Oil spills associated with underground pipelines and tanks can release benzene and other soluble petroleum hydrocarbons that rapidly percolate down into the aquifer.

3457: 2824:. Movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the pollutant over a wider area. Its advancing boundary, often called a plume edge, can intersect with 4997: 3317:

wastewater. This wastewater is discharged from the treatment facility, and often makes its way into the aquifer or source of surface water used for drinking water.

4217:

The simplest form of zoning employs fixed-distance methods where activities are excluded within a uniformly applied specified distance around abstraction points.

7187: 5154: 3838: 3536:

groundwater were in the order of 50 mg/L in several locations in Germany. This is because in conventional sewage treatment plants, micro-pollutants such as

3747: 4662:. Trichlorethylene levels were detected as high as 128 times higher than the states safe limit for drinking water and Hydrazine was found in 2 nearby wells. 4294:

Institutional and legal issues are critical in determining the success or failure of groundwater protection policies and strategies. In the United States the

3914:

Groundwater pollution can be caused by chemical spills from commercial or industrial operations, chemical spills occurring during transport (e.g. spillage of

7305:

Amini, Manouchehr; Mueller, Kim; Abbaspour, Karim C.; Rosenberg, Thomas; Afyuni, Majid; Møller, Klaus N.; Sarr, Mamadou; Johnson, C. Annette (May 15, 2008).

6260:

Suthar S, Bishnoi P, Singh S, Mutiyar PK, Nema AK, Patil NS (November 2009). "Nitrate contamination in groundwater of some rural areas of Rajasthan, India".

3714: 6465:"Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)" 6422:

Jackson, Robert B.; Vengosh, Avner; Carey, J. William; Davies, Richard J.; Darrah, Thomas H.; O'Sullivan, Francis; Pétron, Gabrielle (October 17, 2014).

5840: 5344: 3449:. Considerably high concentrations of fluoride in groundwater are typically caused by a lack of calcium in the aquifer. Health problems associated with 585:

naturally present in some geological formations. ] is also an example of natural contamination, but is very often intensified by human activities.{{cn}}

6826:

Pfunt H, Houben G, Himmelsbach T (2016). "Numerical modeling of fracking fluid migration through fault zones and fractures in the North German Basin".

6504:

Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)

5245:"Assessing the impact of drinking water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease in low- and middle-income settings: systematic review and meta-regression" 7364:

Amini, Manouchehr; Abbaspour, Karim C.; Berg, Michael; Winkel, Lenny; Hug, Stephan J.; Hoehn, Eduard; Yang, Hong; Johnson, C. Annette (May 15, 2008).

593:

naturally present in some geological formations. ] is also an example of natural contamination, but is very often intensified by human activities.{{cn

3750:, this may be due to insufficient systematic pre- and post- hydraulic fracturing data on drinking water quality, and the presence of other agents of 3608: 6128: 5395: 5323:

Occurrence and Distribution of Microbiological Contamination and Enteric Viruses in Shallow Ground Water in Baltimore and Harford Counties, Maryland

7097: 6489: 4590: 3961:

The passage of water through the subsurface can provide a reliable natural barrier to contamination but it only works under favorable conditions.

3801:

of deep residual hyper-saline water and hydraulic fracturing fluid, slowly flowing through faults and fractures until finally making contact with

90: 3950:

help to prevent arsenic contamination through choosing herbicides appropriate for different concentrations of arsenic present in certain soils.

3528:

Along with pathogens and nutrients, untreated sewage can also have an important load of heavy metals that may seep into the groundwater system.

28: 7785: 7594: 4076: 3774:, Canada). Within one kilometer of these specific sites, a subset of shallow drinking water consistently showed higher concentration levels of 2651: 3615: 3307: 4107:(WHO) guidelines for drinking-water quality. It is not rare that limits of contaminants are reduced as more medical experience is gained. 1052:

A wide variety of both inorganic and organic pollutants have been found in aquifers underlying commercial and industrial activities.{{cn}}

8134: 5252: 4376:

Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen

2729: 2417: 8055: 5549:"Does the evidence about health risks associated with nitrate ingestion warrant an increase of the nitrate standard for drinking water?" 4673:

In the year 2000, groundwater pollution occurred in the small town of Walkerton, Canada leading to seven deaths in what is known as the

4397:

is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural

2871:

The interaction of groundwater contamination with surface waters is analyzed by use of hydrology transport models. Interactions between

1131:

the oil spills on the sea, the non-miscible phase, referred to as ], will "float" upon the ] in the aquifer.<ref name="WHO2006" />

1123:

the oil spills on the sea, the non-miscible phase, referred to as ], will "float" upon the ] in the aquifer.<ref name="WHO2006" />

1059:

A wide variety of both inorganic and organic pollutants have been found in aquifers underlying commercial and industrial activities.{{cn

6428: 3713:

into the environment, impacting the groundwater resources. PCP is a highly soluble and toxic obsolete pesticide recently listed in the

69: 6358: 3813:

with its relative geological location to local fracture systems that could potentially provide flow paths for fugitive gas migration.

4441:, carbon absorption, aqueous chemical oxidation, and surfactant-enhanced recovery. Some chemical techniques may be implemented using 3638:

A wide variety of both inorganic and organic pollutants have been found in aquifers underlying commercial and industrial activities.

6744:"Elevated levels of diesel range organic compounds in groundwater near Marcellus gas operations are derived from surface activities" 2999:

with elevated concentrations." Fluoride can especially be released from acidic volcanic rocks and dispersed volcanic ash when water

7086: 3603:

Feedlots/animal corrals can also lead to the potential leaching of nitrogen and metals to groundwater. Over application of animal

155: 86: 7215: 4953: 4492: 3864:

was one of the most widely known examples of groundwater pollution. In 1978, residents of the Love Canal neighborhood in upstate

6178:

Singh B, Singh Y, Sekhon GS (1995). "Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries".

8168: 4825:"Chemical and isotopic constraints on evolution of groundwater salinization in the coastal plain aquifer of Laizhou Bay, China" 4295: 2879:

are complex. For example, many rivers and lakes are fed by groundwater. This means that damage to groundwater aquifers e.g. by

8003: 7761: 7370: 7311: 6627: 6523: 6162: 6093: 6060: 5992: 5809: 5665: 5354: 5121: 4726: 4594: 4477: 3595:

Poor management practices in manure spreading can introduce both pathogens and nutrients (nitrate) in the groundwater system.

3552:

are only partially removed and the remainder is discharged into surface water, from where it may also reach the groundwater.

2636: 159: 5180: 4332:

remediating the aquifer by either immobilizing or detoxifying the contaminants while they are still in the aquifer (in-situ)

4512: 4238:. The following criteria have been proposed for safe siting (i.e. deciding on the location) of on-site sanitation systems: 3482:

Groundwater pollution with pathogens and nitrate can also occur from the liquids infiltrating into the ground from on-site

2962: 2925: 2798: 1910: 123: 119: 6336: 5008: 3453:

may occur when fluoride concentrations in groundwater exceed 1.5 mg/L, which is the WHO guideline value since 1984.

2037: 1957: 5244: 4354:

additives are available which can remove pathogens, chlorine, bad taste, odors, and heavy metals like lead and mercury.

3794:

content. This contamination is speculated to be the result of leaky, failing, or improperly installed gas well casings.

2995:

in groundwater is of growing concern as deeper groundwater is being used, "with more than 200 million people at risk of

9246: 7657: 7624: 5659:

Bexfield, Laura M.; Toccalino, Patricia L.; Belitz, Kenneth; Foreman, William T.; Furlong, Edward T. (March 19, 2019).

5197: 3701:

Chlorinated solvents such as PCE and TCE have densities higher than water and the non-miscible phase is referred to as

2631: 2545: 1987: 453:

types of ]s are more mobile than others so they can more easily reach a drinking-water source.<ref name="ICUN" />

445:

types of ]s are more mobile than others so they can more easily reach a drinking-water source.<ref name="ICUN" />

6076:

Tellam JH, Rivett MO, Israfilov RG, Herringshaw LG (2006). Tellam JH, Rivett MO, Israfilov RG, Herringshaw LG (eds.).

5763:

Quality of water from domestic wells in principal aquifers of the United States, 1991-2004: overview of major findings

505:

treatment facility, and often makes its way into the aquifer or source of surface water used for drinking water.{{cn}}

9050: 5941: 5778: 5614: 5502: 5426: 4605: 4570: 3881: 2487: 2392: 108: 7588:"Guidelines for separation distances based on virus transport between on-site domestic wastewater systems and wells" 3441:

The occurrence of fluoride is close related to the abundance and solubility of fluoride-containing minerals such as

513:

treatment facility, and often makes its way into the aquifer or source of surface water used for drinking water.{{cn

8674: 6052: 3877: 3169: 3149: 8127: 8101: 7122: 7041:

Jiang Y, Zhong W, Yan W, Yan L (November 2019). "Arsenic mobilization from soils in the presence of herbicides".

6886: 6871: 5307: 4951:

Johnson LR, Hiltbold AE (1969). "Arsenic Content of Soil and Crops Following Use of Methanearsonate Herbicides".

4525:

contamination. India covers 79% of the GRB, and thus numerous states have been affected. Affected states include

3826: 3228: 2722: 2432: 2195: 1777: 182: 7524: 7253: 9236: 8097: 6913: 6262: 6217: 5553: 3702: 3691:

because of groundwater contamination with as much as 27 million pounds of TCE. Both PCE and TCE may degrade to

3665: 2852:, and the nature of the contaminants. Different mechanisms have influence on the transport of pollutants, e.g. 5360: 5104: 97: 8191: 6875: 3502:

infrastructures such as pit latrines can cause significant public health risks via contaminated groundwater.

3239:

is the most toxic one. PAHs are generally produced as byproducts by incomplete combustion of organic matter.

2667: 2117: 8028: 7482:

Groundwater quality protection: a guide for water utilities, municipal authorities, and environment agencies

5147:

Trends in groundwater pollution: Loss of groundwater quality & related services - Groundwater Governance

8743: 8578: 4998:"Predicting the global extent of arsenic pollution of groundwater and its potential impact on human health" 4915: 4037: 3698:

Many types of solvents may have also been disposed illegally, leaking over time to the groundwater system.

2829: 2205: 2057: 2032: 1827: 7498:

DRASTIC: A Standardized System For Evaluating Groundwater Pollution Potential Using Hydrogeologic Settings

6423: 4056:

Schematic showing that there is a lower risk of groundwater pollution with greater depth of the water well

3645:

contributes to the solubility of potential toxic metals that can eventually enter the groundwater system.

171: 9067: 7545: 7281: 7019: 6313: 5661:"Hormones and Pharmaceuticals in Groundwater Used As a Source of Drinking Water Across the United States" 4936:

Brindha, K.; Elango, L. (2011). "Fluoride in groundwater: causes, implications and mitigation measures".

4348: 3953:

The burial of corpses and their subsequent degradation may also pose a risk of pollution to groundwater.

3767: 2896: 2778: 2316: 2067: 3675:

Chlorinated solvents are used in nearly any industrial practice where degreasing removers are required.

9200: 9084: 9028: 8120: 7789: 7677: 7644: 7611: 6296: 5039: 4674: 3473: 2715: 2072: 1922: 1707: 6215:

Jackson LE, Burger M, Cavagnaro TR (2008). "Roots, nitrogen transformations, and ecosystem services".

6153:

Khan MN, Mohammad F (2014). "Eutrophication: Challenges and Solutions". In Ansari AA, Gill SS (eds.).

