80:). Revenue can be generated or not, depending on the behavior of employees. When the employee performs this sales job well, he is able to move more merchandise. However, certain factors other than employees' behavior influence revenue generated. For example, sales might slump due to economic conditions, changes in customer preferences, production bottlenecks, etc. In these conditions, employee performance can be adequate, yet sales can remain low. The first is performance and the second is the effectiveness of that performance. One can de-couple these two because performance is not the same as effectiveness.
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261:, which refers to "a combined effect from three choice behaviors—choice to expend effort, choice of level of effort to expend, and choice to persist in the expenditure of that level of effort" (Campbell, 1990). It reflects the direction, intensity, and persistence of volitional behaviors. Campbell (1990) emphasized that the only way to discuss motivation as a direct determinant of behavior is as one or more of these choices. (See also
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that the association between EI and job performance becomes more positive as cognitive intelligence decreases, an idea first proposed in the context of academic performance (Petrides, Frederickson, & Furnham, 2004). The results of the former study supported the compensatory model: employees with low IQ get higher task performance and organizational citizenship behavior directed at the organization, the higher their EI.
312:
However, an
American Psychological Association article states that conscientiousness actually impedes success in creative, innovative or spontaneous jobs such as artistic, social and investigative jobs. That article states that other psychological factors are also related to job performance, namely: creativity, leadership, integrity, attendance and cooperation.
45:. Performance is an important criterion for organizational outcomes and success. John P. Campbell describes job performance as an individual-level variable, or something a single person does. This differentiates it from more encompassing constructs such as organizational performance or national performance, which are higher-level variables.
128:, the second factor, are those behaviors which an individual is required to undertake which do not pertain only to a particular job. Returning to the sales person, an example of a task specific behavior would be showing a product to a potential customer. A non-task specific behavior of a sales person might be training new staff members.
65:, which is something done by an employee. This concept differentiates performance from outcomes. Outcomes result partially from an individual's performance, but they are also the result of other influences. In other words, there are more factors that determine outcomes than just an employee's behaviors and actions.
430:(where 'emotional labor' was defined as jobs that require the effective display of positive emotion). In contrast, EI shows little relationship to job performance in jobs that do not require emotional labor. In other words, emotional intelligence tends to predict job performance for emotional jobs only.
286:
perceptions on performance is believed to stem from Equity Theory. This would suggest that when people perceive injustice they seek to restore justice. One way that employees restore justice is by altering their level of performance. Procedural justice affects performance as a result of its impact on
278:
The second distinction is between typical and maximum performance. Sackett, Zedeck, and Fogli did a study on supermarket cashiers and found that there was a substantial difference between scores reflecting their typical performance and scores reflecting their maximum performance. This study suggested
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The first one is the distinction between speed and accuracy. This distinction is similar to the one between quantity and quality. Important questions that should be considered include: which is most valued by the organization, maximized speed, maximized accuracy, or some balance between the two? What
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and counterproductive) behaviors. Whereas task performance describes obligatory behaviors, contextual behaviors are behaviors that do not fulfill specific aspects of the job's required role. Citizenship behaviors are defined as behaviors which contribute to the goals of the organization through their
422:
Research of emotional intelligence (EI) and job performance shows mixed results: a positive relation has been found in some of the studies, in others there was no relation or an inconsistent one. This led researchers Cote and Miners (2006) to offer a compensatory model between EI and IQ, that posits
407:
While there are many de-motivational effects of role conflict on work, there is also a positive. Those undergoing role conflict often had an increase in work creativity. Due to multiple roles, there is an increase in flexibility, different sources of information, and these people have many different
108:
Despite the emphasis on defining and predicting job performance, it is not a single unified construct. There are vastly many jobs each with different performance standards. Job performance consists of more than one kind of behavior. Campbell (1990) proposed an eight factor model of performance based
433:
A more recent study suggests that EI is not necessarily a universally positive trait. They found a negative correlation between EI and managerial work demands; while under low levels of managerial work demands, they found a negative relationship between EI and teamwork effectiveness. An explanation
372:
and job performance. The most popular theory relating the CSE trait to job performance argues that people with high CSE will be more motivated to perform well because they are confident they have the ability to do so. Motivation is generally the most accepted mediator of the core self-evaluations
324:
The significance of work experience as a predictor of job performance is debatable as experience correlates with performance for people with 0–3 years’ experience, but the correlation is attenuating to just 0.15 at 12+ years of experience. This suggests that experience doesn't increase performance
202:
Interpersonally oriented behaviors are represented by any interaction the focal employee has with other employees. These can be task related or non-task related. This dimension diverges from
Campbell's taxonomy because it included behaviors (small talk, socializing, etc.) that are not targeting an
135:
tasks refer to activities where the incumbent is evaluated, not on the content of a message necessarily, but on the adeptness with which they deliver the communication. Employees need to make formal and informal oral and written presentations to various audiences in many different jobs in the work
307:
was the best overall predictor of job performance and training performance. While intelligence (general mental ability) is the strongest known predictor of job performance, that is less true for fields that are information-rich and require much instructional learning. Conscientiousness is another
99:
Another key feature of job performance is that it has to be goal relevant. Performance must be directed toward organizational goals that are relevant to the job or role. Therefore, performance does not include activities where effort is expended toward achieving peripheral goals. For example, the
311:
The
American Psychological Association's Research in Action article on personnel selection recounts evidence indicating that general cognitive ability and conscientiousness account for 20-30% of the variance in job performance, with more complex jobs falling into the upper portion of that range.
