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3224:) – The differential phase is a comparison of the returned phase difference between the horizontal and vertical pulses. This change in phase is caused by the difference in the number of wave cycles (or wavelengths) along the propagation path for horizontal and vertically polarized waves. It should not be confused with the Doppler frequency shift, which is caused by the motion of the cloud and precipitation particles. Unlike the differential reflectivity, correlation coefficient and linear depolarization ratio, which are all dependent on reflected power, the differential phase is a "propagation effect." It is a very good estimator of rain rate and is not affected by
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arcing and are not safe to be used around ground personnel. However, the alternative would be the low-powered systems. These systems operate 100 – 200 watts, and require a combination of high gain receivers, signal microprocessors, and transistors to operate as effectively as the high-powered systems. The complex microprocessors help to eliminate noise, providing a more accurate and detailed depiction of the sky. Also, since there are fewer irregularities throughout the system, the low-powered radars can be used to detect turbulence via the
Doppler Effect. Since low-powered systems operate at considerable less wattage, they are safe from
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doing this the pilot is able to adjust the radar so that it will point towards the weather system of interest. If the airplane is at a low altitude, the pilot would want to set the radar above the horizon line so that ground clutter is minimized on the display. If the airplane is at a very high altitude, the pilot will set the radar at a low or negative angle, to point the radar towards the clouds wherever they may be relative to the aircraft. If the airplane changes attitude, the stabilizer will adjust itself accordingly so that the pilot doesn't have to fly with one hand and adjust the radar with the other.
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Usually, the scanning strategy is completed within 5 to 10 minutes to have data within 15 km above ground and 250 km distance of the radar. For instance in Canada, the 5 cm weather radars use angles ranging from 0.3 to 25 degrees. The accompanying image shows the volume scanned when multiple angles are used. Due to the Earth's curvature and change of index of refraction with height, the radar cannot "see" below the height above ground of the minimal angle (shown in green) or closer to the radar than the maximal one (shown as a red cone in the center).
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some situations allow a multiple-reflected radar beam to be received by the radar antenna. For instance, when the beam hits hail, the energy spread toward the wet ground will be reflected back to the hail and then to the radar. The resulting echo is weak but noticeable. Due to the extra path length it has to go through, it arrives later at the antenna and is placed further than its source. This gives a kind of triangle of false weaker reflections placed radially behind the hail.
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376:(CASA), a multidisciplinary, multi-university collaboration of engineers, computer scientists, meteorologists, and sociologists to conduct fundamental research, develop enabling technology, and deploy prototype engineering systems designed to augment existing radar systems by sampling the generally undersampled lower troposphere with inexpensive, fast scanning, dual polarization, mechanically scanned and phased array radars.
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3515:(RHI), which is excellent for viewing the detailed smaller-scale vertical structure of a storm. As mentioned, this is different from the vertical cross section mentioned above, namely due to the fact that the radar antenna is scanning solely vertically, and does not scan over the entire 360 degrees around the site. This kind of product is typically only available on research radars.
56:
568:) to propagate from the detector to the weather target and back again, a distance which could be several hundred kilometers. The horizontal distance from station to target is calculated simply from the amount of time that elapses from the initiation of the pulse to the detection of the return signal. The time is converted into distance by multiplying by the speed of light in air:
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3164:. Among other things, it is a good indicator of droplet shape. Differential reflectivity also can provide an estimate of average droplet size, as larger drops are more subject to deformation by aerodynamic forces than are smaller ones (that is, larger drops are more likely to become "hamburger bun-shaped") as they fall through the air.
3702:(RIDGE) in which the radar data is projected on a map with geospatial elements such as topography maps, highways, state/county boundaries and weather warnings. The projection is often flexible giving the user a choice of various geographic elements. It is frequently used in conjunction with animations of radar data over a time period.
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thunderstorms it is better to scan a large range of angles in order to have a 3-D view of the precipitation as often as possible. To mitigate the different demands, scanning strategies have been developed according to the type of radar, the wavelength used and the most common weather situations in the area considered.
3174:) – A statistical correlation between the reflected horizontal and vertical power returns. High values, near one, indicate homogeneous precipitation types, while lower values indicate regions of mixed precipitation types, such as rain and snow, or hail, or in extreme cases debris aloft, usually coinciding with a
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users must consider this characteristic when interpreting data. The images above show how a strong line of echoes seems to vanish as it moves over the radar. To compensate for this behaviour, radar sites are often chosen to somewhat overlap in coverage to give different points of view of the same storms.
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Shorter wavelengths are even more attenuated and are only useful on short range radar. Many television stations in the United States have 5 cm radars to cover their audience area. Knowing their limitations and using them with the local NEXRAD can supplement the data available to a meteorologist.