8615: 7570: 7520: 7277: 7249: 7211: 6400: 6080:. NATO Science Series. Vol. 74. Springer Link, NATO Science Series Volume 74 2006. p. 490. 5189: 4911: 4651: 4613: 4574: 4104: 4080: 3421:

The natural arsenic pollution occurs because aquifer sediments contain organic matter that generates

3274:

disposal, paint and enamel works, etc. can lead to elevated concentrations of toxic metals including

3174: 2931: 2447: 2412: 2372: 2025: 1992: 1842: 3825:. So far, a significant majority of groundwater contamination events are derived from surface-level 8600: 7827:"Contamination of groundwater sources in emerging African towns: the case of Babati town, Tanzania" 6742:

Drollette BD, Hoelzer K, Warner NR, Darrah TH, Karatum O, O'Connor MP, et al. (October 2015).

6382: 4686: 4616:(PG&E) and a multimillion-dollar settlement in 1996. The legal case was dramatized in the film 3988:

themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including

3973: 3722: 3688: 3657: 3576: 2442: 2062: 1997: 1934: 6503: 6464: 6048:

Pharmaceutical residues in urine and potential risks related to usage as fertiliser in agriculture

4654:

as a result of improper and negligent hazardous material handling and disposal practices from the

4322:

Options for remediation of contaminated groundwater can be grouped into the following categories:

3968:

Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemical change, especially over long periods of time in

3648: 761:

such as pit latrines can cause significant public health risks via contaminated groundwater.{{cn}}

8775: 8664: 7424: 5243:

Wolf J, Prüss-Ustün A, Cumming O, Bartram J, Bonjour S, Cairncross S, et al. (August 2014).

4824: 4371: 4072: 4066: 4052: 3901:

as well as consequential release of arsenic and possibly other heavy metals. Arsenic is found in

3422: 2900: 2892: 2472: 2427: 2047: 115: 4008:

and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources. Interactions between

3656:

There is an increasing concern over the groundwater pollution by gasoline leaked from petroleum

3372:

is also an example of natural contamination, but is very often intensified by human activities.

769:

such as pit latrines can cause significant public health risks via contaminated groundwater.{{cn

9178: 9021: 8893: 7999: 4618: 4430: 4191: 3591: 3584: 3532: 3227:

Other organic pollutants present in groundwater and derived from industrial operations are the

2817: 2610: 2097: 7643:

United States. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980.

7423:

Winkel, Lenny; Berg, Michael; Amini, Manouchehr; Hug, Stephan J.; Johnson, C. Annette (2008).

5988:"Combined sewer overflows: an environmental source of hormones and wastewater micropollutants" 9221: 8975: 8970: 8706: 6964: 6230: 5608:

Ward MH, deKok TM, Levallois P, Brender J, Gulis G, Nolan BT, VanDerslice J (November 2005).

4033: 3054: 2797:. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as 2580: 2288: 2200: 1897: 104: 63: 6356: 5890: 5761: 5740:

Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals in Shallow Ground Water of Suffolk County, New York, 2002–2005

4974: 4338:

abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water.

2916:

may also be found in polluted groundwater, although their respective importance may differ.

231:] can be spread via a groundwater well which is contaminated with fecal pathogens from ]s.]] 224:] can be spread via a groundwater well which is contaminated with fecal pathogens from ]s.]] 9256: 9169: 9141: 9106: 9033: 8833: 8770: 8588: 8409: 7945: 7876:

Chakraborti D, Singh SK, Rahman MM, Dutta RN, Mukherjee SC, Pati S, Kar PB (January 2018).

7715: 7497: 7438: 7379: 7320: 6973: 6922: 6837: 6828: 6755: 6698: 6636: 6532: 6189: 6001: 5721: 5674: 5562: 4962: 4838: 4829: 4768: 4313:

Sign near Mannheim, Germany, indicating a zone as a dedicated "groundwater protection zone"

4014: 3740: 3734: 3181: 3086: 2880: 2786: 2122: 1855: 7564: 6909:"Groundwater extraction, land subsidence, and sea-level rise in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam" 6463:

Office, US EPA National Center for Environmental Assessment, Immediate; Ridley, Caroline.

6441: 6389:. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). August 2011. EPA 542-F-11-013. 6046: 5227: 4309: 2941:

arsenic can occur naturally in groundwater, as seen most frequently in Asia, including in

8: 9241: 9164: 9072: 9060: 8950: 8903: 8711: 8634: 8360: 8151: 5801: 5610:"Workgroup report: Drinking-water nitrate and health--recent findings and research needs" 4609: 4434: 4138:

are more at risk of pollution because there are fewer layers to filter out contaminants.

4018: 3981: 3725:) tend to be difficult to manage as they can reside very deep in the groundwater system. 3681: 3676: 3619: 3541: 3369: 3345: 3205: 3058: 2934:(WHO) as the most serious inorganic contaminants in drinking-water on a worldwide basis. 2884: 2810: 2457: 2402: 2367: 2293: 2220: 2170: 2165: 2150: 1807: 1417:

The community can also help monitor the groundwater quality.<ref name="WHO2006b" />

1410:

The community can also help monitor the groundwater quality.<ref name="WHO2006b" />

178: 7949: 7719: 7442: 7425:"Predicting groundwater arsenic contamination in Southeast Asia from surface parameters" 7383: 7324: 6977: 6926: 6841: 6759: 6702: 6640: 6536: 6193: 6005: 5912: 5678: 5566: 5322: 4966: 4842: 4772: 4753:

Costall, A. R.; Harris, B. D.; Teo, B.; Schaa, R.; Wagner, F. M.; Pigois, J. P. (2020).

9231: 9174: 9159: 9089: 9045: 8935: 8521: 8426: 8181: 8060: 7976: 7936: 7931: 7906: 7877: 7858: 7779: 7068: 6996: 6959: 6935: 6908: 6853: 6802:"Lack of data on fracking spills leaves researchers in the dark on water contamination" 6778: 6743: 6724: 6660: 6601: 6556: 6242: 6099: 6022: 5987: 5963: 5936: 5636: 5609: 5585: 5548: 5524: 5498:"Drinking-water nitrate, methemoglobinemia, and global burden of disease: a discussion" 5497: 5448: 5421: 5279: 4797: 4759: 4754: 4390: 3642: 3141: 3043: 2691: 2452: 2328: 2090: 1872: 1812: 1782: 1731: 7468:. Lima, Peru: Pan American Centre for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences. 5739: 5063: 5034: 4306:, also known as "Superfund", requires remediation of abandoned hazardous waste sites. 3562:

in agriculture may also be included as sources of fecal contamination in groundwater.

2891:

aquifers is an example of such interactions. Prevention methods include: applying the

9226: 9146: 8610: 8516: 8489: 8336: 8286: 8222: 8176: 7981: 7963: 7911: 7862: 7850: 7767: 7757: 7733: 7429: 7405: 7397: 7346: 7338: 7072: 7060: 7001: 6940: 6857: 6783: 6728: 6716: 6652: 6605: 6593: 6576: 6560: 6548: 6483: 6445: 6279: 6234: 6201: 6158: 6103: 6089: 6056: 6027: 5968: 5805: 5795: 5774: 5700: 5692: 5641: 5590: 5529: 5453: 5350: 5297: 5271: 5193: 5117: 5068: 4978: 4802: 4784: 4732: 4722: 4659: 4655: 4644: 4640: 4041: 3977: 3706: 3209: 3145: 3061:

can be spread via a groundwater well which is contaminated with fecal pathogens from

3024: 2833: 2340: 2263: 2256: 2210: 2077: 1867: 1862: 1772: 672:"Geogenic" refers to naturally occurring as a result from geological processes.{{cn}} 7878:"Groundwater Arsenic Contamination in the Ganga River Basin: A Future Health Danger" 7704:"Review of low-cost point-of-use water treatment systems for developing communities" 7141: 6664: 5891:

Guidelines on drinking water protection areas – Part 1: Groundwater protection areas

5283: 3984:

used in the dry cleaning industry. Both of these chemicals, which are thought to be

9096: 9055: 9038: 8925: 8823: 8355: 8259: 8143: 7971: 7953: 7901: 7891: 7840: 7723: 7653: 7620: 7446: 7387: 7328: 7052: 6991: 6981: 6930: 6845: 6773: 6763: 6706: 6689: 6644: 6585: 6540: 6437: 6271: 6246: 6226: 6197: 6081: 6017: 6009: 5958: 5950: 5839:. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG). Archived from 5833:

Geogenic Contamination Handbook - Addressing Arsenic and Fluoride in Drinking Water

5682: 5631: 5623: 5580: 5570: 5519: 5511: 5471: 5443: 5435: 5261: 5058: 5048: 4970: 4846: 4792: 4776: 4691: 4426: 4402: 4386: 3989: 3943: 3865: 3798: 3771: 3570:

Nitrate can also enter the groundwater via excessive use of fertilizers, including

3461:

allows the user to produce probability risk mapping for both arsenic and fluoride.

3450: 3425:

conditions in the aquifer. These conditions result in the microbial dissolution of

3254:

are more mobile than others so they can more easily reach a drinking-water source.

3039: 2600: 2497: 2437: 2323: 2276: 2225: 2185: 2160: 2145: 2127: 2102: 2042: 1927: 1877: 679:"Geogenic" refers to naturally occurring as a result from geological processes.{{cn 16: 7803: 7661: 7628: 6275: 5290: 4850: 4017:

or over abstraction, could therefore affect the rivers and lakes that rely on it.

3348:

and their metabolites. Inorganic pollutants might include other nutrients such as

2883:

or over abstraction, could therefore affect the rivers and lakes that rely on it.

9113: 9079: 8965: 8945: 8855: 8504: 8470: 8404: 8201: 8186: 7532:

Protecting groundwater for health: Managing the quality of drinking-water sources

4755:"Groundwater Throughflow and Seawater Intrusion in High Quality Coastal Aquifers" 4445:. Physical treatment techniques include, but are not limited to, pump and treat, 4442: 4410: 4299: 3931: 3919: 3897:

in Vietnam have provided evidence that over-pumping of groundwater leads to land

3802: 3717:. PAHs and other semi-VOCs are the common contaminants associated with creosote. 3661: 2913: 2782: 2758: 2385: 2345: 2215: 2180: 2112: 2052: 1980: 1917: 1817: 7307:"Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Fluoride Contamination in Groundwaters" 7254:"Protecting Groundwater for Health - Understanding the drinking-water catchment" 4242:

Horizontal distance between the drinking water source and the sanitation system

3418:"Geogenic" refers to naturally occurring as a result from geological processes. 9251: 9154: 9101: 9011: 8930: 8915: 8910: 8862: 8750: 8546: 8494: 8477: 8311: 7958: 7825:

Pantaleo, P. A.; Komakech, H. C.; Mtei, K. M.; Njau, K. N. (December 1, 2018).

7552:. Ada, OK: EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory. January 26, 2017. 7085: 6986: 6748:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4780: 4538: 4087: 3993: 3822: 3818: 3806: 3692: 3511: 3236: 3213: 3153: 2996: 2954: 2703: 2507: 2407: 2362: 2355: 2350: 2107: 1802: 189: 7728: 7703: 7366:"Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater" 7056: 6849: 5986:

Phillips PJ, Chalmers AT, Gray JL, Kolpin DW, Foreman WT, Wall GR (May 2012).