316:
ability and age correlated with ratings but not sales. Social skills, a good mentor and interpersonal virtues predict career success, a concept related to job performance, and happiness, better than high education, IQ or cerebral virtues, except for certain occupations like theoretical physics.
315:
There are differences in the extent to which job performance is predicted by intelligence depending on the occupation. A 1998 meta-analysis of the predictors of job performance for salesperson found that extraversion and conscientiousness predicted both ratings and sales, but general cognitive
339:
Bullying results in a loss of productivity. In one study a moderate negative correlation was found between self-rated performance and bullying, with the “currently bullied” on average reporting a decrease of productivity of approximately 7% compared with those who were neither bullied nor had
68:
Campbell allows for exceptions when defining performance as behavior. For instance, he clarifies that performance does not have to be directly observable actions of an individual. It can consist of mental productions such as answers or decisions. However, performance needs to be under the
87:. One can think of productivity as a comparison of the amount of effectiveness that results from a certain level of cost associated with that effectiveness. In other words, productivity is the ratio of outputs to inputs—those inputs being effort, monetary costs, resources, etc.
206:
Down-time behaviors are behaviors that employees engage in during their free time either at work or off-site. Down-time behaviors that occur off-site are only considered job performance when they subsequently affect job performance (for example, outside behaviors that cause
506:
Campbell, J. P. (1990). Modeling the performance prediction problem in industrial and organizational psychology. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of
Industrial and Organizational Psychology (pp. 687-732). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press,
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for workers. Workers who might have lost a degree of power may feel like they lost their authority and begin to lash out at other employees by being verbally abusive, purposefully withholding work related items, or sometimes even physically to withhold their status.
387:
Role conflict can have many different effects on the work-life of an individual as well as their family-life. In a study in Taiwan, it was found that those suffering from role conflict also suffered greatly in their work performance, mainly in the form of lack of
441:
Another study assessed a possible link between EI and entrepreneurial behaviors and success. In accordance with much of the other findings regarding EI and job performance, they found that levels of EI only predicted a small amount of entrepreneurial behavior.
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the distinction between typical and maximum performance. Regular work situations reflect varying levels of motivation which result in typical performance. Special circumstances generate maximum employee motivation which results in maximum performance.
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would be setting an organizational goal or responding to external stimuli to assist a group in achieving its goals. In addition a manager might be responsible for monitoring group and individual progress towards goals and monitoring organizational
596:
Sackett, P. R., & DeVore, C. J. (2001). Counterproductive behaviors at work. In N. Anderson, D. Ones, H. Sinangil, & C. Viswesvaran (Eds.), Handbook of industrial, work, and organizational psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 145–164). London, UK:
180:. The individual will be relied upon to undertake many of the things delineated under the previous factor and in addition will be responsible for meting out rewards and punishments. These aspects of performance happen in a face to face manner.
606:
Dalal, R. S. & Hulin, C. L. (2008). Motivation for what? A multivariate dynamic perspective of the criterion. In R. Kanfer, G. Chen, & R. D. Pritchard (Eds.), Work motivation: Past, present, and future (pp. 63-100). New York:
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and job performance relationship. These relationships have inspired increasing amounts of research on core self-evaluations and suggest valuable implications about the importance this trait may have for organizations.
253:
If declarative knowledge is knowing what to do, procedural knowledge and skill is knowing how to do it. For example, procedural knowledge and skill includes cognitive skill, perceptual skill, interpersonal skill, etc.
90:
Utility, another related construct, is defined as the value of a particular level of performance, effectiveness, or productivity. Utilities of performance, effectiveness, and productivity are value judgments.
392:. Those with role conflict did not do more than the bare minimum requirements at work. There was also a decline in the ability to assign tasks. Having multiple roles will often lead to job dissatisfaction.
270:
Campbell (1990) also mentioned several performance parameters that may have important implications for the job performance setting and should be investigated by industrial and organizational psychologists.
