Incarceration of women

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Less than half of prisons in the United States have official policies about medical care for pregnant inmates. About 48% of prisons have prenatal services. Of these 48%, only 15% of prisons have programs implemented to help mothers find suitable work after they give birth. Additionally, only 15% of prisons have policies that require light work or no work for pregnant women. Throughout the United States, pregnant inmates are treated poorly by prison staff because there is a permeating prejudice that pregnant inmates are not "worthy enough to have children". There are psychological stressors experienced by pregnant inmates during pregnancy and during the birthing process. For example, thirty-five states allow women to be chained to the bed while in labor and giving birth. In states where shackling is illegal, there are a significant amount of lawsuits claiming that shackling was used during childbirth. Researchers have argued that allowing women to remain shackled to a bed during birth is inhumane and undignified.

344:, the total number of convicted women increased by 111% between 1996 and 2005. In 1963, women made up 7.7% of those convicted in New Zealand's court system, with most causes of arrest being offences against property and some offences being crime against persons and/or assault. Then, in 1972, women's incarceration rates increased to 11% in lower court systems. Again, with mostly the same two leading convictions. As of 1996, prosecuted females on average had fewer previous convictions than prosecuted males in most first world countries such as New Zealand. The number of women incarcerated in New Zealand peaked in 2010 and has decreased since. As of 2014, the female conviction percentage is up to 23%. Crimes against property make up a higher percentage of the total 23% female conviction ratio, at 33%. According to a 1991 study published by the Department of Justice, Greg Newbold notes that in comparison to women, men were twice as likely to commit a more serious crime. 365:

articles that govern the treatment and status of women in the criminal justice system; however, with the exception of a law preventing women from receiving the death penalty, these laws are mostly limited to the status of incarcerated women as child bearers and seem to focus more on the status and rights of children incarcerated with their mothers. For instance, if a woman is pregnant or has a child under fourteen years old, her sentence has the potential to be postponed, reduced, or cancelled. Additionally, women in prison with their children are entitled to “improved living conditions, specialised medical services, and more rations and clothing”. As for the women that do not have children, they face overcrowded conditions and inadequate medical care. Furthermore, women are often brought through transit prisons on what could be a two-month journey to their final destination, regardless of where the final destination is actually located.

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professional outside the hospital. As she was unable to naturally go into labor, the prison decided on a date where they would induce labor, without telling her, to prevent any escape attempt. When the date arrived, despite the fact that she repeatedly asked not to be forced into labor, the guards took her to the hospital where her pregnancy was forcibly induced against her will. Furthermore, the prison did not warn any relatives. She gave birth alone, surrounded only by the medical staff and a prison guard standing in the room the entire time, looking at her while she was in labor. This experience, Schenwar explains, is not unique, and she has heard many similar stories over the years she spent studying the conditions of incarcerated women.

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become incarcerated. The most prominent of these conditions is that of poverty, as well as the conditions that give rise to poverty. Globally, women in poor households tend to bear a disproportionate amount of work in regard to caring for the household, feeding the family, and educating the children. This is in tandem with educational inequalities, pay gaps, pregnancy, and heightened rates of physical and domestic abuses. Another inequity deemed partially culpable for the rate at which impoverished women, in particular, are incarcerated due to the lack of access to mental health care. Many incarcerated women suffer from mental illnesses, and their incarceration can be directly linked to an absence of treatment for their conditions.

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notably "potential injury or placental abruption caused by falls, delayed progress of labor caused by impaired mobility, and delayed receipts of emergency care when corrections officers must remove shackles to allow for assessment of intervention". Furthermore, being shackled can cause trauma, or exacerbate already existing trauma and post-traumatic experience symptoms. While shackles are justified as necessary to prevent flight risk or a potential to cause harm to others, medical experts have confirmed that there is an extremely low risk of imminent harm or escape when safer means are used, such as de-escalation tactics.

407:. First, women prisoners were imprisoned alongside men in the "general population," where they were subject to sexual attacks and daily forms of degradation. Then, in a partial attempt to address these issues, women prisoners were removed from the general population and housed separately, but then subject to neglect wherein they did not receive the same resources as men in prisons. In the third stage of development, women in prison were then housed completely separately in fortress-like prisons, where the goal of punishment was to indoctrinate women into traditionally feminine roles. 147:

world. Trends observed in the global growth of the female prison population can be partly explained by evolving policies regarding the sentencing and parole of female inmates. As criminal justice systems across the world move towards gender-blind sentencing, this has resulted in a tremendous increase in the rate of female incarceration. Concurrent elimination of parole and toughening of penalties for parole violations in many areas of the world also contribute to high rates of re-entry and re-offending, further driving up rates of incarceration of women.

69: 425:, that explicitly states that “instruments of restraint shall never be used on women during labor, during birth and immediately after birth.” There is a distinction between shackling during pregnancy, delivery, and postpartum. While some states, such as Maryland and New York banned all restraints immediately before and after giving birth, others banned shackling during active delivery, but permit it immediately before and after. Currently, the only state giving a private right of action for women illegally shackled is Rhode Island. 196:

uniformity in prison living standards. Other phenomena, such as the privatisation of prisons in many countries with large prison populations, such as the United States, also give rise to variability in the environmental quality of women's prisons. Once a corporation assumes governance over prison and its budget, the presiding government has relatively little oversight of the maintenance of prison standards and prisoner wellbeing. There are many ongoing political debates surrounding the continuation of private prisons.

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degrading punishment. Some prisoners refuse to go to childcare events or funerals because of the humiliation the restraints show. Women in Britain fought for their right to not be restrained while giving birth to their child, however, they must be restrained while being escorted to and from the hospital. More women than men try to escape the prison system in Britain. Of those women who escape almost half escape while receiving medical attention at a hospital.

4203: 3050: 109: 223: 87: 600:, interpersonal violence, adolescent conduct disorder, homelessness, as well as chronic physical and mental health problems, and because of such problems, women are more likely to commit criminal activity or have severity to addiction. One of the problems female offenders are facing is that they need more special substance abuse treatment for their gender, but the treatment they receive are mostly male-oriented programs such as 337:

serving their sentences in prison. These consist of baby unit spaces for new mothers, mental and physical disability assistance, feeding and bonding facilities, cultural hobbies, and special food accommodations for dietary restrictions. While many of these activities are permission-based and evaluated with a case-by-case approach, these prisons have started offering these options to women who are incarcerated in recent years.