4718:

Groundwater: Hydrogeochemistry, Environmental Impacts and Management Practices

2973:. Groundwater in these areas is also contaminated by the use of arsenic-based 9215: 9118: 8955: 8845: 8802: 8583: 8460: 8346: 8296: 8160: 7967: 7854: 7771: 7737: 7401: 7342: 6944: 6449: 5696: 4982: 4788: 4736: 4558: 4530: 4429:. Some chemical treatment techniques include ozone and oxygen gas injection, 4005: 3939: 3751: 3746:

While the EPA has not found significant evidence of a widespread, systematic

3627: 3580: 3559: 3090: 2876: 2865: 2861: 2806: 2762: 2686: 2522: 2012: 2007: 2002: 1760: 6768: 6589: 6544: 5937:"Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review" 5687: 5660: 3286:. These contaminants have the potential to make their way into groundwater. 2937:

Inorganic arsenic is the most common type of arsenic in soil and water. The

44: 8920: 8878: 8654: 8605: 8541: 8397: 8301: 7985: 7915: 7896: 7409: 7350: 7185: 7064: 7005: 6787: 6720: 6656: 6597: 6552: 6283: 6238: 6031: 5972: 5704: 5645: 5594: 5575: 5533: 5457: 5275: 5072: 4923:

Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality oPublishing for WHO

4823:

Han, D.M.; Song, X.F.; Currell, Matthew J.; Yang, J.L.; Xiao, G.Q. (2014).

4806: 4554: 4446: 4438: 4029: 3923: 3894: 3873: 3797:

Furthermore, it is theorized that contamination could also result from the

3357: 3330: 3243: 3221: 3197: 3003:

is low. High levels of fluoride in groundwater is a serious problem in the

2950: 2845: 2555: 2517: 2502: 2333: 2298: 2243: 1962: 1822: 7751: 7565:"Guidelines for assessing the risk to groundwater from on-site sanitation" 6085: 5229:

How to keep your groundwater drinkable: Safer siting of sanitation systems

4665:

The site is no longer in operation, and is an active hazmat cleanup site.

3834:

often very vague, and thus would lead researchers to lacking conclusions.

3494:, depending on the population density and the hydrogeological conditions. 3140:

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause "

9016: 8960: 8782: 8760: 8755: 8622: 8499: 8465: 8453: 8341: 8264: 7845: 7826: 7586:

Moore C, Nokes C, Loe B, Close M, Pang L, Smith V, Osbaldiston S (2010).

7223:

Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-water

6308: 5897:(Report). Bonn: Deutsche Vereinigung des Gas- und Wasserfaches e.V. 2006. 5439: 4682: 4566: 4526: 4422: 4418: 4246: 4231: 4187: 4142: 4009: 3985: 3969: 3915: 3791: 3669: 3549: 3491: 3487: 3337: 3271: 3232: 3078: 3062: 2872: 2794: 2754: 2477: 2175: 2155: 1792: 1716: 7166: 5954: 5911:

Nick A, Foppen JW, Kulabako R, Lo D, Samwel M, Wagner F, Wolf L (2012).

3980:(used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and 9123: 8940: 8898: 8840: 8809: 8448: 8380: 8318: 8291: 8254: 4696: 4414: 4250: 4235: 3898: 3861: 3507: 3499: 3483: 3426: 3313: 3267: 3247: 3070: 3000: 2966: 2958: 2946: 2857: 2825: 2790: 2770: 2527: 2283: 1787: 1720: 7928: 7525:"Section 4: Approaches to drinking-water source protection management" 7392: 7365: 7333: 7306: 7126: 6648: 6013: 5266: 5053: 3152:

in the European Union stipulate less than 50 mg/L for nitrate in

9006: 8888: 8696: 8691: 8669: 8558: 8551: 8370: 8365: 8272: 8249: 6357:

ATSDR (US Agency for Toxic Substance & Disease Registry) (2008).

5627: 5515: 4716: 4695:

bacteria. This contamination was due to farm runoff into an adjacent

4648: 4550: 4546: 4409:

of technologies. Some of the biological treatment techniques include

4304:

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

4210:

for the pollutant to be eliminated through filtration or adsorption.

4090:(EU) water policy is the application of the precautionary principle. 3759: 3755: 3685: 3353: 3341: 3334: 3251: 3074: 3069:

The lack of proper sanitation measures, as well as improperly placed

2974: 2938: 2853: 2849: 2766: 2750: 2595: 2550: 2512: 2462: 2397: 2303: 1767: 1739: 8112: 7450: 6711: 6684: 9133: 8701: 8627: 8568: 8563: 8511: 8421: 8392: 8385: 8375: 8306: 8280: 8276: 8268: 7496:

Aller L, Bennett T, Lehr JH, Petty RJ, Hackett G (September 1987).

4398: 4298:

protects groundwater by regulating the disposal of solid waste and

4258:

Vertical distance between drinking water well and sanitation system

3854: 3850: 3710: 3537: 3442: 3434: 3283: 3217: 3118: 3114: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3035: 3028: 3020: 2992: 2985: 2802: 2774: 1967: 5547:

van Grinsven HJ, Ward MH, Benjamin N, de Kok TM (September 2006).

9001: 8797: 8792: 8738: 8644: 8573: 8416: 8217: 7883:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

5420:

Knobeloch L, Salna B, Hogan A, Postle J, Anderson H (July 2000).

4562: 4522: 4394: 4377: 4135: 3783: 3775: 3458:

Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG)

3430: 3384:

Causes of groundwater pollution include (further details below):

3361: 3349: 3279: 3235:

is the most soluble and mobile PAH found in groundwater, whereas

3193: 3189: 3110: 3094: 2970: 2841: 2821: 1747: 1519:* Superposition, i.e. the need to consider a larger planning area 1512:* Superposition, i.e. the need to consider a larger planning area 8082: 7091:"Guidance on Assessing the Impacts of Cemeteries on Groundwater" 6075: 4521:

which is a sacred body of water for the Hindus is facing severe

4326:

containing the pollutants to prevent them from migrating further

8850: 8815: 8639: 8595: 8443: 8241: 7808:

Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems

7519: 7276: 7248: 7210: 5004: 4518: 4276:

Superposition, i.e. the need to consider a larger planning area

3935: 3927: 3869: 3787: 3779: 3604: 3571: 3263: 3201: 3012: 3004: 2981: 2605: 2585: 2492: 2482: 2190: 1712: 8077: 7304: 5658: 5546: 4938:

Fluoride properties, applications and environmental management

8883: 8723: 8649: 8436: 5242: 4542: 4534: 4282: 4114:

The community can also help monitor the groundwater quality.

4022: 3839:

Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR)

3830: 3545: 3365: 3295: 3082: 3016: 3008: 2942: 2888: 2615: 2560: 1952: 8088:

IGRAC, International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre

7139: 6960:"Overpumping leads to California groundwater arsenic threat" 6741: 8828: 8684: 8679: 8659: 8533: 8484: 8328: 8108:

UPGro – Unlocking the Potential of Groundwater for the Poor

7875: 7478: 7171: 6870: 6574:

Ellsworth WL (July 2013). "Injection-induced earthquakes".

5770: 5746: 5329: 5113: 4910: 4381: 4154:

roundwater hydraulic confinement, geological nature of the

3902: 3340:, various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and 3275: 3185: 2980:

Arsenic in groundwater can also be present where there are

2963:

contamination of groundwater by naturally occurring arsenic

2837: 2590: 1837: 1832: 1797: 6623: 5985: 4916:"Section 1:Managing the Quality of Drinking-water Sources" 8787: 8431: 7811: 7501: 6507: 6421: 6408: 6259: 5865: 5607: 5419: 4120: 8087: 7824: 7363: 6682: 5738:

Benotti MJ, Fisher SC, Terracciano SA (September 2006).

5737: 3972:

reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the

8078:

United States Geological Survey - Office of Groundwater

7610:

United States. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.

5759: 5178: 4036:. The movement of the plume, may be analyzed through a 3829:

routes rather than the subsurface flow from underlying

3291: 3242:

Organic pollutants can also be found in groundwater as

8004:"Overpumping groundwater increases contamination risk" 7998: 6825: 6683:

Howarth RW, Ingraffea A, Engelder T (September 2011).

6214: 5346:

Clearing the waters a focus on water quality solutions

4220: 3368:(Rn) naturally present in some geological formations. 3038:

in groundwater which is used for drinking water, both

3034:

In areas that have naturally occurring high levels of

51: 7495: 7216:"Section 5:Approaches to pollution source management" 7155:(6): 684 – via Maxwell Scientific Organization. 6122:"Wastewater Management - A UN-Water Analytical Brief" 5153:. Global Environmental Facility (GEF). Archived from 4752: 3715:

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

477:{{Main|Groundwater contamination by pharmaceuticals}} 470:{{Main|Groundwater contamination by pharmaceuticals}} 8107: 7188:"Good Practices for Regulating Wastewater Treatment" 7186:

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2015).

7149:

Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences

6359:"Follow-up Health Consultation: Anniston Army Depot" 5910: 5298:"Bacteria and Their Effects on Ground-Water Quality" 5102: 5032: 4612:

starting in 1952, resulting in a legal case against

3786:

concentrations than normal. An evaluation of higher

3180:

Primary VOC pollutants found in groundwater include

8092: 7593:. Porirua, New Zealand. p. 296. Archived from 7167:"Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource" 6906: 5913:"Sustainable sanitation and groundwater protection" 5716: 5714: 5232:. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance Working Group 11. 5035:"Uptake kinetics of arsenic species in rice plants" 2753:are released to the ground and make their way into 7645: 7612: 7585: 7422: 7140:A.T. Ekubo and J.F.N. Abowei (November 10, 2011). 6957: 6424:"The Environmental Costs and Benefits of Fracking" 4822: 3999: 3684:(ANAD) in the United States was placed on the EPA 3633: 3224:processes and as a metal degreaser, respectively. 8093:IAH, International Association of Hydrogeologists 6876:"Getting up to Speed: Ground Water Contamination" 5422:"Blue babies and nitrate-contaminated well water" 5103:Smith M, Cross K, Paden M, Laben P, eds. (2016). 4571:United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization 4093: 3600:anthropogenic nitrogen in groundwater worldwide. 3544:residues and other micro-pollutants contained in 3413: 2930:Arsenic and fluoride have been recognized by the 2836:. Analysis of groundwater pollution may focus on 9213: 7040: 6177: 6155:Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control 5934: 5711: 5332:. Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4216. 4591:Water supply and sanitation in the United States 3748:impact on drinking water by hydraulic fracturing 3680:used as a metal cleaning. The military facility 6520: 6401:"Superfund Site: Atlantic Wood Industries, Inc" 6387:Technologies for Cleaning Up Contaminated Sites 6078:Urban Groundwater Management and Sustainability 5320: 5033:Abedin MJ, Feldmann J, Meharg AA (March 2002). 4950: 3073:, can lead to drinking water contaminated with 2805:. Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to 2769:. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-site 7756:. Abdelazim M. Negm. Cham, Switzerland. 2017. 7479:Foster S, Hirata H, Gomes D, D'Elia M (2002). 6115: 6113: 5225: 5179:Fawell J, Bailey K, Chilton J, Dahi E (2006). 4699:that was vulnerable to groundwater pollution. 4685:became contaminated with the highly dangerous 4077:Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 3695:(VC), the most toxic chlorinated hydrocarbon. 3607:may also result in groundwater pollution with 3429:in the sediment and, thus, the release of the 3220:. PCE and TCE are industrial solvents used in 1479:=== Land zoning for groundwater protection === 1472:=== Land zoning for groundwater protection === 8128: 6334: 5930: 5928: 5926: 5760:DeSimone LA, Hamilton PA, Gilliom RJ (2009). 4935: 4025:aquifers is an example of such interactions. 3565: 3468: 2723: 7604: 7463: 7221:. In Schmoll O, Howard G, Chilton G (eds.). 6488:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6393: 6152: 5906: 5904: 5830:EAWAG (2015). Johnson CA, Brezler A (eds.). 5825: 5823: 5821: 5253:Tropical Medicine & International Health 4604:The town of Hinkley, California (U.S.), had 4335:treating the groundwater at its point of use 4129: 3329:Other organic pollutants include a range of 3308:Groundwater contamination by pharmaceuticals 2809:through poisoning or the spread of disease ( 1723:in the foreground with pathogens and nitrate 202: 7796: 7244: 7242: 7240: 7238: 7236: 7234: 7232: 6496: 6208: 6110: 5919:. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA). 5540: 5221: 5219: 5217: 5215: 5213: 5211: 5209: 5172: 4995: 3522: 2816:The pollutant often produces a contaminant 139: 8135: 8121: 8056:"Walkerton E. coli outbreak declared over" 7784:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6958:Smith R, Knight R, Fendorf S (June 2018). 6678: 6676: 6674: 6619: 6617: 6615: 6429:Annual Review of Environment and Resources 6253: 5923: 4906: 4904: 4902: 4900: 4898: 4896: 4894: 4892: 4890: 4888: 4886: 4884: 4882: 4880: 4365: 4060: 4028:A spill or ongoing release of chemical or 2730: 2716: 1746: 7975: 7957: 7905: 7895: 7844: 7727: 7391: 7332: 7142:"Aspects of Aquatic Pollution in Nigeria" 6995: 6985: 6934: 6907:Erban LE, Gorelick SM, Zebker HA (2014). 6777: 6767: 6710: 6573: 6383:"A Citizen's Guide to Drycleaner Cleanup" 6171: 6021: 5962: 5901: 5818: 5686: 5635: 5584: 5574: 5523: 5447: 5265: 5106:Spring - managing groundwater sustainably 5062: 5052: 4878: 4876: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4860: 4796: 4573:'s standard for irrigation water and the 4342: 335:{{Main|VOC contamination of groundwater}} 328:{{Main|VOC contamination of groundwater}} 7229: 7159: 7087:Scottish Environmental Protection Agency 6514: 6462: 6231:10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932 6146: 6119: 5753: 5722:"Emerging Contaminants In Arizona Water" 5495: 5489: 5236: 5206: 5143: 4681:. The water supply which was drawn from 4658:facility, which was located next to the 4486: 4329:removing the pollutants from the aquifer 4308: 4204: 4051: 3647: 3590: 3472: 3053: 1706: 1698:Latest revision as of 15:13, 26 May 2024 156:Latest revision as of 15:13, 26 May 2024 7546:"Wellhead Protection Area (WHPA) Model" 7515: 7513: 7511: 7282:"Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality" 6671: 6612: 6337:"Tetrachloroethylene in Drinking Water" 5858: 5793: 5384: 4975:10.2136/sssaj1969.03615995003300020032x 4954:Soil Science Society of America Journal 4714: 4493:Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania 4086:One of the six basic principles of the 3728: 3703:Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPL) 3216:(VC). BTEX are important components of 2919: 2789:(fracking) or from over application of 1043:=== Commercial and industrial leaks === 1036:=== Commercial and industrial leaks === 9214: 8053: 7701: 7682:Water Encyclopedia, Science and Issues 7562: 7371:Environmental Science & Technology 7312:Environmental Science & Technology 7020:"Potential Threats to Our Groundwater" 6628:Environmental Science & Technology 6524:Environmental Science & Technology 6044: 5993:Environmental Science & Technology 5787: 5666:Environmental Science & Technology 5380: 5378: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5133: 5098: 5096: 5094: 5092: 5090: 5088: 5086: 5084: 5082: 4857: 4389:. Groundwater that moves through open 4296:Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 4121:Land zoning for groundwater protection 3666:Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL) 3204:), and chlorinated solvents including 663:=== Naturally-occurring (geogenic) === 656:=== Naturally-occurring (geogenic) === 8142: 8116: 7466:Groundwater Pollution Risk Assessment 6442:10.1146/annurev-environ-031113-144051 6309:"PPDB: Pesticide Properties DataBase" 5935:Graham JP, Polizzotto ML (May 2013). 5829: 4595:Water supply and sanitation in Canada 4478:Water supply and sanitation in Zambia 3231:(PAHs). Due to its molecular weight, 1702:Ground released seep into groundwater 8098:Groundwater pollution and sanitation 7508: 6685:"Natural gas: Should fracking stop?" 6301: 5601: 5342: 5336: 4818: 4816: 4748: 4746: 4668: 4634: 4513:Water supply and sanitation in India 4234:sources from pollution from on-site 4150:estimated parameters, the degree of 3845: 3163: 2926:Arsenic contamination of groundwater 2903:, or as a last resort, abandonment. 77: 43: 5375: 5130: 5079: 4221:Locating on-site sanitation systems 4075:, evolved from Principle 15 of the 3344:products, drug pollution involving 1958:Radium and radon in the environment 1719:in the background is polluting the 201: 170: 153: 146: 135: 96: 84: 13: 7650:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 7617:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 7175:. Denver, CO. 1998. Circular 1139. 5895:Technical rule number W101:2006-06 3616:US Environmental Protection Agency 3510:is used to supply groundwater for 3301: 2906: 1700: 32: 9268: 8071: 7530:. In Schmoll I, Howard G (eds.). 7044:Journal of Environmental Sciences 5942:Environmental Health Perspectives 5866:"Groundwater Assessment Platform" 5615:Environmental Health Perspectives 5503:Environmental Health Perspectives 5427:Environmental Health Perspectives 5226:Wolf L, Nick A, Cronin A (2015). 4813: 4743: 4471: 3942:since groundwater is part of the 3105:types that are present in feces ( 2969:in the shallower of two regional 87:Revision as of 14:52, 26 May 2024 9196: 9195: 7702:Pooi CK, Ng HY (December 2018). 6181:Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 6053:Hamburg University of Technology 5727:. September 2016. p. 4.3.1. 5321:Banks WS, Battigelli DA (2002). 4940:. Vol. 1. pp. 111–136. 4721:. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 4599: 4584: 3876:. This was eventually traced to 3229:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 3170:VOC contamination of groundwater 3150:Drinking water quality standards 2697: 2685: 865:=== Sewage and sewage sludge === 858:=== Sewage and sewage sludge === 8102:Sustainable Sanitation Alliance 8047: 8021: 7992: 7922: 7869: 7818: 7744: 7695: 7670: 7637: 7579: 7556: 7538: 7489: 7472: 7457: 7416: 7357: 7298: 7270: 7204: 7179: 7133: 7125:. July 31, 2012. Archived from 7115: 7079: 7034: 7012: 6951: 6900: 6887:Environmental Protection Agency 6872:Environmental Protection Agency 6864: 6819: 6794: 6735: 6567: 6456: 6415: 6375: 6350: 6328: 6290: 6069: 6038: 5979: 5883: 5797:Groundwater pollution in Africa 5731: 5652: 5464: 5413: 5308:United States Geological Survey 4715:Adelana, Segun Michael (2014). 4000:Interactions with surface water 3888: 3754:that preclude the link between 3634:Commercial and industrial leaks 3611:derived from veterinary drugs. 3400:Commercial and industrial leaks 1778:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 206:Dating maintenance tags: {{Cn}} 7573:Commissioned Report, CR/01/142 6914:Environmental Research Letters 6263:Journal of Hazardous Materials 6218:Annual Review of Plant Biology 5026: 4989: 4944: 4929: 4708: 4452: 4380:. Non-porous aquifers such as 4289: 4094:Groundwater quality monitoring 3689:National Priorities List (NPL) 3414:Naturally-occurring (geogenic) 3388:Naturally-occurring (geogenic) 3333:and other chemical compounds, 2647:Least polluted cities by PM2.5 1503:* Volume of leaking wastewater 1496:* Volume of leaking wastewater 1: 8100:(documents in library of the 7832:Water Practice and Technology 6276:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.05.111 5917:Factsheet of Working Group 11 5749:. Open-File Report 2006–1297. 5303:Michigan Water Science Center 4851:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.10.040 4702: 4449:, and dual phase extraction. 4317: 4047: 3956: 3046:can be prevalent and severe. 3027:, and some volcanic islands ( 2118:Electrical resistance heating 1696: 1691:===Groundwater remediation=== 1684:===Groundwater remediation=== 1654: 1646: 1620: 1612: 1532: 1524: 1442: 1434: 1356: 1348: 1269: 1262: 1182: 1174: 1088: 1080: 1055: 1048: 968: 960: 878: 870: 828: 820: 764: 756: 675: 668: 588: 580: 508: 500: 414: 406: 380: 372: 347: 340: 256: 248: 8161:Pollution / quality 7022:. The Groundwater Foundation 6936:10.1088/1748-9326/9/8/084010 6202:10.1016/0169-7722(95)00067-4 5794:Xu Y, Usher B, eds. (2006). 