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Microwaves used in weather radars can be absorbed by rain, depending on the wavelength used. For 10 cm radars, this attenuation is negligible. That is the reason why countries with high water content storms are using 10 cm wavelength, for example the US NEXRAD. The cost of a larger antenna,
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When a secondary lobe hits a reflective target such as a mountain or a strong thunderstorm, some of the energy is reflected to the radar. This energy is relatively weak but arrives at the same time that the central peak is illuminating a different azimuth. The echo is thus misplaced by the processing
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Resolution can be improved by newer equipment but some things cannot. As mentioned previously, the volume scanned increases with distance so the possibility that the beam is only partially filled also increases. This leads to underestimation of the precipitation rate at larger distances and fools the
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as it was passing overhead. This is like a vertical cross section through the cloud with 150-metre vertical and 30-metre horizontal resolution. The reflectivity has large variations in a short distance. Compare this with a simulated view of what a regular weather radar would see at 60 km, in the
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In fact, such a network can consist of different types of radar with different characteristics like beam width, wavelength and calibration. These differences have to be taken into account when matching data across the network, particularly when deciding what data to use when two radars cover the same
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Aviation is a heavy user of radar data. One map particularly important in this field is the
Echotops for flight planning and avoidance of dangerous weather. Most country weather radars scan enough angles to have a 3D set of data over the area of coverage. It is relatively easy to estimate the maximum
6574:
Otsuka, Shigenori; Tuerhong, Gulanbaier; Kikuchi, Ryota; Kitano, Yoshikazu; Taniguchi, Yusuke; Ruiz, Juan Jose; Satoh, Shinsuke; Ushio, Tomoo; Miyoshi, Takemasa (February 2016). "Precipitation
Nowcasting with Three-Dimensional Space–Time Extrapolation of Dense and Frequent Phased-Array Weather Radar
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falls into the Earth's atmosphere, generating an optically bright meteor by ionization and frictional heating. If the meteoroid is large enough and infall velocity is low enough, it will reach the ground. When the falling meteoroid decelerate below about 2–4 km/s, usually at an altitude between
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frequency range (8,000 – 12,500 MHz). High-powered systems operate at 10,000 – 60,000 watts. These systems consist of magnetrons that are fairly expensive (approximately $ 1,700) and allow for considerable noise due to irregularities with the system. Thus, these systems are highly dangerous for
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However, not all non-meteorological targets remain stationary (birds, insects, dust). Others, like the bright band, depend on the structure of the precipitation. Polarization offers a direct typing of the echoes which could be used to filter more false data or produce separate images for specialized
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This type of false return is relatively easy to spot on a time loop if it is due to night cooling or marine inversion as one sees very strong echoes developing over an area, spreading in size laterally but not moving and varying greatly in intensity. However, inversion of temperature exists ahead of
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of air decreases faster than normal the radar beam bends toward the ground instead of continuing upward. Eventually, it will hit the ground and be reflected back toward the radar. The processing program will then wrongly place the return echoes at the height and distance it would have been in normal
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To produce radar accumulations, we have to estimate the rain rate over a point by the average value over that point between one PPI, or CAPPI, and the next; then multiply by the time between those images. If one wants for a longer period of time, one has to add up all the accumulations from image to
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CAPPIs call for a large number of angles from near the horizontal to near the vertical of the radar to have a cut that is as close as possible at all distance to the height needed. Even then, after a certain distance, there isn't any angle available and the CAPPI becomes the PPI of the lowest angle.
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To avoid some of the PPI problems, the constant-altitude plan position indicator (CAPPI) has been developed by
Canadian researchers. It is a horizontal cross-section through radar data. This way, one can compare precipitation on an equal footing at difference distance from the radar and avoid ground
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In the case of
Doppler data, two points of view are possible: relative to the surface or the storm. When looking at the general motion of the rain to extract wind at different altitudes, it is better to use data relative to the radar. But when looking for rotation or wind shear under a thunderstorm,
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A weather radar network uses a series of typical angles that are set according to its needs. After each scanning rotation, the antenna elevation is changed for the next sounding. This scenario will be repeated on many angles to scan the entire volume of air around the radar within the maximum range.
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which occurred on 26 March 2003. The red-green feature at the upper left is the motion of clouds near the radar itself, and a signature of falling meteorites is inside the yellow ellipse at image center. The intermixed red and green pixels indicate turbulence, in this case arising from the wakes of
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located on the aircraft. By doing this, the pilot is able to set a pitch or angle to the antenna that will enable the stabilizer to keep the antenna pointed in the right direction under moderate maneuvers. The small servo motors will not be able to keep up with abrupt maneuvers, but it will try. In
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As demonstrated at the start of the article, radar beams have a physical dimension and data are sampled at discrete angles, not continuously, along each angle of elevation. This results in an averaging of the values of the returns for reflectivity, velocities and polarization data on the resolution
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To know the vertical structure of clouds, in particular thunderstorms or the level of the melting layer, a vertical cross-section product of the radar data is available to meteorologists. This is done by displaying only the data along a line, from coordinates A to B, taken from the different angles
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Some techniques using two alternating pulse repetition frequencies (PRF) allow a greater
Doppler range. The velocities noted with the first pulse rate could be equal or different with the second. For instance, if the maximum velocity with a certain rate is 10 metre/second and the one with the other
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on a transparent sheet of plastic. During the broadcast, he held that transparent overlay over the computer's black-and-white radar display to give his audience a sense both of Carla's size and of the location of the storm's eye. This made Rather a national name and his report helped in the alerted
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tracking surveillance which provides users with the ability to acquire detailed information of each storm cloud being tracked. Thunderstorms are identified by matching raw precipitation data received from the radar pulse, to a preprogrammed template. In order for a thunderstorm to be confirmed, it
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Unlike ground weather radar, which is set at a fixed angle, airborne weather radar is being utilized from the nose or wing of an aircraft. Not only will the aircraft be moving up, down, left, and right, but it will be rolling as well. To compensate for this, the antenna is linked and calibrated to
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Using 3 cm radars, the antenna of each radar is small (about 1 meter diameter) but the resolution is similar at short distance to that of NEXRAD. The attenuation is significant due to the wavelength used but each point in the coverage area is seen by many radars, each viewing from a different
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This gives enhanced returns that can be mistaken for stronger precipitations. On a PPI, this will show up as an intense ring of precipitation at the altitude where the beam crosses the melting level while on a series of CAPPIs, only the ones near that level will have stronger echoes. A good way to
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For a 5 cm radar, absorption becomes important in heavy rain and this attenuation leads to underestimation of echoes in and beyond a strong thunderstorm. Canada and other northern countries use this less costly kind of radar as the precipitation in such areas is usually less intense. However,
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pattern of a light passing through a slit. This is because the wave is transmitted to the parabolic antenna through a slit in the wave-guide at the focal point. Most of the energy is at the center of the beam and decreases along a curve close to a
Gaussian function on each side. However, there are
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If we want to reliably estimate the precipitation rate, the targets have to be 10 times smaller than the radar wave according to
Rayleigh scattering. This is because the water molecule has to be excited by the radar wave to give a return. This is relatively true for rain or snow as 5 or 10 cm
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Since the CAPPI uses the closest angle to the desired height at each point from the radar, the data can originate from slightly different altitudes, as seen on the image, in different points of the radar coverage. It is therefore crucial to have a large enough number of sounding angles to minimize
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With this new knowledge added to the reflectivity, velocity, and spectrum width produced by
Doppler weather radars, researchers have been working on developing algorithms to differentiate precipitation types, non-meteorological targets, and to produce better rainfall accumulation estimates. In the
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interpretation, the user can extract the wind at different levels over the radar coverage region. As the beam is scanning 360 degrees around the radar, data will come from all those angles and be the radial projection of the actual wind on the individual angle. The intensity pattern formed by this
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Between 1980 and 2000, weather radar networks became the norm in North
America, Europe, Japan and other developed countries. Conventional radars were replaced by Doppler radars, which in addition to position and intensity could track the relative velocity of the particles in the air. In the United
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It is in dark flight that falling meteoroids typically fall through the interaction volume of most types of radars. It has been demonstrated that it is possible to identify falling meteoroids in weather radar imagery. This is especially useful for meteorite recovery, as weather radars are part of
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It is assumed that the beam hits the weather targets and returns directly to the radar. In fact, there is energy reflected in all directions. Most of it is weak, and multiple reflections diminish it even further so what can eventually return to the radar from such an event is negligible. However,
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can return the radar beam to the radar if they are in its path. Since the blades are moving, the echoes will have a velocity and can be mistaken for real precipitation. The closer the wind farm, the stronger the return, and the combined signal from many towers is stronger. In some conditions, the
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This is very important as a high rain rate seen near the radar is relatively close to what reaches the ground but what is seen from 160 km away is about 1.5 km above ground and could be far different from the amount reaching the surface. It is thus difficult to compare weather echoes at
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However, the rain drops are falling. As the radar only sees the radial component and has a certain elevation from ground, the radial velocities are contaminated by some fraction of the falling speed. This component is negligible in small elevation angles, but must be taken into account for higher
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Radar returns are usually described by colour or level. The colours in a radar image normally range from blue or green for weak returns, to red or magenta for very strong returns. The numbers in a verbal report increase with the severity of the returns. For example, the U.S. National NEXRAD radar
4199:(a network in the United States) using many low cost X-band (3 cm) weather radar mounted on cellular telephone towers. These radars will subdivide the large area of the NEXRAD into smaller domains to look at altitudes below its lowest angle. These will give details not otherwise available.