2013: 352:, supports this hypothesis with research published in 2010 which confirms that the rise of female incarceration rates in New Zealand is not due to the increasing severity of crimes committed by women. As well as this, McIvor also makes the claim that New Zealand women are overrepresented in less serious types of crimes such as theft and fraud and underrepresented in more serious types of crime such as crimes of violence. 4215: 455: 2061: 348:

just in New Zealand. The most recent advocated hypothesis regarding why the rise is occurring is that women's crime rates are not increasing, rather the criminal justice system is changing. This change has led to an increase in attention to minor offences, which women are statistically more likely to commit. Gill McIvor, Professor of Criminology at the

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crime categories specifically. These include illicit drug offences, theft and related offences, fraud and related offences, and robbery, extortion and related offences. Three of these four categories saw an increase of 60%, however, the lowest category (illicit drug offences) saw the smallest increase at 40%.

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The constitutional rights of pregnant inmates in US prisons have been undergoing codification and expansion in the 2000s. Data from 2010 show that female incarceration rates are growing more rapidly than male incarceration rates in the United States. One out of every four women in prison is pregnant.

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Between 2010 and 2011, the rate for the imprisonment of female drug offenders was at 5.7%, a drop from 6% in 2010. The treatment in which female drug offenders receive has also been closely analyzed in the U.S. In the U.S., compared with male prisoners, women offenders have been more likely to report

364:

As of March 1, 2012, the Russian Criminal Justice system housed about 60,500 women, 8.1% of the total number of people incarcerated in the country. Russia has been slow to implement reform for the rights of its incarcerated population, especially for women. Russia has some criminal laws that contain

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report with latest available data. From the source report: "Figure 1. This graph shows the number of women in state prisons, local jails, and federal prisons from each U.S. state per 100,000 people in that state and the incarceration rate per 100,000 in all countries with at least a half-million in

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The number of children with mothers in prison has doubled during the 17 years from 1990 to 2007, according to a 2007 report run by the Bureau of Justice Statistic (BJS). Mainly, Black and Hispanic children were part of the 1.7 million children whose parents were incarcerated during that span. Sleep

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Rape in female prisons has been commonplace for a long period of time in both the US and the UK. In England and Wales, a report showed that female prisoners are being coerced into sex with staff members in return for various favours, such as alcohol and cigarettes. Rape may even be more common than

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Despite the advocacy for legislation banning this practice, and despite the already existing legislative limits, medical staff and inmates have denounced that shackling during pregnancy and post-partum continues. The federal government does not mandate the collection of data regarding pregnancy and

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Within the last decade, the rate of incarceration for women in China has increased by 46%. Women make up only 6% of the total population of individuals in prison within the country. While it is difficult to correctly evaluate the statistic regarding the total number of women incarcerated due to the

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While there is no globally uniform representation among female prisoners in terms of the types of crimes they are imprisoned for, it is widely acknowledged that there are a number of underlying social inequities which make affected women disproportionately more likely to commit crimes and therefore

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Although women form a minority in the global prison population, the population of incarcerated women is growing at a rate twice as fast as the male prison population. Those imprisoned in China, Russia, and the United States comprise the great majority of incarcerated people, including women, in the

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According to statistics from 2014, there has been a slight increase of women prisoners in each of these facilities. Although the Department of Corrections notes that women in New Zealand only make up 7.4% of the total incarceration population, the increases in population are connected to four main

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Although the number of males far outweighs the number of females in the correctional facilities of New Zealand, the rate of increase of women incarcerated is growing at a pace significantly higher than that of males. Overall, the incarceration rate of women has been growing all over the world, not

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There is massive variation in the quality of living standards both between prisons around the world and between prisons within individual countries. Variations in national wealth, apportionment of national budgets and different approaches to criminal rehabilitation all contribute to the absence of

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Globally, the vast majority of incarcerated people are men. Incarcerated women have been and continue to be treated differently by criminal justice systems around the world at every step of the process, from arrest to sentencing, to punitive measures used. This disparity is largely due to tangible

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found that in England and Wales, which have the highest prison populations of any European countries, women's specific mental and physical health needs are under-researched and not sufficiently cared for, with 40% of female prisoners reporting long-term health problems in comparison with the male

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When pregnant women are shackled, the restraints are entirely controlled by the prison guards, not the medical staff. These methods of shackling have been greatly denounced for the effects they have on both the mother and the fetus. A 2016 study revealed that shackles create unique safety risks,

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The Prisoners in 2014 report by the Bureau of Justice Statistics determined that Black women make up 23% of incarcerated women in the United States. Black women comprise about 14% of the U.S. female population and because corrections agencies do not separate prisoner data by race and gender, “we

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In New Zealand, there are three correctional facilities, specifically for women. These include Auckland Region Women's Corrections Facility (ARWCF), Arohata Women's Prison, and Christchurch Women's Prison. At these facilities, women are offered various prisoner assistance programs while they are

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In Great Britain, in 1996 a new policy was passed, and women no longer have to be restrained while giving birth when serving their sentence. The British services for human rights and the United Nations standard minimum rules for the treatment of prisoners say that no one should be subjected to

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Maya Schenwar, an American journalist and author, shared the experience of her sister who gave birth while incarcerated. For weeks prior to giving birth, her sister suffered from many pregnancy related health issues, including bleeding for weeks. She wasn't treated, and she was unable to see a

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around the world, making research in this area very difficult. This low level of representation was due to the fact that gender was not a large topic of debate. When studies would come up regarding the subject of criminology, most theories regarding crime were largely male-modelled due to the

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In general, statistical information in regards to the rate of incarceration for women in China has been found difficult to compare to other countries around the world. However, some scholars argued in 2003 that approximately one-fifth of the total number of women in the United States would be

555:, although she was described by the prosecution as having used a "transgender persona" having been born male. She was held there on remand in September 2017. White, who started transitioning while in prison, was described by the judge as a "predator" and a danger to women and children. 617:

significant portion of crime attributed to males. However, due to the feminist movement in the 1960s, demand for information concerning female incarceration arose. Due to this growing demand that gained speed in the 1980s, research in crimes committed by women has surged

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International developments in the political response to social issues, specifically the global drug epidemic, have catalyzed many changes in the composition of the prison populations and, subsequently, the types of conditions prisoners experience while incarcerated. The

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According to the International Centre for Prison Studies, as of August 2014, the Chinese women's prison population is the second-largest in the world (after the United States) with 84,600 female prisoners in total or 5.1% of the overall Chinese prison population.