4606:its groundwater contaminated 4273:Volume of leaking wastewater 4038:hydrological transport model 3049: 2897:point-of-use water treatment 2830:hydrological transport model 1828:Persistent organic pollutant 1752:Air pollution from a factory 18:Browse history interactively 7: 7667:Approved December 11, 1980. 7464:Foster S, Hirata H (1988). 6314:University of Hertfordshire 5496:Fewtrell L (October 2004). 4461: 4349:Portable water purification 3762:extraction and its impact. 2779:wastewater treatment plants 10: 9273: 7959:10.1038/s41598-019-50875-w 7678:"Pollution of groundwater" 7634:Approved October 21, 1976. 6987:10.1038/s41467-018-04475-3 6510:. 2016. EPA 600/R-16/236F. 6506:(Report). Washington, DC: 6055:(TUHH), Hamburg, Germany. 5182:Fluoride in drinking-water 4781:10.1038/s41598-020-66516-6 4614:Pacific Gas & Electric 4588: 4510: 4490: 4475: 4369: 4346: 4270:Slope and surface drainage 4264:Groundwater flow direction 4064: 3872:and an alarming number of 3819:hydraulic fracturing fluid 3732: 3566:Fertilizers and pesticides 3531:The treated effluent from 3469:On-site sanitation systems 3397:Fertilizers and pesticides 3391:On-site sanitation systems 3305: 3175:Volatile organic compounds 3167: 3128: 2923: 137: 9247:Water and the environment 9191: 9132: 8997: 8990: 8871: 8732:Types / location 8731: 8722: 8532: 8327: 8240: 8210: 8159: 8150: 7729:10.1038/s41545-018-0011-0 7571:British Geological Survey 7534:. IWA Publishing for WHO. 7521:World Health Organization 7278:World Health Organization 7250:World Health Organization 7212:World Health Organization 7057:10.1016/j.jes.2019.04.025 6850:10.1007/s10040-016-1418-7 5328:(Report). Baltimore, MD: 4912:World Health Organization 4652:groundwater contamination 4575:World Health Organization 4466: 4166:epth to water table, net 4130:Aquifer vulnerability map 4105:World Health Organization 4081:environmental degradation 3658:underground storage tanks 3379: 3324: 3257: 2988:that will leach arsenic. 2932:World Health Organization 2840:characteristics and site 2781:, leaking sewers, petrol 2747:groundwater contamination 2373:War and environmental law 1993:Health effects from noise 1843:Volatile organic compound 1711:Groundwater pollution in 1577: 1574: 1487: 1484: 1401: 1398: 1313: 1310: 1229: 1226: 1139: 1136: 1015: 1012: 925: 922: 721: 718: 635: 632: 461: 458: 319:=== Organic compounds === 312:=== Organic compounds === 303: 300: 215: 212: 152: 83: 6806:StateImpact Pennsylvania 5349:. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP. 5310:(USGS). January 4, 2017. 5144:Custodio E, ed. (2013). 4506: 3974:chlorinated hydrocarbons 3940:atmospheric contaminants 3909: 3906:release into the water. 3668:, will "float" upon the 3643:acid mine drainage (AMD) 3558:Spreading wastewater or 3523:Sewage and sewage sludge 3394:Sewage and sewage sludge 2777:leachate, effluent from 1998:Marine mammals and sonar 140:→‎Point-of-use treatment 120:Extended confirmed users 6769:10.1073/pnas.1511474112 6590:10.1126/science.1225942 6545:10.1021/acs.est.5b04970 5688:10.1021/acs.est.8b05592 4519:Ganga River Basin (GRB) 4501: 4372:Groundwater remediation 4366:Groundwater remediation 4073:precautionary principle 4067:Precautionary principle 4061:Precautionary principle 4004:Although interrelated, 3938:from airports and even 3609:pharmaceutical residues 3533:sewage treatment plants 2901:groundwater remediation 2893:precautionary principle 2473:Freshwater salinization 2393:Agricultural wastewater 82: 8000:University of Stanford 7897:10.3390/ijerph15020180 7123:"Groundwater Sampling" 6335:Health Canada (2014). 5745:(Report). Reston, VA: 5576:10.1186/1476-069X-5-26 4996:Ravenscroft P (2007). 4431:chemical precipitation 4343:Point-of-use treatment 4314: 4057: 3893:Satellite data in the 3868:noticed high rates of 3653: 3596: 3479: 3298:state of groundwater. 3087:fecal–oral transmitted 3066: 2868:, in the groundwater. 2692:Environment portal 1724: 1651:quite expensive.{{cn}} 9237:Hydraulic engineering 7788:) CS1 maint: others ( 7129:on February 11, 2014. 6965:Nature Communications 6086:10.1007/1-4020-5175-1 5160:on September 21, 2018 4487:Babati town, Tanzania 4401:as dumps in areas of 4312: 4205:Source protection map 4065:Further information: 4055: 3920:illegal waste dumping 3837:Researchers from the 3803:groundwater resources 3739:The recent growth of 3733:Further information: 3651: 3594: 3476: 3182:aromatic hydrocarbons 3057: 2743:Groundwater pollution 2433:Industrial wastewater 2201:Municipal solid waste 2123:Soil guideline values 1710: 411:organic matter.{{cn}} 9107:remnant natural area 8744:storage and recovery 8410:habitat conservation 8228:Deforestation (REDD) 8083:UK Groundwater Forum 7846:10.2166/wpt.2018.104 7814:. December 18, 2018. 7600:on January 13, 2015. 7504:. EPA 600/S2-87/035. 6829:Hydrogeology Journal 6407:. Philadelphia, PA: 6134:on November 30, 2016 5802:Taylor & Francis 5554:Environmental Health 5440:10.1289/ehp.00108675 5343:Ross N, ed. (2010). 4830:Journal of Hydrology 4622:, released in 2000. 4158:verlying strata and 3922:, infiltration from 3741:hydraulic fracturing 3735:Hydraulic fracturing 3729:Hydraulic fracturing 3403:Hydraulic fracturing 3346:pharmaceutical drugs 2920:Arsenic and fluoride 2811:water-borne diseases 2787:hydraulic fracturing 2642:Most polluted cities 2294:Overhead power lines 1715:, Zambia, where the 1659:quite expensive.{{cn 1305:=== Over-pumping === 1298:=== Over-pumping === 9061:Earth Overshoot Day 8635:Marine conservation 8616:non-timber products 7950:2019NatSR...915193M 7804:"Ground Water Rule" 7720:2018npjCW...1...11P 7443:2008NatGe...1..536W 7384:2008EnST...42.3669A 7325:2008EnST...42.3662A 6978:2018NatCo...9.2089S 6927:2014ERL.....9h4010E 6842:2016HydJ...24.1343P 6760:2015PNAS..11213184D 6703:2011Natur.477..271H 6641:2014EnST...48.8334V 6537:2016EnST...50.4524D 6411:. October 23, 2018. 6194:1995JCHyd..20..167S 6006:2012EnST...46.5336P 5955:10.1289/ehp.1206028 5679:2019EnST...53.2950B 5567:2006EnvHe...5...26V 5401:on October 13, 2015 4967:1969SSASJ..33..279J 4843:2014JHyd..508...12H 4773:2020NatSR..10.9866C 4610:hexavalent chromium 4435:membrane separation 4182:opography (slope), 4019:Saltwater intrusion 3982:tetrachloroethylene 3799:capillary migration 3682:Anniston Army Depot 3620:European Commission 3370:Saltwater intrusion 3206:tetrachloroethylene 3059:Waterborne diseases 2885:Saltwater intrusion 2458:Ocean acidification 2368:Unexploded ordnance 2289:Advertising clutter 2221:Post-consumer waste 2166:Foam food container 2151:Biodegradable waste 1808:Global distillation 1569:=== Legislation === 1562:=== Legislation === 419:organic matter.{{cn 377:respectively.{{cn}} 9046:Ecosystem services 8169:Ambient standards 8061:The Globe and Mail 7937:Scientific Reports 7810:. Washington, DC: 5188:. Geneva: IWA for 4760:Scientific Reports 4315: 4267:Impermeable layers 4058: 3936:de-icing chemicals 3654: 3597: 3480: 3142:blue baby syndrome 3067: 3044:skeletal fluorosis 3005:Argentinean Pampas 2704:Ecology portal 2329:Herbicidal warfare 1873:Introduced species 1813:Indoor air quality 1783:Chlorofluorocarbon 1725: 168: 124:New page reviewers 94: 9209: 9208: 9187: 9186: 8986: 8985: 8665:genetic resources 8601:genetic resources 8236: 8235: 8144:Natural resources 8033:Los Angeles Times 7763:978-3-319-56124-0 7430:Nature Geoscience 7393:10.1021/es702859e 7334:10.1021/es071958y 7319:(10): 3662–3668. 6649:10.1021/es405118y 6584:(6142): 1225942. 6164:978-94-007-7813-9 6120:UN-Water (2015). 6095:978-1-4020-5175-3 6062:978-3-930400-41-6 6045:Winker M (2009). 6014:10.1021/es3001294 5811:978-0-415-41167-7 5356:978-92-807-3074-6 5267:10.1111/tmi.12331 5123:978-2-8317-1789-0 5054:10.1104/pp.010733 5014:on March 19, 2017 4728:978-1-63321-791-1 4669:Walkerton, Canada 4660:Norco High School 4656:Wyle Laboratories 4645:Trichloroethylene 4641:Norco, California 4635:Norco, California 4626:San Joaquin, U.S. 4387:soil contaminants 4362:quite expensive. 4251:groundwater wells 4042:groundwater model 3978:trichloroethylene 3846:Landfill leachate 3707:pentachlorophenol 3406:Landfill leachate 3312:Trace amounts of 3210:trichloroethylene 3164:Organic compounds 3146:methemoglobinemia 3089:diseases include 3025:East African Rift 2834:groundwater model 2826:groundwater wells 2740: 2739: 2675: 2674: 2341:Nuclear holocaust 2264:Urban heat island 2078:Radioactive waste 1863:Biological hazard 1773:Air quality index 1695: 385:respectively.{{cn 154: 85: 65: 9264: 9199: 9198: 9150: 9097:Natural heritage 9056:overexploitation 8995: 8994: 8729: 8728: 8675:herbal medicines 8655:FAO Plant Treaty 8195: 8172: 8157: 8156: 8137: 8130: 8123: 8114: 8113: 8066: 8065: 8051: 8045: 8044: 8042: 8040: 8025: 8019: 8018: 8016: 8014: 8002:(June 5, 2018). 7996: 7990: 7989: 7979: 7961: 7926: 7920: 7919: 7909: 7899: 7873: 7867: 7866: 7848: 7822: 7816: 7815: 7800: 7794: 7793: 7783: 7775: 7748: 7742: 7741: 7731: 7699: 7693: 7692: 7690: 7688: 7674: 7668: 7651: 7647: 7641: 7635: 7618: 7614: 7608: 7602: 7601: 7599: 7592: 7583: 7577: 7576: 7560: 7554: 7553: 7542: 7536: 7535: 7529: 7517: 7506: 7505: 7493: 7487: 7486: 7476: 7470: 7469: 7461: 7455: 7454: 7420: 7414: 7413: 7395: 7361: 7355: 7354: 7336: 7302: 7296: 7295: 7293: 7291: 7286: 7274: 7268: 7267: 7265: 7263: 7258: 7246: 7227: 7226: 7220: 7208: 7202: 7201: 7199: 7197: 7192: 7183: 7177: 7176: 7163: 7157: 7156: 7146: 7137: 7131: 7130: 7119: 7113: 7112: 7110: 7108: 7103:on July 12, 2021 7102: 7096:. Archived from 7095: 7083: 7077: 7076: 7038: 7032: 7031: 7029: 7027: 7016: 7010: 7009: 6999: 6989: 6955: 6949: 6948: 6938: 6904: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6893: 6880: 6868: 6862: 6861: 6836:(6): 1343–1358. 6823: 6817: 6816: 6814: 6812: 6798: 6792: 6791: 6781: 6771: 6739: 6733: 6732: 6714: 6680: 6669: 6668: 6621: 6610: 6609: 6571: 6565: 6564: 6518: 6512: 6511: 6500: 6494: 6493: 6487: 6479: 6477: 6475: 6460: 6454: 6453: 6419: 6413: 6412: 6397: 6391: 6390: 6379: 6373: 6372: 6370: 6368: 6363: 6354: 6348: 6347: 6345: 6343: 6332: 6326: 6325: 6323: 6321: 6305: 6299: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6257: 6251: 6250: 6212: 6206: 6205: 6188:(3–4): 167–184. 6175: 6169: 6168: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6139: 6133: 6127:. Archived from 6126: 6117: 6108: 6107: 6073: 6067: 6066: 6051:(PhD). Hamburg: 6042: 6036: 6035: 6025: 5983: 5977: 5976: 5966: 5932: 5921: 5920: 5908: 5899: 5898: 5887: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5876: 5862: 5856: 5855: 5853: 5851: 5845: 5838: 5827: 5816: 5815: 5791: 5785: 5784: 5768: 5757: 5751: 5750: 5744: 5735: 5729: 5728: 5726: 5718: 5709: 5708: 5690: 5673:(6): 2950–2960. 5656: 5650: 5649: 5639: 5628:10.1289/ehp.8043 5605: 5599: 5598: 5588: 5578: 5544: 5538: 5537: 5527: 5516:10.1289/ehp.7216 5493: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5482: 5468: 5462: 5461: 5451: 5417: 5411: 5410: 5408: 5406: 5400: 5394:. Archived from 5393: 5385:AGW-Net (2016). 