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These two images show what can be achieved to clean up radar data. On the first image made from the raw returns, it is difficult to distinguish the real weather. Since rain and snow clouds are usually moving, Doppler velocities can be used to eliminate a good part of the clutter (ground echoes,
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is using such Composite as their scanning scheme can vary from 4 to 14 angles, according to their need, which would make very coarse CAPPIs. The Composite assures that no strong echo is missed in the layer and a treatment using Doppler velocities eliminates the ground echoes. Comparing base and
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The choice becomes increasing the range from reflectivity at the expense of velocity range, or increasing the latter at the expense of range from reflectivity. In general, the useful range compromise is 100–150 km for reflectivity. This means for a wavelength of 5 cm (as shown in the
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Precipitation is found in and below clouds. Light precipitation such as drops and flakes is subject to the air currents, and scanning radar can pick up the horizontal component of this motion, thus giving the possibility to estimate the wind speed and direction where precipitation is present.
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Since data is obtained one angle at a time, the first way of displaying it has been the Plan Position Indicator (PPI) which is only the layout of radar return on a two dimensional image. Importantly, the data coming from different distances to the radar are at different heights above ground.
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The number of elevation scanned and the time taken for a complete cycle depend on the weather. For example, with little or no precipitation the scheme may be limited to the lowest angles and use longer impulses in order to detect wind shift near the surface. On the other hand, for violent
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Over the past few decades, radar networks have been extended to allow the production of composite views covering large areas. For instance, countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, and much of Europe, combine images from their radar network into a singular display.
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are swept along by the prevailing winds, while birds follow their own course. As such, fine line patterns within weather radar imagery, associated with converging winds, are dominated by insect returns. Bird migration, which tends to occur overnight within the lowest 2000 metres of the
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To help meteorologists spot dangerous weather, mathematical algorithms have been introduced in the weather radar treatment programmes. These are particularly important in analyzing the Doppler velocity data as they are more complex. The polarization data will even need more algorithms.
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On the other hand, if the air is unstable and cools faster than the standard atmosphere with height, the beam ends up higher than expected. This indicates that precipitation is occurring higher than the actual height. Such an error is difficult to detect without additional temperature
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The animation of radar products can show the evolution of reflectivity and velocity patterns. The user can extract information on the dynamics of the meteorological phenomena, including the ability to extrapolate the motion and observe development or dissipation. This can also reveal
2708:{\displaystyle I=I_{0}\sin \left({\frac {4\pi (x_{0}+v\Delta t)}{\lambda }}\right)=I_{0}\sin \left(\Theta _{0}+\Delta \Theta \right)\quad {\begin{cases}x={\text{distance from radar to target}}\\\lambda ={\text{radar wavelength}}\\\Delta t={\text{time between two pulses}}\end{cases}}}
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population accepting the evacuation of an estimated 350,000 people by the authorities, which was the largest evacuation in US history at that time. Just 46 people were killed thanks to the warning and it was estimated that the evacuation saved several thousand lives, as the smaller
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Jenniskens, Peter; Fries, Marc D.; Yin, Qing-Zhu; Zolensky, Michael; Krot, Alexander N.; Sandford, Scott A.; Sears, Derek; Beauford, Robert; Ebel, Denton S. (21 December 2012). "Radar-Enabled Recovery of the Sutter's Mill Meteorite, a Carbonaceous Chondrite Regolith Breccia".
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Due to the spread of dual-polarization radar systems, robust and efficient approaches for the compensation of rain attenuation are currently implemented by operational weather services. Attenuation correction in weather radars for snow particles is an active research topic.
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between 1998 and 2004. France and other European countries had switched to Doppler networks by the early 2000s. Meanwhile, rapid advances in computer technology led to algorithms to detect signs of severe weather, and many applications for media outlets and researchers.
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During the 1970s, radars began to be standardized and organized into networks. The first devices to capture radar images were developed. The number of scanned angles was increased to get a three-dimensional view of the precipitation, so that horizontal cross-sections
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this is equivalent to considering that the curvature of the beam is 4/3 the actual curvature of the Earth. Depending on the elevation angle of the antenna and other considerations, the following formula may be used to calculate the target's height above ground:
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scan can be represented by a cosine curve (maximum in the precipitation motion and zero in the perpendicular direction). One can then calculate the direction and the strength of the motion of particles as long as there is enough coverage on the radar screen.
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rate is 15 m/s. The data coming from both will be the same up to 10 m/s, and will differ thereafter. It is then possible to find a mathematical relation between the two returns and calculate the real velocity beyond the limitation of the two PRFs.