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argued, for the claimant, that MoJ policies "allow prisoners to be accommodated in the prison estate that corresponds to their declared gender identity, irrespective of whether they have taken any legal or medical steps to acquire that gender". Sarah Hannett

192:. However, some states have laws requiring female officers as well as a female superintendent. While most states have only one or two institutions for women, some facilities are considered "unisex" and house both male and female inmates in separate areas. 167:

has accounted for the large population of female low-level offenders, usually imprisoned for narcotic use or possession. Western powers, particularly the United States, have largely advocated for the global proliferation of the so-called “War on Drugs”.

296:, women make up about 20.8% of Hong Kong's inmate population. Of any sovereign state or dependency, minus very small countries/microstates, Hong Kong, as of circa 2017, has the highest percentage of women in correctional supervision. In August 2017 the 587:, for the MoJ, said that the policies "implement a nuanced and fact-sensitive approach" to balancing competing interests, and that "Any policy in this area is unlikely to satisfy every interested person". The case is adjourned, likely until 2021. 143:

demographic differences between the severity of crimes committed by male and female prison populations, as well as a persistent belief by society at large that female criminals are better able to be rehabilitated than their male counterparts.

604:(TC) models. As substance abuse treatment is not fairly granted in prisons across the U.S., recidivism is likely to go up within 2011, with the most serious offense for 59.4% of women incarcerated in federal prisons being drug violations. 2745: 2403: 766: 650:

Female incarceration rates by country and US state. Per 100,000 female population of all ages. Female incarceration rates if every US state were a country. Incarcerated females of all ages (where the data is available). From a

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Research has shown a significant link between females in prison and brain injury, which supports research that shows incarcerated females are overwhelmingly victims of domestic violence (aka male violence against women).

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Moreover, a study run by Child Welfare Services (CWS) concludes that the likelihood of being in a vulnerable situation is higher among children whose parents are behind the bars than other children treated by CWS.

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Phillips, Susan D., Gleeson, James P. (July 2007). "What we Know Now that we Didn't Know Then About the Criminal Justice System's Involvement in Families with whom Child Welfare Agencies have Conact". p. 3.

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reports show, given that it is difficult to know the full truth about what goes on behind the walls of a prison, along with the fact that inmates often have no legal remedy to seek justice for abuse and rape.

578:. The claimant is supported by the campaigning group Keep Prisons Single Sex, which alleges that the trans woman had been convicted of rape as a man. The MoJ denies that there was an assault. Karon Monaghan 2434: 1209: 379:

In the United States, authorities began housing women in correctional facilities separate from men in the 1870s. The first American female correctional facility with dedicated buildings and staff was the

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Early facilities were considered inhumane with little regard for health and safety. Men and women were housed in a large room where the strong preyed on the weak. As of 1964, in most of the

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Byrne, James M.; Pattavina, April; Taxman, Faye S. (2015-10-02). "International Trends in Prison Upsizing and Downsizing: In Search of Evidence of a Global Rehabilitation Revolution".

2557: 3810: 996: 1486: 1946: 1722: 1528: 2426: 1547: 1201: 692: 2518: 1389:"Lawrie, Rowena --- "Speak Out Speak Strong: Rising Imprisonment Rates of Aboriginal Women" [2003] IndigLawB 24; (2003) 5(24) Indigenous Law Bulletin 5" 3658: 2244: 2010: 1085: 1146: 1812: 293: 56: 1116: 154:

website hosts data regarding prison populations around the world, including "Persons held - by sex, by age group" and "Persons held - by status and sex".

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prisoner Karen White received a life sentence in 2018 after admitting to sexual assault (including two counts of rape) of vulnerable women prisoners at

1366: 2990: 2457: 1662: 1176: 2807: 2586: 1328: 2708: 1924:

Women and crime: The rise of female imprisonment in western jurisdictions. In M. Herzog-Evans (Ed.), Transnational criminology manual (volume 2)

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Wilson, Mandy; Jones, Jocelyn; Butler, Tony; Simpson, Paul; Gilles, Marisa; Baldry, Eileen; Levy, Michael; Sullivan, Elizabeth (January 2017).

964: 934: 90: 1396: 188:, the guards in female prisons are no longer exclusively female. As of that year, both men and women work as guards in women's prisons in the 421:

There are currently 23 states that do not have any law protecting against the shackling of pregnant incarcerated women. This contravenes the

2875: 4245: 414:, of the world's female population only 4% live in the U.S.; however, over 30% of the world's incarcerated women are in the United States. 399:

Unlike prisons designed for men in the United States, state prisons for women evolved in three waves, as described in historical detail in

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Reynolds, Marylee (Summer 2008). "The War on Drugs, Prison Building, and Globalization: Catalysts for the Global Incarceration of Women".

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were built, by 1990 there were 71 women's prisons in the country, but only five years later there were 150 (Chesney-Lind, 1998:66).

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had 1,486 incarcerated women, and it had a total of 1,764 women under correctional supervision if the 279 on remand were included.

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Certain prison populations, including women, have special health needs which often go unmet. For example, one study in the journal

151: 2495: 3982: 3082: 2156: 671: 244: 131: 1887:

Jeffries, Samantha and Greg Newbold (April 2016). "Analysing Trends in the Imprisonment of Women in Australia and New Zealand".