5382: 5373: 5372: 5370: 5368: 5359:. Archived from 5340: 5334: 5333: 5327: 5318: 5312: 5311: 5294: 5288: 5287: 5269: 5249: 5240: 5234: 5233: 5223: 5204: 5203: 5187: 5176: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5165: 5159: 5152: 5141: 5128: 5127: 5111: 5100: 5077: 5076: 5066: 5056: 5040:Plant Physiology 5030: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5019: 5013: 5007:. Archived from 5002: 4993: 4987: 4986: 4948: 4942: 4941: 4933: 4927: 4926: 4920: 4908: 4855: 4854: 4820: 4811: 4810: 4800: 4750: 4741: 4740: 4712: 4643:was affected by 4427:phytoremediation 4403:karst topography 4226:drinking-water. 4143:unsaturated zone 3990:dichloroethylene 3944:hydrologic cycle 3878:organic solvents 3772:British Columbia 3672:in the aquifer. 3486:systems such as 3451:dental fluorosis 2986:mine waste dumps 2783:filling stations 2732: 2725: 2718: 2702: 2701: 2700: 2690: 2689: 2621: 2620: 2324:Chemical warfare 2226:Waste management 2186:Industrial waste 2161:Electronic waste 2146:Advertising mail 2128:Phytoremediation 2103:Land degradation 2043:Depleted uranium 1928:Overillumination 1878:Invasive species 1750: 1727: 1726: 1393:== Prevention == 1386:== Prevention == 207: 204: 196: 186: 167: 162: 144: 143: 142: 130: 112: 93: 66: 57: 56: 54: 49: 47: 39: 36: 21: 19: 9272: 9271: 9267: 9266: 9265: 9263: 9262: 9261: 9212: 9211: 9210: 9205: 9183: 9148: 9128: 9114:Systems ecology 9080:Natural capital 8982: 8867: 8856:reclaimed water 8718: 8680:UPOV Convention 8528: 8323: 8232: 8206: 8202:Ozone depletion 8193: 8170: 8146: 8141: 8074: 8069: 8052: 8048: 8038: 8036: 8027: 8026: 8022: 8012: 8010: 7997: 7993: 7927: 7923: 7874: 7870: 7823: 7819: 7802: 7801: 7797: 7777: 7776: 7764: 7750: 7749: 7745: 7708:npj Clean Water 7700: 7696: 7686: 7684: 7676: 7675: 7671: 7649: 7642: 7638: 7616: 7609: 7605: 7597: 7590: 7584: 7580: 7563:ARGOSS (2001). 7561: 7557: 7544: 7543: 7539: 7527: 7518: 7509: 7494: 7490: 7477: 7473: 7462: 7458: 7451:10.1038/ngeo254 7421: 7417: 7378:(10): 3669–75. 7362: 7358: 7303: 7299: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7275: 7271: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7247: 7230: 7218: 7209: 7205: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7184: 7180: 7165: 7164: 7160: 7144: 7138: 7134: 7121: 7120: 7116: 7106: 7104: 7100: 7093: 7089:(SEPA) (2015). 7084: 7080: 7039: 7035: 7025: 7023: 7018: 7017: 7013: 6956: 6952: 6905: 6901: 6891: 6889: 6878: 6869: 6865: 6824: 6820: 6810: 6808: 6800: 6799: 6795: 6754:(43): 13184–9. 6740: 6736: 6712:10.1038/477271a 6697:(7364): 271–5. 6681: 6672: 6635:(15): 8334–48. 6622: 6613: 6572: 6568: 6519: 6515: 6502: 6501: 6497: 6481: 6480: 6473: 6471: 6461: 6457: 6420: 6416: 6399: 6398: 6394: 6381: 6380: 6376: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6355: 6351: 6341: 6339: 6333: 6329: 6319: 6317: 6307: 6306: 6302: 6295: 6291: 6270:(1–3): 189–99. 6258: 6254: 6213: 6209: 6176: 6172: 6165: 6151: 6147: 6137: 6135: 6131: 6124: 6118: 6111: 6096: 6074: 6070: 6063: 6043: 6039: 6000:(10): 5336–43. 5984: 5980: 5933: 5924: 5909: 5902: 5889: 5888: 5884: 5874: 5872: 5864: 5863: 5859: 5849: 5847: 5846:on May 11, 2021 5843: 5836: 5828: 5819: 5812: 5792: 5788: 5781: 5766: 5758: 5754: 5742: 5736: 5732: 5724: 5720: 5719: 5712: 5657: 5653: 5622:(11): 1607–14. 5606: 5602: 5545: 5541: 5494: 5490: 5480: 5478: 5470: 5469: 5465: 5418: 5414: 5404: 5402: 5398: 5391: 5383: 5376: 5366: 5364: 5363:on June 5, 2019 5357: 5341: 5337: 5325: 5319: 5315: 5306:. Lansing, MI: 5296: 5295: 5291: 5247: 5241: 5237: 5224: 5207: 5200: 5185: 5177: 5173: 5163: 5161: 5157: 5150: 5142: 5131: 5124: 5109: 5101: 5080: 5031: 5027: 5017: 5015: 5011: 5000: 4994: 4990: 4949: 4945: 4934: 4930: 4918: 4909: 4858: 4821: 4814: 4751: 4744: 4729: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4671: 4637: 4619:Erin Brockovich 4602: 4597: 4587: 4515: 4509: 4504: 4495: 4489: 4480: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4455: 4411:bioaugmentation 4374: 4368: 4351: 4345: 4320: 4300:hazardous waste 4292: 4223: 4207: 4132: 4123: 4096: 4069: 4063: 4050: 4002: 3959: 3912: 3891: 3848: 3807:trihalomethanes 3737: 3731: 3636: 3568: 3525: 3471: 3446: 3416: 3382: 3327: 3314:pharmaceuticals 3310: 3304: 3302:Pharmaceuticals 3260: 3172: 3166: 3131: 3052: 2965:affects 25% of 2928: 2922: 2914:water pollution 2909: 2907:Pollutant types 2759:water pollution 2757:. This type of 2736: 2698: 2696: 2684: 2677: 2676: 2576: 2568: 2567: 2541: 2533: 2532: 2468:Pharmaceuticals 2448:Nonpoint source 2388: 2378: 2377: 2346:Nuclear fallout 2319: 2309: 2308: 2279: 2269: 2268: 2259: 2249: 2248: 2239: 2231: 2230: 2216:Packaging waste 2181:Hazardous waste 2141: 2133: 2132: 2093: 2083: 2082: 2053:Nuclear fallout 2048:Nuclear fission 2028: 2018: 2017: 1983: 1973: 1972: 1948: 1940: 1939: 1913: 1911:Electromagnetic 1903: 1902: 1893: 1885: 1884: 1858: 1848: 1847: 1818:Ozone depletion 1763: 1753: 1703: 1692: 1685: 1676: 1671: 1664: 1662: 1652: 1642: 1637: 1630: 1628: 1618: 1608: 1603: 1596: 1588: 1570: 1563: 1554: 1549: 1542: 1540: 1530: 1520: 1513: 1504: 1497: 1480: 1473: 1464: 1459: 1452: 1450: 1440: 1430: 1425: 1418: 1411: 1394: 1387: 1378: 1373: 1366: 1364: 1354: 1344: 1339: 1332: 1324: 1306: 1299: 1290: 1285: 1278: 1276: 1267: 1258: 1253: 1246: 1239: 1222: 1214: 1204: 1199: 1192: 1190: 1180: 1170: 1165: 1158: 1150: 1132: 1124: 1114: 1107: 1098: 1096: 1086: 1076: 1071: 1064: 1062: 1053: 1044: 1037: 1028: 1023: 1008: 1000: 990: 985: 978: 976: 966: 956: 951: 944: 936: 918: 910: 900: 895: 888: 886: 876: 866: 859: 850: 845: 838: 836: 826: 816: 811: 804: 796: 786: 781: 774: 772: 762: 752: 747: 740: 732: 714: 706: 696: 691: 684: 682: 673: 664: 657: 648: 643: 628: 620: 610: 605: 598: 596: 586: 576: 569: 560: 555: 548: 540: 530: 525: 518: 516: 506: 496: 488: 478: 471: 454: 446: 436: 431: 424: 422: 412: 402: 397: 390: 388: 378: 368: 363: 356: 354: 345: 336: 329: 320: 313: 296: 288: 278: 273: 266: 264: 254: 244: 239: 232: 225: 208: 205: 200: 199: 198: 194: 192: 176: 174: 169: 163: 158: 150: 148:← Previous edit 145: 138: 136: 134: 133: 132: 128: 126: 102: 100: 95: 89: 81: 80: 79: 78: 76: 75: 74: 73: 72: 71: 62: 58: 52: 50: 45: 42: 40: 37: 35:Content deleted 34: 31: 29:← Previous edit 26: 25: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9270: 9260: 9259: 9254: 9249: 9244: 9239: 9234: 9229: 9224: 9207: 9206: 9204: 9203: 9192: 9189: 9188: 9185: 9184: 9182: 9181: 9172: 9167: 9162: 9157: 9152: 9149:(perpetuation) 9144: 9138: 9136: 9130: 9129: 9127: 9126: 9121: 9116: 9111: 9110: 9109: 9102:Nature reserve 9099: 9094: 9093: 9092: 9087: 9077: 9076: 9075: 9065: 9064: 9063: 9058: 9048: 9043: 9042: 9041: 9036: 9026: 9025: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9009: 8998: 8992: 8988: 8987: 8984: 8983: 8981: 8980: 8979: 8978: 8973: 8963: 8958: 8953: 8948: 8943: 8938: 8933: 8928: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8907: 8906: 8896: 8891: 8886: 8881: 8875: 8873: 8869: 8868: 8866: 8865: 8860: 8859: 8858: 8848: 8843: 8838: 8837: 8836: 8826: 8821: 8820: 8819: 8807: 8806: 8805: 8800: 8795: 8785: 8780: 8779: 8778: 8773: 8768: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8747: 8746: 8735: 8733: 8726: 8720: 8719: 8717: 8716: 8715: 8714: 8709: 8699: 8694: 8689: 8688: 8687: 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8647: 8642: 8637: 8632: 8631: 8630: 8620: 8619: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8603: 8593: 8592: 8591: 8586: 8581: 8579:climate change 8571: 8566: 8561: 8556: 8555: 8554: 8547:Bioprospecting 8544: 8538: 8536: 8530: 8529: 8527: 8526: 8525: 8524: 8519: 8509: 8508: 8507: 8502: 8497: 8492: 8482: 8481: 8480: 8475: 8474: 8473: 8468: 8458: 8457: 8456: 8451: 8441: 8440: 8439: 8429: 8424: 8414: 8413: 8412: 8402: 8401: 8400: 8390: 8389: 8388: 8383: 8378: 8373: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8352: 8351: 8350: 8349: 8333: 8331: 8325: 8324: 8322: 8321: 8316: 8315: 8314: 8309: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8246: 8244: 8238: 8237: 8234: 8233: 8231: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8214: 8212: 8208: 8207: 8205: 8204: 8199: 8198: 8197: 8192:Clean Air Act 8184: 8179: 8174: 8165: 8163: 8154: 8148: 8147: 8140: 8139: 8132: 8125: 8117: 8111: 8110: 8105: 8095: 8090: 8085: 8080: 8073: 8072:External links 8070: 8068: 8067: 8054:McLaughlin T. 8046: 8020: 7991: 7921: 7868: 7839:(4): 980–990. 7817: 7795: 7762: 7753:The Nile Delta 7743: 7694: 7669: 7658:42 U.S.C. 7636: 7625:42 U.S.C. 7603: 7578: 7555: 7550:Water Research 7537: 7523:(WHO) (2006). 7507: 7488: 7471: 7456: 7415: 7356: 7297: 7280:(WHO) (2011). 7269: 7252:(WHO) (2006). 7228: 7225:. IWA for WHO. 7214:(WHO) (2006). 7203: 7178: 7158: 7132: 7114: 7078: 7033: 7011: 6950: 6899: 6863: 6818: 6793: 6734: 6670: 6611: 6566: 6531:(8): 4524–36. 6513: 6495: 6455: 6436:(1): 327–362. 6414: 6392: 6374: 6349: 6327: 6300: 6289: 6252: 6207: 6170: 6163: 6145: 6109: 6094: 6068: 6061: 6037: 5978: 5922: 5900: 5882: 5857: 5817: 5810: 5786: 5779: 5769:. Reston, VA: 5752: 5730: 5710: 5651: 5600: 5539: 5510:(14): 1371–4. 5488: 5463: 5412: 5374: 5355: 5335: 5313: 5289: 5235: 5205: 5199:978-9241563192 5198: 5171: 5129: 5122: 5078: 5025: 4988: 4961:(2): 279–282. 4943: 4928: 4856: 4812: 4742: 4727: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4670: 4667: 4636: 4633: 4601: 4598: 4586: 4583: 4539:Madhya Pradesh 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4488: 4485: 4473: 4472:Lusaka, Zambia 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4454: 4451: 4370:Main article: 4367: 4364: 4347:Main article: 4344: 4341: 4340: 4339: 4336: 4333: 4330: 4327: 4319: 4316: 4291: 4288: 4278: 4277: 4274: 4271: 4268: 4265: 4262: 4259: 4256: 4255: 4254: 4222: 4219: 4206: 4203: 4174:quifer media, 4131: 4128: 4122: 4119: 4095: 4092: 4088:European Union 4062: 4059: 4049: 4046: 4001: 3998: 3994:vinyl chloride 3958: 3955: 3911: 3908: 3890: 3887: 3853:from sanitary 3847: 3844: 3823:produced water 3730: 3727: 3693:vinyl chloride 3635: 3632: 3618:(EPA) and the 3567: 3564: 3542:pharmaceutical 3524: 3521: 3512:drinking water 3470: 3467: 3444: 3415: 3412: 3411: 3410: 3407: 3404: 3401: 3398: 3395: 3392: 3389: 3381: 3378: 3326: 3323: 3306:Main article: 3303: 3300: 3259: 3256: 3237:benzo(a)pyrene 3214:vinyl chloride 3168:Main article: 3165: 3162: 3154:drinking water 3130: 3127: 3101:. Of the four 3051: 3048: 2997:drinking water 2984:operations or 2955:northern India 2924:Main article: 2921: 2918: 2908: 2905: 2749:) occurs when 2738: 2737: 2735: 2734: 2727: 2720: 2712: 2709: 2708: 2707: 2706: 2694: 2679: 2678: 2673: 2672: 2671: 2670: 2662: 2661: 2657: 2656: 2655: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2637:Law by country 2634: 2626: 2625: 2619: 2618: 2613: 2608: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2583: 2577: 2574: 2573: 2570: 2569: 2566: 2565: 2564: 2563: 2558: 2548: 2542: 2539: 2538: 2535: 2534: 2531: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2508:Surface runoff 2505: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2485: 2480: 2475: 2470: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2408:Eutrophication 2405: 2400: 2395: 2389: 2384: 2383: 2380: 2379: 2376: 2375: 2370: 2365: 2363:Scorched earth 2360: 2359: 2358: 2356:Nuclear winter 2353: 2351:Nuclear famine 2348: 2338: 2337: 2336: 2326: 2320: 2315: 2314: 2311: 2310: 2307: 2306: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2280: 2275: 2274: 2271: 2270: 2267: 2266: 2260: 2255: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2247: 2246: 2240: 2237: 2236: 2233: 2232: 2229: 2228: 2223: 2218: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2178: 2173: 2168: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2148: 2142: 2139: 2138: 2135: 2134: 2131: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2108:Bioremediation 2105: 2100: 2094: 2089: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2081: 2080: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2045: 2040: 2038:Bioremediation 2035: 2029: 2024: 2023: 2020: 2019: 2016: 2015: 2010: 2005: 2000: 1995: 1990: 1988:Transportation 1984: 1979: 1978: 1975: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1965: 1960: 1955: 1949: 1946: 1945: 1942: 1941: 1938: 1937: 1935:Radio spectrum 1932: 1931: 1930: 1925: 1914: 1909: 1908: 1905: 1904: 1901: 1900: 1894: 1891: 1890: 1887: 1886: 1883: 1882: 1881: 1880: 1870: 1865: 1859: 1854: 1853: 1850: 1849: 1846: 1845: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1803:Global dimming 1800: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1770: 1764: 1759: 1758: 1755: 1754: 1751: 1743: 1742: 1736: 1735: 1701: 1699: 1694: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1686: 1683: 1681: 1678: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1665: 1661:|date=May 2024 1660: 1657: 1655: 1653: 1649: 1647: 1644: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1631: 1627:|date=May 2024 1626: 1623: 1621: 1619: 1617:filters.