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both horizontally and vertically (with respect to the ground) is emitted. Wide-scale deployment was done by the end of the decade or the beginning of the next in some countries such as the United States, France, and Canada. In April 2013, all United States
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must meet strict definitions of intensity and shape to distinguish it from a non-convective cloud. Usually, it must show signs of horizontal organization and vertical continuity: and have a core or a more intense center identified and tracked by digital
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widespread networks and scan the atmosphere continuously. Furthermore, the meteorites cause local wind turbulence, which is noticeable on Doppler outputs, and fall nearly vertically so their resting place on the ground is close to their radar signature.
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In a uniform rainstorm moving eastward, a radar beam pointing west will "see" the raindrops moving toward itself, while a beam pointing east will "see" the drops moving away. When the beam scans to the north or to the south, no relative motion is noted.
3849:. A return of more than 55 dBZ is likely to come from hail but won't vary proportionally to the size. On the other hand, very small targets such as cloud droplets are too small to be excited and do not give a recordable return on common weather radars.
526:, where v is the volume enclosed by the pulse, h is pulse width (in e.g. meters, calculated from the duration in seconds of the pulse times the speed of light), r is the distance from the radar that the pulse has already traveled (in e.g. meters), and
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placement and operation, to reduce bird fatalities, improve aviation safety and other wildlife management. In Europe, there have been similar developments and even a comprehensive forecast program for aviation safety, based on radar detection.
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When snow falls through a layer above freezing temperature, it melts into rain. Using the reflectivity equation, one can demonstrate that the returns from the snow before melting and the rain after, are not too different as the change in
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The first assumption is that the radar beam is moving through air that cools down at a certain rate with height. The position of the echoes depend heavily on this hypothesis. However, the real atmosphere can vary greatly from the norm.
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velocity. This is inversely dependent on the time between successive pulses: the smaller the interval, the larger is the unambiguous velocity range. However, we know that the maximum range from reflectivity is directly proportional to
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is the beam width (in radians). This formula assumes the beam is symmetrically circular, "r" is much greater than "h" so "r" taken at the beginning or at the end of the pulse is almost the same, and the shape of the volume is a cone
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After 2000, research on dual polarization technology moved into operational use, increasing the amount of information available on precipitation type (e.g. rain vs. snow). "Dual polarization" means that microwave radiation which is
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bottom of the figure. Everything has been smoothed out. Not only the coarser resolution of the radar blur the image but the sounding incorporates area that are echo free, thus extending the thunderstorm beyond its real boundaries.
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Reflectivity data being relatively smooth with height, CAPPIs are mostly used for displaying them. Velocity data, on the other hand, can change rapidly in direction with height and CAPPIs of them are not common. It seems that only
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Doppler weather radars use this phase difference (pulse pair difference) to calculate the precipitation's motion. The intensity of the successively returning pulse from the same scanned volume where targets have slightly moved is:
3560:. Notice the inbound/outbound doublet (blue/yellow) with the zero velocity line (gray) parallel to the radial to the radar (up right). It is noteworthy to mention that the change in wind direction here occurs over less than 10 km.
2000:") are analyzed for their intensities to establish the precipitation rate in the scanned volume. The wavelengths used (1–10 cm) ensure that this return is proportional to the rate because they are within the validity of
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diagram), an unambiguous velocity range of 12.5 to 18.75 metre/second is produced (for 150 km and 100 km, respectively). For a 10 cm radar such as the NEXRAD, the unambiguous velocity range would be doubled.
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1860:{\displaystyle P_{r}=P_{t}{{G^{2}\lambda ^{2}} \over {{(4\pi )}^{3}R^{4}}}{\frac {c\tau }{2}}{\frac {\pi R^{2}\theta ^{2}}{4}}\eta =P_{t}\tau G^{2}\lambda ^{2}\theta ^{2}{\frac {c}{512(\pi ^{2})}}{\frac {\eta }{R^{2}}}}
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Such extraneous objects have characteristics that allow a trained eye to distinguish them. It is also possible to eliminate some of them with post-treatment of data using reflectivity, Doppler, and polarization data.
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Another solution to the PPI problems is to produce images of the maximum reflectivity in a layer above ground. This solution is usually taken when the number of angles available is small or variable. The American
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operators discovered that weather was causing echoes on their screens, masking potential enemy targets. Techniques were developed to filter them, but scientists began to study the phenomenon. Soon after the war,
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Radar pulses diverge as they move away from the radar station. Thus the volume of air that a radar pulse is traversing is larger for areas farther away from the station, and smaller for nearby areas, decreasing
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As the antenna scans the atmosphere, on every angle of azimuth it obtains a certain strength of return from each type of target encountered. Reflectivity is then averaged for that target to have a better data
3544:). If one uses data from the closest radar, it might be attenuated by passing through a thunderstorm. Composite images of precipitations using a network of radars are made with all those limitations in mind.
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Carey, L. D.; Rutledge, S. A.; Ahijevych, D. A.; Keenan, T. D. (2000). "Correcting propagation effects in C-band polarimetric radar observations of tropical convection using differential propagation phase".
1546:{\displaystyle {\begin{cases}V\quad =\mathrm {scanned\,\,volume} \\\qquad =\mathrm {pulse\,\,length} \times \mathrm {beam\,\,width} \\\qquad ={\frac {c\tau }{2}}{\frac {\pi R^{2}\theta ^{2}}{4}}\end{cases}}}
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100:, capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to the intensity of the precipitation. Both types of data can be analyzed to determine the structure of storms and their potential to cause
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Idealized example of Doppler output. Approaching velocities are in blue and receding velocities are in red. Notice the sinusoidal variation of speed when going around the display at a particular range.
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15 and 25 km, they no longer generate an optically bright meteor and enter "dark flight". Because of this, most of the falls occurring into the oceans, during the day, or otherwise go unnoticed.
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point. If one uses the stronger echo but it comes from the most distant radar, one uses returns that are from higher altitude coming from rain or snow that might evaporate before reaching the ground (
3189:) – This is a ratio of a vertical power return from a horizontal pulse or a horizontal power return from a vertical pulse. It can also indicate regions where there is a mixture of precipitation types.