1782: 1711: 4107: 2276:"Perinatal Nurses' Experiences With and Knowledge of the Care of Incarcerated Women During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period" 2245:"United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the Bangkok Rules)" 3020: 3005: 2910: 2085: 2037: 4121: 1975:

Skiles, Courtney M. "Gender-Specific Prison Reform: Addressing Human Rights Violations Against Women In Russia's Prisons".

1306: 853: 559: 94: 49: 2332: 473: 465: 4206: 3621: 1202:"Shedding Light on the Shadow Brain Pandemic: The Devastating Effects of Gendered Violence-Related Acquired Brain Injury" 112: 2671: 4186: 4065: 2126: 1276: 717: 31: 2826:

Tapia, Natalia D.; Vaughn, Michael S. (October 11, 2010). "Legal Issues Regarding Medical Care for Pregnant Inmates".

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Gendered Carceral Regimes in Sri Lanka: Colonial Laws, Postcolonial Practices, and the Social Control of Sex Workers

2902: 2077: 2029: 1578:"Health needs of prisoners in England and Wales: the implications for prison healthcare of gender, age and ethnicity" 1053: 491: 270: 2222: 1077: 436:

Activists have also denounced other issues related to pregnancy and birthing for incarcerated women. In the podcast

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childbirth amongst female inmates. Therefore, it is unknown how common these practices remain, and how they occur.

1804: 4170: 4163: 3895: 3507: 1658: 1108: 517: 297: 4086: 597: 571: 308: 248: 2968:. Vol. 39, No. 1, Women, Gender, and Prison: National and Global Perspectives (Autumn 2013), pp. 79–103. 1834:

Norris, Adele N (October 2017). "Are We Really Colour-blind? The Normalisation of Mass Female Incarceration".

3630: 2951:. Vol. 39, No. 1, Women, Gender, and Prison: National and Global Perspectives (Autumn 2013), pp. 27–51. 1039: 1037: 707: 570:

by an unnamed prisoner. She alleges she was sexually assaulted by a trans woman prisoner, in possession of a

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Goshin, Lorie S.; Sissoko, D. R. Gina; Neumann, Grace; Sufrin, Carolyn; Byrnes, Lorraine (January 1, 2019).

1358: 130:, a 17% increase since 2010 and the female prison population has been increasing across all continents. The 3874: 2889: 1751: 1648: 385: 134:

includes a main table with a column for the historical and current percentage of prisoners who are female.

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Mitigating the Crime That Is the Over-Imprisonment of Women: Why Orange Should Not Be the New Black (2016)

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United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders

4072: 4051: 3679: 3566: 3134: 3028: 2979:. Vermont Law Review (41), Forthcoming, Deakin Law School Research Paper No. 16-16, Available at SSRN: 2697: 904: 697: 677: 4240: 3957: 3867: 3825: 849: 687: 642: 76: 2792: 2616:"A Randomized Experimental Study of Gender-Responsive Substance Abuse Treatment for Women in Prison" 1684: 956: 926: 874: 764:

Nearly A Third Of All Female Prisoners Worldwide Are Incarcerated In The United States (Infographic)

3918: 3362: 3168: 2151: 1388: 1038:

Bureau of International Information Programs; United States Department of State (January 1, 2012).

411: 381: 304: 233: 4177: 4100: 4016: 3853: 3665: 3237: 2995: 2801: 1233:"Women in Prison With Traumatic Brain Injury: Prevalence, Mechanism, and Impact on Mental Health" 237: 127: 328:

underreporting of these cases, China is on track to imprison more women than the United States.

4093: 3491: 3464: 3337: 3189: 3068: 2787: 2275: 1626: 349: 2976: 2396:"Women prisoners: Sex in prison is commonplace, the male inmates just hide it more than girls" 4079: 4030: 3881: 3651: 2926:

Women in Prison: Victims or Resisters? Representations of Agency in Women’s Prisons in Greece

2195: 1984: 1359:"History of significant head injury in women prisoners linked with disability and past abuse" 601: 567: 418:

rarely know how many of the black prisoners are women, and how many of the women are Black”.

2735:"Broken Bonds: Understanding and Addressing the Needs of Children with Incarcerated Parents" 2614:

Messina, Nena; Grella, Christine E.; Cartier, Jerry; Torres, Stephanie (December 16, 2009).

2580:"Results from the 2011 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings" 3996: 3755: 3644: 3316: 712: 529: 42: 8: 3932: 3672: 2170: 626:

disorders and behavioral problems tend to be present on children with mothers in prison.

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Women, Gender, and Prison: National and Global Perspectives (Autumn 2013; vol. 39, no.1)

68: 4144: 4044: 4037: 3939: 3702: 3251: 3244: 3182: 2851: 2640: 2615: 2487: 2308: 2190:

Tignor, Kimberly. "Missing from the Conversation: Black Women and Mass Incarceration".

2115: 1904: 1459: 1268: 584: 579: 544: 404: 736: 4137: 4114: 3903: 3888: 3860: 3846: 3559: 3422: 3120: 3016: 3001: 2906: 2898: 2843: 2772:

Children of the Prison Boom: Mass Incarceration and the Future of American Inequality

2645: 2340: 2313: 2295: 2146: 2122: 2081: 2073: 2033: 2025: 1908: 1774: 1599: 1594: 1577: 1451: 1260: 1252: 1049: 521: 2855: 1463: 4058: 4023: 3769: 3748: 3637: 3596: 3286: 2835: 2635: 2627: 2303: 2287: 1896: 1589: 1479:"'He stalks me and rapes me and I've had to do the time': The victims in our jails" 1441: 1431: 1272: 1244: 1048:. Bureau of International Information Programs, United States Department of State. 1900: 3989: 3776: 3725: 3415: 3383: 3302: 3196: 2964: 2947: 2930: 2880: 2199: 2177: 2065: 2017: 1988: 1938: 770: 575: 1298: 3839: 3818: 3686: 3614: 3450: 3443: 3436: 3376: 3323: 3054: 2631: 2519:"Ex-prisoner challenges MoJ policy after alleged sexual assault by trans woman" 2291: 1420:"Violence in the Lives of Incarcerated Aboriginal Mothers in Western Australia" 552: 536: 2959: 2942: 2925: 2664: 4234: 3762: 3482: 3471: 3272: 2847: 2839: 2344: 2299: 1455: 1436: 1419: 1256: 1248: 702: 666: 509: 189: 185: 80: 2427:"'Frequent and severe' sexual violence alleged at women's prison in Alabama" 2333:"Pregnant and shackled: why inmates are still giving birth cuffed and bound" 1232: 824:

Kruttschnitt, Candace (Summer 2010). "The Paradox of Women's Imprisonment".