{{cn}} 1615: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1597: 1593: 1591: 1589: 1585: 1583: 1580: 1579: 1576: 1572: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1544: 1543: 1539:|date=May 2024 1538: 1535: 1533: 1531: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1505: 1502: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1486: 1482: 1481: 1478: 1476: 1474: 1471: 1469: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1453: 1449:|date=May 2024 1448: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1420: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1403: 1400: 1396: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1368: 1367: 1363:|date=May 2024 1362: 1359: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1334: 1333: 1329: 1327: 1325: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1315: 1312: 1308: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1288: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1279: 1275:|date=May 2024 1274: 1272: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1248: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1240: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1231: 1228: 1224: 1223: 1219: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1202: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1193: 1189:|date=May 2024 1188: 1185: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1171: 1168: 1166: 1163: 1160: 1159: 1155: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1141: 1138: 1134: 1133: 1129: 1127: 1125: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1115: 1112: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1099: 1095:|date=May 2024 1094: 1091: 1089: 1087: 1083: 1081: 1078: 1077: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1065: 1061:|date=May 2024 1060: 1058: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1018: 1017: 1014: 1010: 1009: 1005: 1003: 1001: 997: 995: 992: 991: 988: 986: 983: 980: 979: 975:|date=May 2024 974: 971: 969: 967: 963: 961: 958: 957: 954: 952: 949: 946: 945: 941: 939: 937: 933: 931: 928: 927: 924: 920: 919: 915: 913: 911: 907: 905: 902: 901: 898: 896: 893: 890: 889: 885:|date=May 2024 884: 881: 879: 877: 873: 871: 868: 867: 864: 862: 860: 857: 855: 852: 851: 848: 846: 843: 840: 839: 835:|date=May 2024 834: 831: 829: 827: 823: 821: 818: 817: 814: 812: 809: 806: 805: 801: 799: 797: 793: 791: 788: 787: 784: 782: 779: 776: 775: 771:|date=May 2024 770: 767: 765: 763: 759: 757: 754: 753: 750: 748: 745: 742: 741: 737: 735: 733: 729: 727: 724: 723: 720: 716: 715: 711: 709: 707: 703: 701: 698: 697: 694: 692: 689: 686: 685: 681:|date=May 2024 680: 678: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 665: 662: 660: 658: 655: 653: 650: 649: 646: 644: 641: 638: 637: 634: 630: 629: 625: 623: 621: 617: 615: 612: 611: 608: 606: 603: 600: 599: 595:|date=May 2024 594: 591: 589: 587: 583: 581: 578: 577: 575:=== Others === 574: 572: 570: 568:=== Others === 567: 565: 562: 561: 558: 556: 553: 550: 549: 545: 543: 541: 537: 535: 532: 531: 528: 526: 523: 520: 519: 515:|date=May 2024 514: 511: 509: 507: 503: 501: 498: 497: 493: 491: 489: 485: 483: 480: 479: 476: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 463: 460: 456: 455: 451: 449: 447: 443: 441: 438: 437: 434: 432: 429: 426: 425: 421:|date=May 2024 420: 417: 415: 413: 409: 407: 404: 403: 400: 398: 395: 392: 391: 387:|date=May 2024 386: 383: 381: 379: 375: 373: 370: 369: 366: 364: 361: 358: 357: 353:|date=May 2024 352: 350: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 337: 334: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 321: 318: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 305: 302: 298: 297: 293: 291: 289: 285: 283: 280: 279: 276: 274: 271: 268: 267: 263:|date=May 2024 262: 259: 257: 255: 251: 249: 246: 245: 242: 240: 237: 234: 233: 230: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 217: 214: 210: 209: 193: 188: 187: 172: 151: 127: 114: 113: 98: 67: 61: 59: 41: 33: 27: 23: 22: 14: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9269: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9250: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9240: 9238: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9228: 9225: 9223: 9220: 9219: 9217: 9202: 9194: 9193: 9190: 9180: 9179:Non-renewable 9176: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9145: 9143: 9140: 9139: 9137: 9135: 9131: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9119:Urban ecology 9117: 9115: 9112: 9108: 9105: 9104: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9095: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9082: 9081: 9078: 9074: 9071: 9070: 9069: 9066: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9053: 9052: 9049: 9047: 9044: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9031: 9030: 9027: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9004: 9003: 9000: 8999: 8996: 8993: 8989: 8977: 8974: 8972: 8969: 8968: 8967: 8964: 8962: 8959: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8951:Privatization 8949: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8927: 8924: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8905: 8902: 8901: 8900: 8897: 8895: 8892: 8890: 8887: 8885: 8882: 8880: 8877: 8876: 8874: 8870: 8864: 8861: 8857: 8854: 8853: 8852: 8849: 8847: 8846:Surface water 8844: 8842: 8839: 8835: 8832: 8831: 8830: 8827: 8825: 8822: 8818: 8817: 8813: 8812: 8811: 8808: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8790: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8777: 8774: 8772: 8769: 8767: 8764: 8763: 8762: 8759: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8745: 8742: 8741: 8740: 8737: 8736: 8734: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8721: 8713: 8710: 8708: 8705: 8704: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8693: 8690: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8652: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8638: 8636: 8633: 8629: 8626: 8625: 8624: 8621: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8598: 8597: 8594: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8576: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8553: 8550: 8549: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8539: 8537: 8535: 8531: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8514: 8513: 8510: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8487: 8486: 8483: 8479: 8476: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8463: 8462: 8459: 8455: 8452: 8450: 8447: 8446: 8445: 8442: 8438: 8435: 8434: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8419: 8418: 8415: 8411: 8408: 8407: 8406: 8403: 8399: 8396: 8395: 8394: 8391: 8387: 8384: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8368: 8367: 8364: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8354: 8348: 8347:peak farmland 8345: 8344: 8343: 8340: 8339: 8338: 8335: 8334: 8332: 8330: 8326: 8320: 8317: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8304: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8282: 8278: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8247: 8245: 8243: 8239: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8215: 8213: 8209: 8203: 8200: 8196: 8190: 8189: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8167: 8166: 8164: 8162: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8149: 8145: 8138: 8133: 8131: 8126: 8124: 8119: 8118: 8115: 8109: 8106: 8103: 8099: 8096: 8094: 8091: 8089: 8086: 8084: 8081: 8079: 8076: 8075: 8063: 8062: 8057: 8050: 8034: 8030: 8024: 8009: 8008:Stanford News 8005: 8001: 7995: 7987: 7983: 7978: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7951: 7947: 7943: 7939: 7938: 7933: 7925: 7917: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7889: 7885: 7884: 7879: 7872: 7864: 7860: 7856: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7833: 7828: 7821: 7813: 7809: 7805: 7799: 7791: 7787: 7781: 7773: 7769: 7765: 7759: 7755: 7754: 7747: 7739: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7721: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7705: 7698: 7683: 7679: 7673: 7666: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7648: 7640: 7633: 7630: 7626: 7622: 7615: 7607: 7596: 7589: 7582: 7574: 7572: 7566: 7559: 7551: 7547: 7541: 7533: 7526: 7522: 7516: 7514: 7512: 7503: 7499: 7492: 7484: 7483: 7475: 7467: 7460: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7437:(8): 536–42. 7436: 7432: 7431: 7426: 7419: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7372: 7367: 7360: 7352: 7348: 7344: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7326: 7322: 7318: 7314: 7313: 7308: 7301: 7283: 7279: 7273: 7255: 7251: 7245: 7243: 7241: 7239: 7237: 7235: 7233: 7224: 7217: 7213: 7207: 7189: 7182: 7174: 7173: 7168: 7162: 7154: 7150: 7143: 7136: 7128: 7124: 7118: 7099: 7092: 7088: 7082: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7045: 7037: 7026:September 24, 7021: 7015: 7007: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6966: 6961: 6954: 6946: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6921:(8): 084010. 6920: 6916: 6915: 6910: 6903: 6892:September 30, 6888: 6884: 6877: 6873: 6867: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6830: 6822: 6807: 6803: 6797: 6789: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6738: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6704: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6691: 6686: 6679: 6677: 6675: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6629: 6620: 6618: 6616: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6578: 6570: 6562: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6525: 6517: 6509: 6505: 6499: 6491: 6485: 6470: 6469:cfpub.epa.gov 6466: 6459: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6430: 6425: 6418: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6396: 6388: 6384: 6378: 6360: 6353: 6338: 6331: 6316: 6315: 6310: 6304: 6298: 6293: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6264: 6256: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6225:(1): 341–63. 