210:
Between 1950 and 1980, reflectivity radars, which measure the position and intensity of precipitation, were incorporated by weather services around the world. The early meteorologists had to watch a
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When a weather radar is scanning in only the vertical axis, it can obtain much higher resolution data than it could with a composite-vertical slice using combined PPI tilts. This output is called a
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Different programs in North America use regular weather radars and specialized radar data to determine the paths, height of flight, and timing of migrations. This is useful information in planning
3922:
program. This has the effect of actually broadening the real weather echo making a smearing of weaker values on each side of it. This causes the user to overestimate the extent of the real echoes.
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An opposite problem is that drizzle (precipitation with small water droplet diameter) tends not to show up on radar because radar returns are proportional to the sixth power of droplet diameter.
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Strong returns (red or magenta) may indicate not only heavy rain but also thunderstorms, hail, strong winds, or tornadoes, but they need to be interpreted carefully, for reasons described below.
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VAD Wind Profile (VWP) is a display that estimates the direction and speed of the horizontal wind at various upper levels of the atmosphere, using the technique explained in the Doppler section.
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PPIs are affected by ground echoes near the radar. These can be misinterpreted as real echoes. Other products and further treatments of data have been developed to supplement such shortcomings.
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corresponds to a yellow radar return, indicating moderate precipitation, leading to the possibility of very low visibility, moderate turbulence and an uncomfortable ride for aircraft passengers.
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Another question is the resolution. As mentioned, radar data are an average of the scanned volume by the beam. Resolution can be improved by larger antenna or denser networks. A program by the
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a radial line from the radar. Usually the mesocyclone detection must be found on two or more stacked progressive tilts of the beam to be significative of rotation into a thunderstorm cloud.
4386:, for instance, has reported having flights of birds appear on their radars as clouds and then fade away when the birds land. The U.S. National Weather Service St. Louis has even reported
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A radar beam's reflectivity depends on the diameter of the target and its capacity to reflect. Snowflakes are large but weakly reflective while rain drops are small but highly reflective.
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calculations; such data is useful in flood control, sewer management and dam construction. The computed data from radar weather may be used in conjunction with data from ground stations.
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secondary peaks of emission that will sample the targets at off-angles from the center. Designers attempt to minimize the power transmitted by such lobes, but they cannot be eliminated.
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in order to get an idea of the size of the storm. He convinced the bureau staff to let him broadcast live from their office and asked a meteorologist to draw him a rough outline of the
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The zigzag line on the angles diagram above shows the data used to produce 1.5 km and 4 km height CAPPIs. Notice that the section after 120 km is using the same data.
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3070:. These may only cover few square kilometers but are visible by variations in the radial speed. Users can recognize velocity patterns in the wind associated with rotations, such as
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at farther distances. At the end of a 150 – 200 km sounding range, the volume of air scanned by a single pulse might be on the order of a cubic kilometer. This is called the
151:. After the war, military scientists returned to civilian life or continued in the Armed Forces and pursued their work in developing a use for those echoes. In the United States,
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1.5 km altitude CAPPI at the top with strong contamination from the brightband (yellows). The vertical cut at the bottom shows that this strong return is only above ground.
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There are two major systems when talking about the receiver/transmitter: the first is high-powered systems, and the second is low-powered systems; both of which operate in the
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Between each pulse, the radar station serves as a receiver as it listens for return signals from particles in the air. The duration of the "listen" cycle is on the order of a
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compensates for the change in size. However, during the melting process, the radar wave "sees" something akin to very large droplets as snow flakes become coated with water.
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24 hours rain accumulation on the Val d'Irène radar in Eastern Canada. Notice the zones without data in the East and Southwest caused by radar beam blocking from mountains.
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it is better to use storm relative images that subtract the general motion of precipitation leaving the user to view the air motion as if he would be sitting on the cloud.
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corresponds to a red radar return, indicating heavy precipitation, leading to the possibility of thunderstorms and severe turbulence and structural damage to the aircraft.
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Various methods of displaying data from radar scans have been developed over time to address the needs of its users. This is a list of common and specialized displays:
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If pulses are emitted too frequently, the returns from one pulse will be confused with the returns from previous pulses, resulting in incorrect distance calculations.
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radars were used to detect precipitation. Since then, weather radar has evolved and is used by national weather services, research departments in universities, and in
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Aircraft application of radar systems include weather radar, collision avoidance, target tracking, ground proximity, and other systems. For commercial weather radar,
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radar network which has evolved over time. In 2008, it added extra resolution of data, and in 2014, additional intra-cycle scanning of the lowest level elevation (
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2498:. This difference is too small to be noted by electronic instruments. However, as the targets move slightly between each pulse, the returned wave has a noticeable
3587:, which can estimate the winds under a cloud (a downdraft) using the VIL and the height of the echotops (radar estimated top of the cloud) for a given storm cell.
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is producing regularly Doppler CAPPIs with the 24 angles available on their radar. However, some researchers have published papers using velocity CAPPIs to study
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This situation can be found with inversions of temperature aloft or rapid decrease of moisture with height. In the former case, it could be difficult to notice.
564:, which is a thousand times longer than the pulse duration. The length of this phase is determined by the need for the microwave radiation (which travels at the
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This shows how the output of weather radar is only an approximation of reality. The image to the right compares real data from two radars almost colocated. The
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With more information about particle shape, dual-polarization radars can more easily distinguish airborne debris from precipitation, making it easier to locate
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variation of distance versus time between the radar and the target. The real speed and direction of motion has to be extracted by the process described below.
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In the velocity data, there could be smaller zones in the radar coverage where the wind varies from the one mentioned above. For example, a thunderstorm is a
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Since variation in diameter and dielectric constant of the targets can lead to large variability in power return to the radar, reflectivity is expressed in
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5593:"Polarimetric Hydrometeor Classification and Rainfall Estimation for Better Detecting and Forecasting High-Impact Weather Phenomena Including Flash Floods"
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The extreme of this problem is when the inversion is very strong and shallow, the radar beam reflects many times toward the ground as it has to follow a
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corresponds to a green radar return, indicating usually light precipitation and little to no turbulence, leading to a possibility of reduced visibility.
284:. For the first time, a Dopplerized 10 cm wavelength radar from NSSL documented the entire life cycle of the tornado. The researchers discovered a
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altitude at which precipitation is found within the volume. However, those are not the tops of clouds, as they always extend above the precipitation.