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Hong Kong has a number of women-only institutions including Bauhinia House,

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equivalent to that of the total population of women incarcerated in China.

164: 157: 30:"Women's prison" and "Prison for women" redirect here. For other uses, see 3741: 3709: 3582: 3543: 3536: 3429: 3408: 3369: 3330: 3258: 3106: 2214: 804:

Kruttschnitt, Candace; Gartner, Rosemary (2003). "Women's Imprisonment".

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La Vigne, Nancy G.; Davies, Elizabeth; Brazzell, Diana (February 2008).

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A Cell of Their Own: The Incarceration of Women in Late Medieval Italy

2935: 2550:"Inmate sues government over keeping trans women in all-female prisons" 1446: 1231:

Woolhouse, Rachel; McKinlay, Audrey; Grace, Randolph C. (August 2018).

674:. See section with a table for per cent of female prisoners by country. 528:. Trying to report these abuses would be punishable by humiliation and 311:, Wai Lan Rehabilitation Centre, and Nei Kwu Correctional Institution. 98: 1329:"Nearly 65% of prisoners at women's jail 'show signs of brain injury'" 59:, "Female Prisoner #701: Scorpion" redirects here. For that film, see 3390: 2784: 2458:"Transgender prisoner who sexually assaulted inmates jailed for life" 1237:

International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology

637: 548: 389: 108: 3037: 2980: 307:, Chi Lan Rehabilitation Centre, Lai King Correctional Institution, 222: 3145: 3113: 2585:. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2012. 2215:"Missing from the Conversation: Black Women and Mass Incarceration" 2054: 2006: 683:

Gender responsive approach for girls in the juvenile justice system

102: 86: 3049: 3203: 3175: 3154: 513: 393: 120: 116: 48:"Prison for Women" redirects here. For the prison in Canada, see 3060: 2916:

Antonova, N. (2013, Nov 4th). Reforming Russian Women's Prisons.

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From crime to sentence: Trends in criminal justice, 1986 to 1996

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Women Behind Bars: The Crisis of Women in the U.S. Prison System

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Women Behind Bars: The Crisis of Women in the U.S. Prison System

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while punishments for the sexual offenders were rare and small.

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Before the 1980s, there was a lack of female representation in

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Association for the Protection and Assistance of the Convicted

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Research from the National Council on Crime and Delinquency

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Wagadu, Journal of Transnational Women's and Gender Studies

525: 37:"Women in prison" redirects here. For the 1987 sitcom, see 2613: 2273: 2147:"States of Women's Incarceration: The Global Context 2018" 866: 388:; the facility had some operational dependence on nearby 2280:

Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing

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by male staff members against female inmates, including

158:

Social and political conditions leading to incarceration

2488:"Trans inmate jailed for Wakefield prison sex offences" 1196: 1194: 693:

Gender-specific prison programming in the United States

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Law, Shriver Center on Poverty (September 25, 2018).

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Codd, Helen (Winter 2013). "WOMEN AND IMPRISONMENT".