6224: 6220: 6219: 6211: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6182: 6174: 6166: 6160: 6156: 6149: 6130: 6123: 6116: 6114: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6072: 6064: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6049: 6041: 6033: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5994: 5989: 5982: 5974: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5949:(5): 521–30. 5948: 5944: 5943: 5938: 5931: 5929: 5927: 5918: 5914: 5907: 5905: 5896: 5892: 5886: 5871: 5867: 5861: 5842: 5835: 5834: 5826: 5824: 5822: 5813: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5798: 5790: 5782: 5780:9781411323506 5776: 5772: 5765: 5764: 5756: 5748: 5741: 5734: 5723: 5717: 5715: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5667: 5662: 5655: 5647: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5616: 5611: 5604: 5596: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5555: 5550: 5543: 5535: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5504: 5499: 5492: 5477: 5473: 5467: 5459: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5428: 5423: 5416: 5397: 5390: 5389: 5381: 5379: 5362: 5358: 5352: 5348: 5347: 5339: 5331: 5324: 5317: 5309: 5305: 5304: 5299: 5293: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5260:(8): 928–42. 5259: 5255: 5254: 5246: 5239: 5231: 5230: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5216: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5201: 5195: 5191: 5184: 5183: 5175: 5156: 5149: 5148: 5140: 5138: 5136: 5134: 5125: 5119: 5115: 5108: 5107: 5099: 5097: 5095: 5093: 5091: 5089: 5087: 5085: 5083: 5074: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5047:(3): 1120–8. 5046: 5042: 5041: 5036: 5029: 5010: 5006: 4999: 4992: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4955: 4947: 4939: 4932: 4924: 4917: 4913: 4907: 4905: 4903: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4883: 4881: 4879: 4877: 4875: 4873: 4871: 4869: 4867: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4831: 4826: 4819: 4817: 4808: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4761: 4756: 4749: 4747: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4724: 4720: 4719: 4711: 4707: 4700: 4698: 4694: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4678: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4632: 4628: 4627: 4623: 4621: 4620: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4600:Hinkley, U.S. 4596: 4592: 4585:North America 4582: 4578: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4531:Uttar Pradesh 4528: 4524: 4520: 4514: 4499: 4494: 4484: 4479: 4459: 4450: 4448: 4444: 4443:nanomaterials 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4383: 4379: 4373: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4350: 4337: 4334: 4331: 4328: 4325: 4324: 4323: 4311: 4307: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4287: 4284: 4275: 4272: 4269: 4266: 4263: 4260: 4257: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4240: 4239: 4237: 4233: 4227: 4218: 4215: 4211: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4195: 4189: 4186:mpact on the 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4147: 4144: 4139: 4137: 4127: 4118: 4115: 4112: 4108: 4106: 4100: 4091: 4089: 4084: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4068: 4054: 4045: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4026: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4007: 4006:surface water 3997: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3954: 3951: 3947: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3907: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3886: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3874:birth defects 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3856: 3852: 3843: 3840: 3835: 3832: 3828: 3827:anthropogenic 3824: 3820: 3814: 3810: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3795: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3763: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3752:contamination 3749: 3744: 3742: 3736: 3726: 3724: 3718: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3690: 3687: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3650: 3646: 3644: 3639: 3631: 3629: 3628:monocrotophos 3623: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3610: 3606: 3601: 3593: 3589: 3586: 3582: 3581:surface water 3578: 3573: 3563: 3561: 3560:sewage sludge 3556: 3553: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3520: 3516: 3513: 3509: 3503: 3501: 3495: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3475: 3466: 3462: 3459: 3454: 3452: 3448: 3443:fluorite (CaF 3439: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3408: 3405: 3402: 3399: 3396: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3386: 3385: 3377: 3373: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3358:radionuclides 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3336: 3332: 3331:organohalides 3322: 3318: 3315: 3309: 3299: 3297: 3293: 3287: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3255: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3225: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3178: 3176: 3171: 3161: 3157: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3138: 3135: 3126: 3122: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3047: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3032: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2989: 2987: 2983: 2978: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2935: 2933: 2927: 2917: 2915: 2904: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2877:surface water 2874: 2869: 2867: 2863: 2862:precipitation 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2814: 2812: 2808: 2807:public health 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2763:contamination 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2745:(also called 2744: 2733: 2728: 2726: 2721: 2719: 2714: 2713: 2711: 2710: 2705: 2695: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2682: 2681: 2680: 2669: 2666: 2665: 2664: 2663: 2659: 2658: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2640: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2629: 2628: 2627: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2602: 2599: 2597: 2594: 2592: 2589: 2587: 2584: 2582: 2579: 2578: 2572: 2571: 2562: 2559: 2557: 2554: 2553: 2552: 2549: 2547: 2544: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2529: 2526: 2524: 2523:Water quality 2521: 2519: 2516: 2514: 2511: 2509: 2506: 2504: 2501: 2499: 2496: 2494: 2491: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2474: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2439: 2436: 2434: 2431: 2429: 2426: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2399: 2396: 2394: 2391: 2390: 2387: 2382: 2381: 2374: 2371: 2369: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2343: 2342: 2339: 2335: 2332: 2331: 2330: 2327: 2325: 2322: 2321: 2318: 2313: 2312: 2305: 2302: 2300: 2299:Traffic signs 2297: 2295: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2281: 2278: 2273: 2272: 2265: 2262: 2261: 2258: 2253: 2252: 2245: 2242: 2241: 2235: 2234: 2227: 2224: 2222: 2219: 2217: 2214: 2212: 2209: 2207: 2206:Nanomaterials 2204: 2202: 2199: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2169: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2147: 2144: 2143: 2137: 2136: 2129: 2126: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2104: 2101: 2099: 2096: 2095: 2092: 2087: 2086: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2068:Radioactivity 2066: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2041: 2039: 2036: 2034: 2031: 2030: 2027: 2022: 2021: 2014: 2013:Soundproofing 2011: 2009: 2008:Noise control 2006: 2004: 2003:Noise barrier 2001: 1999: 1996: 1994: 1991: 1989: 1986: 1985: 1982: 1977: 1976: 1969: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1950: 1944: 1943: 1936: 1933: 1929: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1919: 1916: 1915: 1912: 1907: 1906: 1899: 1896: 1895: 1889: 1888: 1879: 1876: 1875: 1874: 1871: 1869: 1866: 1864: 1861: 1860: 1857: 1852: 1851: 1844: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1834: 1831: 1829: 1826: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1769: 1766: 1765: 1762: 1757: 1756: 1749: 1745: 1744: 1741: 1738: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1728: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1709: 1705: 1697: 1689: 1687: 1682: 1680: 1679: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1667: 1656: 1648: 1645: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1633: 1622: 1614: 1611: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1599: 1592: 1590: 1584: 1582: 1581: 1573: 1567: 1565: 1560: 1558: 1557: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1545: 1534: 1526: 1523: 1517: 1515: 1510: 1508: 1507: 1501: 1499: 1494: 1492: 1491: 1483: 1477: 1475: 1470: 1468: 1467: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1455: 1444: 1436: 1433: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1421: 1415: 1413: 1408: 1406: 1405: 1397: 1391: 1389: 1384: 1382: 1381: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1369: 1358: 1350: 1347: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1335: 1328: 1326: 1320: 1318: 1317: 1309: 1303: 1301: 1296: 1294: 1293: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1281: 1271: 1264: 1261: 1257: 1255: 1252: 1250: 1249: 1243: 1241: 1236: 1234: 1233: 1225: 1218: 1216: 1210: 1208: 1207: 1203: 1201: 1198: 1196: 1195: 1184: 1176: 1173: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1161: 1154: 1152: 1146: 1144: 1143: 1135: 1128: 1126: 1120: 1118: 1117: 1111: 1109: 1104: 1102: 1101: 1090: 1085:system.{{cn}} 1082: 1079: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1067: 1057: 1050: 1047: 1041: 1039: 1034: 1032: 1031: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1020: 1019: 1011: 1004: 1002: 996: 994: 993: 989: 987: 984: 982: 981: 970: 962: 959: 955: 953: 950: 948: 947: 940: 938: 932: 930: 929: 921: 914: 912: 906: 904: 903: 899: 897: 894: 892: 891: 880: 872: 869: 863: 861: 856: 854: 853: 849: 847: 844: 842: 841: 830: 822: 819: 815: 813: 810: 808: 807: 800: 798: 792: 790: 789: 785: 783: 780: 778: 777: 766: 758: 755: 751: 749: 746: 744: 743: 736: 734: 728: 726: 725: 717: 710: 708: 702: 700: 699: 695: 693: 690: 688: 687: 677: 670: 667: 661: 659: 654: 652: 651: 647: 645: 642: 640: 639: 631: 624: 622: 616: 614: 613: 609: 607: 604: 602: 601: 590: 582: 579: 573: 571: 566: 564: 563: 559: 557: 554: 552: 551: 544: 542: 536: 534: 533: 529: 527: 524: 522: 521: 510: 502: 499: 492: 490: 484: 482: 481: 475: 473: 468: 466: 465: 457: 450: 448: 442: 440: 439: 435: 433: 430: 428: 427: 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