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Campbell, J. P., McCloy, R. A., Oppler, S. H., & Sager, C. E. (1993). A theory of performance: In N. Schmitt & W. C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel
Selection in Organizations (pp. 35-70). San Francisco:
352:(CSE). The concept of core self-evaluations was first examined by Judge, Locke, and Durham (1997) as a dispositional predictor of job satisfaction, and involves four personality dimensions;
399:. When companies undergo organizational change workers often experience either a loss or a gain in areas of a workers job, thus changing the expectations of the worker. Change is often very
715:
Schmidt, Frank L.; Hunter, John E. (1998). "The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings".
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Helge H, Sheehan MJ, Cooper CL, Einarsen S "Organisational
Effects of Workplace Bullying" in Bullying and Harassment in the Workplace: Developments in Theory, Research, and Practice (2010)
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effect on the social and psychological conditions. Counterproductive behaviors, on the other hand, are intentional actions by employees which circumvent the aims of the organization.
195:
Another taxonomy of job performance was proposed and developed for the US Navy by Murphy (1994). This model is significantly broader and breaks performance into only four dimensions.
438:, as women tend to score higher levels than men. This furthers the idea that job context plays a role in the relationships between EI, teamwork effectiveness, and job performance.
287:
employee attitudes. Distributive justice affects performance when efficiency and productivity are involved. Improving justice perceptions improves productivity and performance.
426:
A meta-analytic review by Joseph and Newman also revealed that both
Ability EI and Trait EI tend to predict job performance much better in jobs that require a high degree of
250:
Declarative knowledge represents the knowledge of a given task's requirements. For instance, declarative knowledge includes knowledge of principles, facts, ideas, etc.
535:
Campbell, J.P., & Campbell, R.J. (1988). Productivity in
Organizations: New perspectives from industrial and organizational psychology. San Francisco: Jossy-Bass.
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The difference between individual controlled action and outcomes is best conveyed through an example. In a sales job, a favorable outcome is a certain level of
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kind of trade offs should an employee makes? The latter question is important because speed and accuracy for the same task may be independent of one another.
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Kacmar, K. M.; Harris, K. J.; Collins, B. J.; Judge, T. A. (2009). "Core self-evaluations and job performance: the role of the perceived work environment".
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Campbell (1990) also suggested determinants of performance components. Individual differences on performance are a function of three main determinants:
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effort put toward the goal of getting to work in the shortest amount of time is not performance (except where it is concerned with avoiding lateness).
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Task-oriented behaviors are similar to task-specific behaviors in
Campbell's model. This dimension includes any major tasks relevant to someone's job.
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which include those behaviors that an individual undertakes as part of a job. They are the core substantive tasks that delineate one job from another.
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Farh, C. C.; Seo, Tesluk (March 5, 2012). "Emotional
Intelligence, Teamwork Effectiveness, and Job Performance: The Moderating Role of Job Context".
838:
560:"The relative importance of task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance to global ratings of job performance: A policy-capturing approach"
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Campbell, J.P., Dunnette, M.D., Lawler, E.E., & Weick, K.E. (1970). Managerial behavior, performance, and effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill.
143:, either day to day, or when there are extraordinary circumstances. This factor reflects the degree to which people commit themselves to job tasks.
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In addition to these models dividing performance into dimensions, others have identified different types of behaviors making up performance.
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and administrative performance entails those aspects of a job which serve the group or organization but do not involve direct supervision. A
368:. The way in which people appraise themselves using core self-evaluations has the ability to predict positive work outcomes, specifically,
1002:
Judge, T. A.; Erez, A.; Bono, J. E. (1998). "The power of being positive: The relation between positive self-concept and job performance".
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Bono, J. E.; Judge, T. A. (2003). "Core self-evaluations: A review of the trait and its role in job satisfaction and job performance".
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38:
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Karriker, JH; Williams, ML (2009). "Organizational Justice and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Mediated Multifoci Model".
53:
There are several key features to Campbell's conceptualization of job performance which help clarify what job performance means.
1168:"EQ-nomics: Understanding the relationship between individual differences in trait emotional intelligence and entrepreneurship"
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Judge, T. A.; Locke, E. A.; Durham, C. C. (1997). "The dispositional causes of job satisfaction: A core evaluations approach".
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548:. In N. Schmitt & W. C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel Selection in Organizations (pp. 71-98). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Erez, A.; Judge, T. A. (2001). "Relationship of core self-evaluations to goal setting, motivation, and performance".
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In jobs where people work closely or are highly interdependent, performance may include the degree to which a person
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Sackett, P. R.; Zedeck, S.; Fogli, L. (1988). "Relations between measures of typical and maximum job performance".
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Joseph, D. L.; Newman, D. A. (2010). "Emotional Intelligence: An Integrative Meta-Analysis and Cascading Model".
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Tang, Y.; Chang, C. (2010). "February 26). Impact of role ambiguity and role conflict on employee creativity".