1191: 444: 2609: 2607: 1961: 759: 757: 620: 410:According to an article published in 2018 from The 2366:"Mothering Under Surveillance feat. Maya Schenwar" 2117:Partial Justice: Women in State Prisons, 1800-1935 2114: 1873:. Wellington: Ministry of Justice. pp. 42–43. 1775:"Why is China's female prison population growing?" 1299:"Head injuries suffered by 80% of women prisoners" 1078:"Education as the Pathway towards Gender Equality" 646:Female incarceration rates by country and US state 638:Female incarceration rates by country and US state 566:prisoners in women's prison was challenged at the 2769: 2102:. CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning. pp. 68–69. 1712:"US Rates of Incarceration: A Global Perspective" 737:"Women in the criminal justice system: key facts" 596:instances of childhood trauma, abuse, addiction, 4232: 4151:United Kingdom and British overseas territories 2663:Carson, Ann; Sabol, William J. (December 2012). 2604: 754: 126:Approximately 741,000 women are incarcerated in 2770:Wakefield, Sara; Wildeman, Christopher (2013). 1740: 1677: 1575: 1045:Global Women's Issues: Women in the World Today 871:United Nations : Office on Drugs and Crime 2890:Freeing Tammy: Women, Drugs, and Incarceration 1926:. Nijmegen: Wolf Publishing. pp. 553–570. 1805:"Corrections Department NZ - In the community" 3076: 2121:. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press. 1535: 1512:. CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning. p. 23. 608:Issues in studying the incarceration of women 2806:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2389: 2387: 1565:. CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning. p. 9. 392:, a men's prison. In the 1930s, 34 women's 2825: 2662: 1610: 375:Incarceration of women in the United States 251:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 91:Chiang Mai Women's Correctional Institution 3833:International Network of Prison Ministries 3083: 3069: 2331:Yearwood, Lori Teresa (January 24, 2020). 2140: 2138: 867:"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime" 2958:Miller, Jody and Kristin Carbone-Lopez. " 2791: 2774:. New York City: Oxford University Press. 2705:National Conference of State Legislatures 2695: 2639: 2384: 2307: 1748:"International Centre for Prison Studies" 1593: 1445: 1435: 1109:"Women, Poverty, and the Gender Wage Gap" 492:Learn how and when to remove this message 271:Learn how and when to remove this message 3659:Mentally ill people in the United States 2821: 2819: 2817: 2330: 2144: 1886: 1139:"The Straight Facts on Women in Poverty" 995:. Penal Reform International. May 2017. 828:. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 641: 152:United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 107: 85: 67: 2516: 2455: 2418: 2135: 2097: 1949:from the original on September 23, 2019 1853: 1709: 1582:Health and Social Care in the Community 1576:Harris, Francesca; Hek; Condon (2007). 1560: 1507: 1476: 672:List of countries by incarceration rate 401:Partial Justice: Women in State Prisons 201:Health and Social Care in the Community 132:list of countries by incarceration rate 14: 4233: 3912:Prison Officers' Association (Ireland) 2751:from the original on November 23, 2018 2742:Urban Institute: Justice Police Center 2677:from the original on February 14, 2013 2592:from the original on December 24, 2016 2159:from the original on February 24, 2021 2112: 1833: 1815:from the original on November 16, 2018 1785:from the original on November 16, 2018 1772: 1754:from the original on December 12, 2014 1710:Hartney, Christopher (November 2006). 1665:from the original on November 14, 2018 1369:from the original on February 18, 2022 1339:from the original on February 18, 2022 1309:from the original on February 18, 2022 1279:from the original on February 18, 2022 1212:from the original on February 18, 2022 967:from the original on February 17, 2022 907:from the original on February 18, 2022 877:from the original on February 15, 2022 3064: 2975:Bagaric, Mirko and Bagaric, Brienna, 2814: 2714:from the original on October 20, 2018 2560:from the original on October 30, 2020 2529:from the original on October 30, 2020 2406:from the original on January 29, 2018 2393: 2269: 2267: 2265: 2051:Women in Prison: A Reference Handbook 2003:Women in Prison: A Reference Handbook 1882: 1880: 1856:Crime, Law and Justice in New Zealand 1849: 1847: 1845: 1541: 1522: 984: 982: 937:from the original on February 8, 2022 4214: 2547: 1977:Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal 1687:. Correctional Services Department. 1616: 1477:Fazzari, Rocco (December 20, 2018). 1179:from the original on August 28, 2021 1002:from the original on August 30, 2017 957:"Persons held by status | dataUNODC" 927:"Persons held in prison | dataUNODC" 836: 834: 820: 818: 560:Ministry of Justice (United Kingdom) 448: 249:adding citations to reliable sources 216: 179: 137: 50:Prison for Women (Kingston, Ontario) 4246:Imprisonment and detention of women 3000:. (石井良助)「女牢」（『国史大辞典 2』（吉川弘文館、1980） 2548:Ames, Jonathan (October 27, 2020). 2456:Parveen, Nazia (October 11, 2018). 1546:. Emeryville: Seal Press. pp. 1527:. Emeryville: Seal Press. pp. 1399:from the original on April 20, 2022 1106: 1075: 808:. The University of Chicago Press. 113:Andrew Mercer Reformatory for Women 24: 2865: 2698:"Children of Incarcerated Parents" 2517:Bowcott, Owen (October 28, 2020). 2468:from the original on June 27, 2020 2437:from the original on July 27, 2014 2262: 2225:from the original on July 29, 2019 2212: 2189: 1974: 1921: 1877: 1868: 1842: 1489:from the original on July 23, 2022 1149:from the original on June 23, 2022 1088:from the original on June 14, 2022 979: 718:Decarceration in the United States 464:tone or style may not reflect the 207: 25: 4257: 3090: 2981:https://ssrn.com/abstract=2773341 2498:from the original on July 5, 2020 2424: 1728:from the original on May 17, 2018 1691:from the original on May 14, 2020 1119:from the original on July 8, 2022 831: 815: 590: 445:Rape and sexual assault in prison 314: 4213: 4202: 4201: 3048: 3036: 2920:Individual articles in English: 2394:Vidal, Ava (February 26, 2014). 