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occurs at these frequencies. This means that part of the energy of each pulse will bounce off these small particles, back towards the radar station.
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with the rate at which rainwater is falling. In the United Kingdom, research continued to study the radar echo patterns and weather elements such as
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and R.H. Douglas formed the "Stormy Weather Group" in Montreal. Marshall and his doctoral student Walter Palmer are well known for their work on the
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5746:"Real-Time Implementation of Single-Doppler Radar Analysis Methods for Tropical Cyclones: Algorithm Improvements and Use with WSR-88D Display Data"
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The PANTHERE project and the evolution of the French operational radar network and products: Rain estimation, Doppler winds, and dual polarization
4354:. Once the thunderstorm cell is identified, speed, distance covered, direction, and Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) are all tracked and recorded.
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echoes. Although data are taken at a certain height above ground, a relation can be inferred between ground stations' reports and the radar data.
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Timeliness also needs improvement. With 5 to 10 minutes between complete scans of weather radar, much data is lost as a thunderstorm develops. A
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Aircraft will try to avoid level 2 returns when possible, and will always avoid level 3 unless they are specially-designed research aircraft.
7167:
Fries, M. D.; Fries, J. A. (1 September 2010). "Doppler Weather Radar Observations of the 14 April 2010 Southwest Wisconsin Meteorite Fall".
7048:
Brown, P.; McCAUSLAND, P. J. A.; Fries, M.; Silber, E.; Edwards, W. N.; Wong, D. K.; Weryk, R. J.; Fries, J.; Krzeminski, Z. (1 March 2011).
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David, McLaughlin; et al. (December 2009). "Short-wavelength technology and potential for distributed networks of small radar systems".
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Since the Earth is round, the radar beam in vacuum would rise according to the reverse curvature of the Earth. However, the atmosphere has a
303:
214:. In 1953 Donald Staggs, an electrical engineer working for the Illinois State Water Survey, made the first recorded radar observation of a "
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to be oriented in that direction; so, radar beams are, generally, polarized horizontally in order to receive the maximal signal reflection.
7194:
Fries, M.; Fries, J. (1 March 2010). "Partly Cloudy with a Chance of Chondrites --- Studying Meteorite Falls Using Doppler Weather Radar".
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Another important use of radar data is the ability to assess the amount of precipitation that has fallen over large basins, to be used in
2414:). This is not an analysis of the radar data itself but a post-treatment done with other data sources, the primary being surface reports (
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5744:
Harasti, Paul R.; McAdie, Colin J.; Dodge, Peter P.; Lee, Wen-Chau; Tuttle, John; Murillo, Shirley T.; Marks, Frank D. Jr. (April 2004).
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Bendix Corporation. Avionics Division. RDR-1200 Weather Radar System. Rev. Jul/73 ed. Fort Lauderdale: Bendix, Avionics Division, 1973.
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products. Finally, polarimetric data are recent and often noisy. There doesn't seem to have regular use of CAPPI for them although the
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2494:. With velocities of less than 70-metre/second for weather echos and radar wavelength of 10 cm, this amounts to a change only 0.1
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this height change. Furthermore, the type of data must change relatively gradually with height to produce an image that is not noisy.
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algorithm is essentially a mesocyclone with a large velocity threshold found through many scanning angles. This algorithm is used in
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below) data are widely available, any precipitation types on radar images are only indirect information and must be taken with care.
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When describing weather radar returns, pilots, dispatchers, and air traffic controllers will typically refer to three return levels:
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3250:
462:(3 mm) weather radar systems have seen limited university use, but due to quicker attenuation, most data are not operational.
435:. The wavelengths of 1 – 10 cm are approximately ten times the diameter of the droplets or ice particles of interest, because
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in Huntsville, Alabama was equipped with a SIGMET Antenna Mounted Receiver, giving Dual-Polarmetric capabilities to the operator.
7375:
Ripesi, P. (2023). "Automatic cumulonimbus and towering cumulus identification based on the Italian weather radar network data".
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2011:) varies by the sixth power of the rain droplets' diameter (D), the square of the dielectric constant (K) of the targets and the
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Fries, M.; Fries, J.; Schaefer, J. (1 March 2011). "A Probable Unexplored Meteorite Fall Found in Archived Weather Radar Data".
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reflections from buildings seen as urban spikes, anomalous propagation). The other image has been filtered using this property.
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There is more than rain and snow in the sky. Other objects can be misinterpreted as rain or snow by weather radars. Insects and
574:
183:, and experiments were done to evaluate the potential of different wavelengths from 1 to 10 centimeters. By 1950 the UK company
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6788:
Diehl, Robert H.; Larkin, Ronald P.; Black, John E. (April 2003). "Radar Observations of Bird Migration over the Great Lakes".
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Reflectivity (left) and radial velocities (right) southeast of a NEXRAD weather radar. Echoes in circles are from a wind farm.
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6835:"A Comparison between Nocturnal Aural Counts of Passerines and Radar Reflectivity from a Canadian Weather Surveillance Radar"
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2453:, for the precipitation types and apply it as a first guess to the radar echoes, then use the surface data for final output.
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that diminishes with height, due to its diminishing density. This bends the radar beam slightly toward the ground and with a
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of future positions and intensities of rain, snow, hail, and other weather phenomena. Radar output is even incorporated into
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Typical angles scanned in Canada. The zigzags represent data angles used to make CAPPIs at 1.5 km and 4 km of altitude.
300:
of tornadoes on 3–4 April 1974 and their devastating destruction might have helped to get funding for further developments.
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Targets small enough to obey the Rayleigh scattering, resulting in the return being proportional to the precipitation rate.
2433:) will have higher weight. Then the program does interpolations to produce an image with defined zones. These will include
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A target's motion relative to the radar station causes a change in the reflected frequency of the radar pulse, due to the
2145:
Precipitation rate (R), on the other hand, is equal to the number of particles, their volume and their fall speed (v) as:
1983:. In order to compare the data coming from different distances from the radar, one has to normalize them with this ratio.
257:) and vertical cross-sections could be performed. Studies of the organization of thunderstorms were then possible for the
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925:
365:. This could be significant with severe thunderstorms, as their evolution can be better evaluated with more timely data.
3845:
However, for very large hydrometeors, since the wavelength is on the order of stone, the return levels off according to
2324:(10 times the logarithm of the ratio of the echo to a standard 1 mm diameter drop filling the same scanned volume).