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Cote, S. and Miners, C.T.H. (2006). "Emotional intelligence, cognitive intelligence and job performance",
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Borman, W. C., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1993). Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of
169:. This might include acting as a good role model, coaching, giving advice or helping maintain group
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Cohen-Charash, Y.; Spector, P.E. (2001). "The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis".
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individual's control, regardless of whether the performance of interest is mental or behavioral.
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good predictor, but correlates with intelligence and is sometimes excluded from meta-analyses.
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research that attempts to capture factors of job performance existent across all jobs.
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Lawler, E.E. (1973). Motivation in work organizations. Monterey, C.A: Brooks/Cole.
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Ahmetoglu, Gorkan; Leutner, Franziska; Chamorro-Premuzic, Tomas (December 2011).
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generated through the sale of something (merchandise, or some service such as
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Experiencing role conflict within the work place may also lead to
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839:"Science of Happiness: New Research on Mood, Satisfaction - TIME"
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154:. Individuals would be expected to be in good standing with the
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Another way to divide up performance is in terms of task and
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An individual's performance can also be assessed in terms of
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Job performance is a consistent and important outcome of
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well. Job performance, studied academically as part of
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Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
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779:"Which traits predict job performance?"
61:First, Campbell defines performance as
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1063:African Journal of Business Management
257:The third predictor of performance is
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761:"Who is the Best Person for the Job?"
83:Another closely related construct is
33:assesses whether a person performs a
1047:Mark Dombeck, Ph.D. (July 24, 2007)
558:Rotundo, M.; Sackett, P. R. (2002).
408:perspectives to bring to the table.
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1031:Research in Organizational Behavior
178:supervisory or leadership component
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483:Typical versus maximum performance
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340:witnessed bullying taking place.
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210:Destructive/hazardous behaviors.
150:might also include an aspect of
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564:Journal of Applied Psychology
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95:Organizational goal relevance
282:Additionally, the impact of
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247:and skill, and motivation.
126:non-task specific behaviors
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473:Organizational commitment
320:Impact of work experience
1510:Aspects of organizations
694:10.1177/0149206307309265
436:gender differences in EI
299:of selection methods in
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1500:Aspects of corporations
488:Trait activation theory
119:task specific behaviors
41:, also forms a part of
1505:Aspects of occupations
1424:Exploitation of labour
1051:Retrieved 6 June 2016.
819:Cite journal requires
717:Psychological Bulletin
667:10.1006/obhd.2001.2958
546:contextual performance
412:Emotional intelligence
305:general mental ability
284:organizational justice
176:Many jobs also have a
1515:Aspects of workplaces
682:Journal of Management
478:Performance appraisal
453:Core self-evaluations
434:for this may suggest
350:core self-evaluations
344:Core self-evaluations
241:declarative knowledge
849:on 27 September 2013
301:personnel psychology
245:procedural knowledge
203:organization's goal.
117:The first factor is
1358:Recession-proof job
902:(Suppl 1): S5–S18.
152:personal discipline
124:On the other hand,
397:workplace bullying
335:Workplace bullying
148:performance domain
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131:Written and oral
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1459:Organization
1449:Labor rights
1409:Bullshit job
1368:Satisfaction
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1293:Embeddedness
1266:Bullshit job
1198:. Retrieved
1191:the original
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1474:Trade union
1464:Remote work
1439:Job sharing
1414:Corporation
1348:Performance
1298:Enlargement
1281:Description
1240:Aspects of
366:self-esteem
358:neuroticism
303:found that
228:citizenship
1535:Categories
1520:Employment
1419:Employment
1303:Enrichment
1286:management
1200:2014-03-08
1037:: 151–188.
853:17 January
607:Routledge.
495:References
468:Onboarding
416:See also:
390:motivation
259:motivation
224:contextual
191:resources.
184:Managerial
1493:Templates
1323:Interview
798:CiteSeerX
725:CiteSeerX
702:145383957
401:stressful
78:insurance
1402:See also
1393:Wrapping
1373:Security
1363:Rotation
1276:Dead-end
1261:Attitude
1256:Analysis
1153:22390388
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989:19916664
954:11768067
916:32495455
747:16429503
584:11916217
446:See also
63:behavior
57:Outcomes
49:Features
1429:Factory
1383:Sharing
1318:Hunting
1271:Control
783:apa.org
765:apa.org
688:: 112.
160:alcohol
104:Factors
74:revenue
1454:Office
1388:Strain
1378:Shadow
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162:, etc.
141:effort
136:force.
1343:McJob
1313:Fraud
1194:(PDF)
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912:S2CID
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698:S2CID
597:Sage.
218:Types
171:goals
1333:Lock
1308:Fair
1242:jobs
1149:PMID
1114:PMID
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950:PMID
855:2022
825:help
580:PMID
507:Inc.
146:The
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