1595:10.1111/j.1365-2524.2006.00662.x 852::10.1080/15564886.2015.1078186. 621:Children of incarcerated parents 474:guide to writing better articles 453: 368: 221: 212: 3983:Countries by incarceration rate 3896:Prison Fellowship International 2778: 2763: 2726: 2696:Christian, Steve (March 2009). 2689: 2656: 2572: 2541: 2510: 2480: 2449: 2358: 2324: 2237: 2206: 2183: 2106: 2091: 2043: 1995: 1936: 1930: 1915: 1862: 1827: 1797: 1773:Hatton, Celia (June 25, 2015). 1766: 1703: 1659:Chinese University of Hong Kong 1641: 1569: 1554: 1516: 1501: 1470: 1411: 1381: 1351: 1321: 1291: 1224: 1161: 1131: 1100: 1069: 1031: 1014: 949: 518:Julia Tutwiler Prison for Women 298:Hong Kong Correctional Services 2180:for a detailed data breakdown. 1889:Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 1040:"Chapter 1: Women and Poverty" 919: 889: 859: 798: 781: 729: 598:post-traumatic stress disorder 572:Gender Recognition Certificate 562:(MoJ) policy on incarcerating 331: 309:Lo Wu Correctional Institution 95:Thai Department of Corrections 13: 1: 2145:Kajstura, Aleks (June 2018). 2098:Pollock, Joycelyn M. (2002). 1901:10.1080/13218719.2015.1035619 1561:Pollock, Joycelyn M. (2002). 1508:Pollock, Joycelyn M. (2002). 723: 708:Solitary confinement of women 292:Circa 2017, according to the 73:Federal Prison Camp, Alderson 61:Female Prisoner 701: Scorpion 3875:Prison Advice and Care Trust 2113:Rafter, Nicole Hahn (1985). 1143:Center for American Progress 287: 7: 1854:Newbold, Greg (June 2016). 990:"Global Prison Trends 2017" 659: 39:Women in Prison (TV series) 10: 4262: 4207:Imprisonment and detention 3135:Stanford prison experiment 2632:10.1016/j.jsat.2009.09.004 2292:10.1016/j.jogn.2018.11.002 2100:Women, Prison, & Crime 2016:December 30, 2016, at the 1563:Women, Prison, & Crime 1510:Women, Prison, & Crime 741:Penal Reform International 698:Menopause in incarceration 678:Convict women in Australia 372: 54: 47: 41:. For the film genre, see 36: 29: 4196: 4006: 3974: 3949: 3868:Prison abolition movement 3826:Florida Justice Institute 3802: 3606: 3521: 3481: 3400: 3347: 3222: 3213: 3144: 3098: 688:Gender-responsive prisons 359: 77:Federal Bureau of Prisons 3919:The Prison Phoenix Trust 3363:Administrative detention 2840:10.1177/0032885510382211 2152:Prison Policy Initiative 1437:10.1177/2158244016686814 1249:10.1177/0306624X17726519 1169:"Violence against women" 769:August 19, 2017, at the 412:Prison Policy Initiative 305:Tai Lam Centre for Women 3997:Films featuring prisons 3854:Mount Tamalpais College 3508:Prisoner-of-war escapes 3238:Corrective labor colony 2064:March 21, 2017, at the 1943:nzdotstat.stats.govt.nz 1809:www.corrections.govt.nz 1685:"Individual Facilities" 842:Victims & Offenders 128:correctional facilities 3631:Contemplative programs 3338:Youth detention center 3190:Prisoner of conscience 3011:守屋浩光「女牢」（『日本歴史大事典 1』 ( 2370:Beyond Prisons Podcast 2176:July 20, 2022, at the 1430:(1): 215824401668681. 1393:classic.austlii.edu.au 647: 516:prison scandal at the 350:University of Stirling 123: 105: 83: 79:facility for women in 3882:Prison-Ashram Project 1649:"Women on the inside" 1619:"Mothers in Shackles" 1542:Talvi, Silja (2007). 1523:Talvi, Silja (2007). 1208:. November 23, 2021. 645: 602:Therapeutic Community 568:High Court of Justice 558:In October 2020, the 111: 89: 71: 27:Imprisonment of women 4066:Ireland, Republic of 3756:Solitary confinement 3317:Prisoner-of-war camp 2494:. October 11, 2018. 1661:. November 2, 2017. 1335:. February 6, 2019. 713:Women in prison film 574:, in August 2017 in 530:solitary confinement 245:improve this section 43:Women in prison film 3933:Prison Reform Trust 2665:"Prisoners in 2011" 2620:J Subst Abuse Treat 2219:Washington Informer 2192:Washington Informer 2072:on March 10, 2011. 2024:on March 10, 2011. 1617:Moynihan, Carolyn. 1145:. October 8, 2008. 656:total population." 294:World Prisons Brief 18:Women's prison 3940:WriteAPrisoner.com 3703:Protective custody 3252:Extermination camp 3183:Political prisoner 2970:doi:10.1086/670770 2953:doi:10.1086/670768 2936:doi:10.1086/670862 2828:The Prison Journal 2425:Chuck, Elizabeth. 2213:Tignor, Kimberly. 648: 545:HM Prison New Hall 405:Nicole Hahn Rafter 386:Ossining, New York 204:statistic of 33%. 124: 106: 84: 4228: 4227: 4164:England and Wales 3904:Prison Legal News 3889:Prison Fellowship 3847:Justice Defenders 3517: 3516: 3121:Prison healthcare 3021:978-4-09-523001-6 3006:978-4-642-00502-9 2924:Fili, Andriani. " 2911:978-1-55553-673-2 2086:978-1-57607-929-4 2068:. Retrieved from 2038:978-1-57607-929-4 2020:. Retrieved from 1811:. March 1, 2018. 1243:(10): 3135–3150. 1206:Psychiatric Times 1076:Nations, United. 