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in low levels. This algorithm detects the variation of wind velocities from point to point in the data and looks for a
2421:
Over the area covered by radar echoes, a program assigns a precipitation type according to the surface temperature and
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3150:) – Differential reflectivity is proportional to the ratio of the reflected horizontal and vertical power returns as
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4592:"Grouped exhibits | illustrated mainly | flight photographs | 1950 | 1758 | Flight Archive"
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respectively), two independent sets of data will be received. These signals can be compared in several useful ways:
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Gagnon, François; Bélisle, Marc; Ibarzabal, Jacques; Vaillancourt, Pierre; Savard, Jean-Pierre L. (January 2010).
1111:{\displaystyle P_{r}=P_{t}{{G^{2}\lambda ^{2}\sigma } \over {{(4\pi )}^{3}R^{4}}}\propto {\frac {\sigma }{R^{4}}}}
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Shorter wavelengths are useful for smaller particles, but the signal is more quickly attenuated. Thus 10 cm (
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confirm a bright band is to make a vertical cross section through the data, as illustrated in the picture above.
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which states that the targets must be much smaller than the wavelength of the scanning wave (by a factor of 10).
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4831:"Tomorrow.io's Historic Satellite Launch Paves Way for Groundbreaking Advancement in Global Weather Forecasting"
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or WSR-88D (Weather Surveillance Radar 1988 Doppler), was started in 1988 following NSSL's research. In Canada,
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3989:, by increasing the environmental wind returns by 30–60 km/h. Other objects within radar imagery include:
3894:
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17:
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moves over (from left to right images) a 5 cm wavelength weather radar (red arrow). Source: Environment Canada
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Radar data interpretation depends on many hypotheses about the atmosphere and the weather targets, including:
3581:
is VIL divided by the height of the cloud top. It is a clue to the possibility of large hail in thunderstorms.
3556:
The square in this Doppler image has been automatically placed by the radar program to spot the position of a
8153:
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The strong echoes are returns of the central peak of the radar from a series of small hills (yellow and reds
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These assumptions are not always met; one must be able to differentiate between reliable and dubious echoes.
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2398:
Some displays provided by commercial television outlets (both local and national) and weather websites, like
480:
7935:
7050:"The fall of the Grimsby meteorite—I: Fireball dynamics and orbit from radar, video, and infrasound records"
2980:
8169:
7975:
7463:
Whiton, Roger C.; Smith, Paul L.; Bigler, Stuart G.; Wilk, Kenneth E.; Harbuck, Albert C. (February 1998).
7434:
Whiton, Roger C.; Smith, Paul L.; Bigler, Stuart G.; Wilk, Kenneth E.; Harbuck, Albert C. (February 1998).
6273:
Lemon, Leslie R. (June 1998). "The Radar "Three-Body Scatter Spike": An Operational Large-Hail Signature".
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detection: is triggered by a velocity change over a small circular area. The algorithm is searching for a "
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125:
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and R have similar functions that can be resolved by giving a relation between the two of the form called
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4850:"Weather intelligence company aims to revolutionize forecasting with a constellation of radar satellites"
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369:
89:
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6320:"Detection of Ground Clutter for Dual-Polarization Weather Radar Using a Novel 3D Discriminant Function"
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2346:
magenta: 65 dBZ (extremely heavy precipitation, > 16 in (410 mm) per hour, but likely hail)
1153:
1124:
407:
A radar beam spreads out as it moves away from the radar station, covering an increasingly large volume.
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6105:"Comparison of advanced radar polarimetric techniques for operational attenuation correction at C band"
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2012:
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The volume of air that a given pulse takes up at any point in time may be approximated by the formula
147:
During World War II, military radar operators noticed noise in returned echoes due to rain, snow, and
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120:' weather departments. Raw images are routinely processed by specialized software to make short term
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often form near the ground, for instance by air cooling at night while remaining warm aloft. As the
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station, with a 5 cm research Doppler radar, by 1985; McGill University dopplerized its radar (
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in mid-latitude rain that led to understanding of the Z-R relation, which correlates a given radar
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828:{\displaystyle H={\sqrt {r^{2}+(k_{e}a_{e})^{2}+2rk_{e}a_{e}\sin(\theta _{e})}}-k_{e}a_{e}+h_{a},}
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7396:. Meteorological Monograph. Vol. 30. Boston: American Meteorological Society. p. 270.
4426:, meteorite falls occur on a daily basis somewhere on Earth. However, the database of worldwide
3263:
established a test deployment for dual-polametric radar at NSSL and equipped all its 10 cm
3196:
136:
8322:
7754:
7547:
6702:
6422:
6361:"Detection of Ground Clutter from Weather Radar Using a Dual-Polarization and Dual-Scan Method"
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5958:
4720:"The King City Operational Doppler Radar: Development, All-Season Applications and Forecasting"
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2281:
1603:
877:
529:
203:
180:
59:
7334:
Gunn, K. L. S.; East, T. W. R. (1954). "The microwave properties of precipitation particles".
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5377:
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5004:
4659:"Weather radar development highlight of the National Severe Storms Laboratory first 40 years"
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variations of the precipitation zones will also be lost. More sophisticated programs use the
2438:
1957:
1927:
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weather radar is used only for research on small-particle phenomena such as drizzle and fog.
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108:
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221:
The first use of weather radar on television in the United States was in September 1961. As
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362:
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4249:, to speed the data gathering. A team in Japan has also deployed a phased-array radar for
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8:
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Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction (RAMA)
8587:
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5972:
P5A.6 Fine-Scale Vertical Structure of a Cold Front As Revealed By Airborne 95 GHZ Radar.
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4105:
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3294:), was dual-polarized in 2005; it uses a 5 cm wavelength, which experiences greater
2833:
Maximum range from reflectivity (red) and unambiguous Doppler velocity range (blue) with
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2001:
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A supercell thunderstorm seen from two radars almost colocated. The top image is from a
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7149:
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Using Doppler weather radar is not limited to determining the location and velocity of
4238:
4041:
3287:
3283:
2406:, show precipitation types during the winter months: rain, snow, mixed precipitations (
2285:
467:
361:
as a replacement for conventional parabolic antenna to provide more time resolution in
358:
321:
176:
117:
4330:
3861:
Profiler high resolution view of a thunderstorm (top) and by a weather radar (bottom).