806:Crime and Justice 522:sexual misconduct 502: 501: 494: 468:used on Knowledge 466:encyclopedic tone 384:Female Prison in 281: 280: 273: 180:Prison conditions 138:Prison population 57:technical reasons 16:(Redirected from 4253: 4241:Criminal justice 4221: 4217: 4216: 4209: 4205: 4204: 4189: 4180: 4173: 4171:Northern Ireland 4166: 4159: 4152: 4147: 4140: 4131: 4124: 4117: 4110: 4103: 4096: 4089: 4082: 4075: 4068: 4061: 4054: 4047: 4040: 4033: 4026: 4019: 3999: 3992: 3985: 3967: 3960: 3942: 3935: 3928: 3921: 3914: 3907: 3898: 3891: 3884: 3877: 3870: 3863: 3856: 3849: 3842: 3835: 3828: 3821: 3814: 3793: 3786: 3779: 3772: 3765: 3758: 3751: 3744: 3735: 3728: 3719: 3712: 3705: 3696: 3689: 3682: 3675: 3668: 3661: 3654: 3647: 3640: 3633: 3624: 3617: 3599: 3592: 3585: 3576: 3569: 3562: 3553: 3546: 3539: 3532: 3510: 3501: 3494: 3474: 3467: 3460: 3453: 3446: 3439: 3432: 3425: 3418: 3411: 3393: 3386: 3379: 3377:Maximum security 3372: 3365: 3358: 3340: 3333: 3326: 3319: 3312: 3305: 3296: 3289: 3282: 3275: 3268: 3261: 3254: 3247: 3240: 3233: 3220: 3219: 3206: 3199: 3192: 3185: 3178: 3171: 3164: 3157: 3137: 3130: 3123: 3116: 3109: 3085: 3078: 3071: 3062: 3061: 3053: 3052: 3041: 3040: 3032: 2999: 2860: 2859: 2823: 2812: 2811: 2805: 2797: 2795: 2782: 2776: 2775: 2767: 2761: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2750: 2739: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2721: 2719: 2713: 2702: 2693: 2687: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2676: 2669: 2660: 2654: 2653: 2643: 2611: 2602: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2591: 2584: 2576: 2570: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2545: 2539: 2538: 2536: 2534: 2514: 2508: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2484: 2478: 2477: 2475: 2473: 2453: 2447: 2446: 2444: 2442: 2422: 2416: 2415: 2413: 2411: 2391: 2382: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2362: 2356: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2311: 2271: 2260: 2259: 2257: 2255: 2241: 2235: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2210: 2204: 2203: 2187: 2181: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2142: 2133: 2132: 2120: 2110: 2104: 2103: 2095: 2089: 2047: 2041: 1999: 1993: 1992: 1972: 1959: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1934: 1928: 1927: 1919: 1913: 1912: 1884: 1875: 1874: 1866: 1860: 1859: 1851: 1840: 1839: 1836:Race and Justice 1831: 1825: 1824: 1822: 1820: 1801: 1795: 1794: 1792: 1790: 1770: 1764: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1744: 1738: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1727: 1716: 1707: 1701: 1700: 1698: 1696: 1681: 1675: 1674: 1672: 1670: 1645: 1639: 1638: 1636: 1634: 1629:on July 20, 2014 1625:. 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" 2887:Raphael, Jody. 2868: 2866:Further reading 2863: 2824: 2815: 2799: 2798: 2793:10.1.1.523.6538 2783: 2779: 2768: 2764: 2754: 2752: 2748: 2737: 2731: 2727: 2717: 2715: 2711: 2700: 2694: 2690: 2680: 2678: 2674: 2667: 2661: 2657: 2612: 2605: 2595: 2593: 2589: 2582: 2578: 2577: 2573: 2563: 2561: 2546: 2542: 2532: 2530: 2515: 2511: 2501: 2499: 2486: 2485: 2481: 2471: 2469: 2454: 2450: 2440: 2438: 2423: 2419: 2409: 2407: 2392: 2385: 2375: 2373: 2364: 2363: 2359: 2349: 2347: 2329: 2325: 2272: 2263: 2253: 2251: 2243: 2242: 2238: 2228: 2226: 2211: 2207: 2188: 2184: 2178:Wayback Machine 2162: 2160: 2143: 2136: 2129: 2111: 2107: 2096: 2092: 2066:Wayback Machine 2048: 2044: 2018:Wayback Machine 2000: 1996: 1973: 1962: 1952: 1950: 1935: 1931: 1920: 1916: 1885: 1878: 1867: 1863: 1852: 1843: 1832: 1828: 1818: 1816: 1803: 1802: 1798: 1788: 1786: 1771: 1767: 1757: 1755: 1746: 1745: 1741: 1731: 1729: 1725: 1714: 1708: 1704: 1694: 1692: 1683: 1682: 1678: 1668: 1666: 1647: 1646: 1642: 1632: 1630: 1615: 1611: 1574: 1570: 1559: 1555: 1540: 1536: 1521: 1517: 1506: 1502: 1492: 1490: 1475: 1471: 1416: 1412: 1402: 1400: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1372: 1370: 1357: 1356: 1352: 1342: 1340: 1327: 1326: 1322: 1312: 1310: 1297: 1296: 1292: 1282: 1280: 1229: 1225: 1215: 1213: 1200: 1199: 1192: 1182: 1180: 1167: 1166: 1162: 1152: 1150: 1137: 1136: 1132: 1122: 1120: 1105: 1101: 1091: 1089: 1074: 1070: 1060: 1058: 1056: 1036: 1032: 1019: 1015: 1005: 1003: 999: 992: 988: 987: 980: 970: 968: 955: 954: 950: 940: 938: 925: 924: 920: 910: 908: 895: 894: 890: 880: 878: 865: 864: 860: 839: 832: 823: 816: 803: 799: 786: 782: 771:Wayback Machine 762: 755: 745: 743: 735: 734: 730: 726: 662: 640: 623: 610: 593: 576:HMP Bronzefield 520:revealed gross 498: 487: 481: 478: 471: 462:This article's 458: 454: 447: 377: 371: 362: 334: 317: 290: 277: 266: 260: 257: 242: 226: 215: 210: 208:By jurisdiction 182: 160: 140: 64: 53: 46: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4259: 4249: 4248: 4243: 4226: 4225: 4223: 4222: 4210: 4197: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4190: 4183: 4182: 4181: 4174: 4167: 4160: 4148: 4141: 4134: 4133: 4132: 4118: 4111: 4104: 4097: 4090: 4083: 4076: 4069: 4062: 4055: 4048: 4041: 4034: 4027: 4020: 4012: 4010: 4004: 4003: 4001: 4000: 3993: 3986: 3978: 3976: 3972: 3971: 3969: 3968: 3961: 3958:Rehabilitation 3953: 3951: 3950:Leaving prison 3947: 3946: 3944: 3943: 3936: 3929: 3922: 3915: 3908: 3899: 3892: 3885: 3878: 3871: 3864: 3857: 3850: 3843: 3840:Justice Action 3836: 3829: 3822: 3819:Black and Pink 3815: 3806: 3804: 3800: 3799: 3797: 3796: 3795: 3794: 3780: 3773: 3766: 3759: 3752: 3745: 3738: 3737: 3736: 3722: 3721: 3720: 3706: 3699: 3698: 3697: 3683: 3676: 3669: 3662: 3655: 3648: 3641: 3634: 3627: 3626: 3625: 3610: 3608: 3604: 3603: 3601: 3600: 3593: 3586: 3579: 3578: 3577: 3570: 3556: 3555: 3554: 3540: 3533: 3525: 3523: 3519: 3518: 3515: 3514: 3512: 3511: 3504: 3503: 3502: 3492:Prison escapes 3487: 3485: 3479: 3478: 3476: 3475: 3468: 3461: 3454: 3447: 3440: 3433: 3426: 3419: 3412: 3404: 3402: 3398: 3397: 3395: 3394: 3387: 3380: 3373: 3366: 3359: 3351: 3349: 3345: 3344: 3342: 3341: 3334: 3327: 3320: 3313: 3306: 3299: 3298: 3297: 3290: 3276: 3269: 3262: 3255: 3248: 3241: 3234: 3226: 3224: 3217: 3211: 3210: 3208: 3207: 3200: 3193: 3186: 3179: 3172: 3165: 3158: 3150: 3148: 3142: 3141: 3139: 3138: 3131: 3124: 3117: 3110: 3102: 3100: 3096: 3095: 3088: 3087: 3080: 3073: 3065: 3058: 3057: 3045: 3025: 3024: 3009: 2991:Ishii, Ryōsuke 2984: 2983: 2973: 2956: 2939: 2918: 2917: 2914: 2885: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2861: 2834:(4): 417–446. 2813: 2802:cite CiteSeerX 2777: 2762: 2725: 2688: 2655: 2603: 2571: 2540: 2509: 2479: 2448: 2417: 2383: 2372:. 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