3324:
2429:. Precipitation types reported by human operated stations and certain automatic ones (
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8382:
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8114:
7492:
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7300:
Le radar, 1904–2004: histoire d'un siècle d'innovations techniques et opérationnelles
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3282:, Canada has converted its instrument (1999) and the data were used operationally by
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187:
was demonstrating its airborne 'cloud and collision warning search radar equipment'.
32:
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7760:
7708: – University of Oklahoma dual-polarization research and development
6871:
6819:
6138:
5040:
4036:
radar can even see toward and away velocities that generate false positives for the
3963:). The weaker echoes on each sides of them are from secondary lobes (blue and green)
3608:" of inbound/outbound velocities with the zero line of velocities, between the two,
3302:
is planning on incorporating dual-polarizing Doppler radar in its network coverage.
3298:. Environment Canada is converting graually all of its radars to dual-polarization.
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targets (rain, snow, etc.), all of the same variety and in a uniform concentration.
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Digital radar systems have capabilities far beyond their predecessors. They offer
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6198:
Joshil, Shashank S (2023). "Attenuation Correction in Weather Radars for Snow".
5990:
Eastern Region WSR-88D Operations Note No. 12, August 1998. Retrieved 2009-04-26
5680:
5445:
5355:
5034:"Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar"
4718:
Crozier, C.L.; Joe, P.I.; Scott, J.W.; Herscovitch, H.N.; Nichols, T.R. (1991).
4410:
NOAA NEXRAD radar image of the Park Forest, IL, meteorite fall of 26 March 2003.
374:
Engineering Research Center for Collaborative Adaptive Sensing of the Atmosphere
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yellow: 35 dBZ (moderate precipitation of 0.25 in (6.4 mm) per hour)
2254:{\displaystyle R=\int _{0}^{Dmax}N_{0}e^{-\Lambda D}{\pi D^{3} \over 6}v(D)dD}
316:
States, the construction of a network consisting of 10 cm radars, called
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7394:
Radar and Atmospheric Science: A Collection of Essays in Honor of David Atlas
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5432:"How can polarimetric radar measurements lead to better weather predictions?"
4806:"Dual-polarization radar: Stepping stones to building a Weather-Ready Nation"
4394:
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3885:
In the figure to the left, at the top is a view of a thunderstorm taken by a
2817:. This speed is called the radial Doppler velocity because it gives only the
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path. This will create multiple bands of strong echoes on the radar images.
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in Montreal until its closure in 2018. Another Environment Canada radar, in
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8297:
8119:
7955:
7724:
7145:
6855:
6645:
6436:
6244:
6005:
5999:
4346:
4159:
4064:
3523:
3267:
radars with dual-polarization, which was completed in April 2013. In 2004,
3228:. The range derivative of differential phase (specific differential phase,
1997:
172:
8513:
Binary Universal Form for the Representation of meteorological data (BUFR)
7867:
6699:"Birds migrate together at night in dispersed flocks, new study indicates"
4546:
Douglas, R. H. (1990). "Chapter 8- The Stormy Weather Group (Canada)". In
3678:
non-meteorological artifacts (false echoes) that will be discussed later.
3453:
8387:
8377:
8357:
8347:
8312:
8257:
7542:
7252:
6631:
Barr, James C. Airborne Weather Radar. 1st ed. Ames: Iowa State UP, 1993.
6385:
6360:
6103:
Vulpiani, G.; Tabary, P.; Parent-du-Chatelet, J.; Marzano, F. S. (2008).
5956:
Birds migrate together at night in dispersed flocks, new study indicates.
5689:
5077:
4547:
4463:
4406:
4281:
is the primary specification for weather radar systems using an airborne
4051:
of radar returns from beyond windmills may also lead to underestimation.
4048:
4019:
3985:, contaminates wind profiles gathered by weather radar, particularly the
3914:
3698:
A new popular presentation of weather radar data in United States is via
3601:
3557:
3071:
2403:
561:
416:
380:
152:
148:
7882:
7695:
University of Alabama Huntsville C-band Dual-polarimetric research Radar
4696:
4123:
3955:
3090:
2829:
288:
rotation in the cloud aloft before the tornado touched the ground – the
8392:
8337:
8332:
8327:
8302:
8277:
8267:
8242:
8212:
7906:
6102:
5988:
Contamination of WSR-88D VAD Winds Due to Bird Migration: A Case Study.
5843:
Doppler Radar – RIDGE (Radar Integrated Display w/ Geospatial Elements)
4375:
4220:
3846:
3830:
3807:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3626:
3552:
3120:
3067:
2135:{\displaystyle Z_{e}=\int _{0}^{Dmax}|K|^{2}N_{0}e^{-\Lambda D}D^{6}dD}
226:
41:
6493:"RPG SW BUILD 10.0 – INCLUDES REPORTING FOR SW 41 RDA"
4378:
from the radars bounce off rain and birds alike (or even insects like
3901:
of the other and one can see twice more details than with the NEXRAD.
3575:(VIL) is an estimate of the total mass of precipitation in the clouds.
2468:
47:
8517:
8262:
8227:
8222:
8217:
8134:
8037:
8032:
7430:
History of Operational Use of Weather Radar by U.S. Weather Service:
7384:
7326:
6358:
5635:
4438:
4379:
4295:
4278:
4032:
3977:
3946:
3898:
3814:
3669:
3642:
3638:
3503:
3462:
3079:
2422:
428:
412:
308:
215:
199:
7981:
7819:
7577:"The atmosphere, the weather and flying (Weather radars chapter 19)"
6064:"The rain profiling algorithm applied to polarimetric weather radar"
5745:
4092:
3681:
3593:
algorithms that estimate the presence of hail and its probable size.
3235:) can be used to localize areas of strong precipitation/attenuation.
2349:
red: 50 dBZ (heavy precipitation of 2 in (51 mm) per hour)
2342:
sites use the following scale for different levels of reflectivity:
1270:
In this case, the cross sections of all the targets must be summed:
8432:
8139:
8042:
7852:
7775:
7765:
4151:
4028:
3857:
3810:
and the abnormal propagation echoes are then mixed with real rain.
3673:
PPI reflectivity loop (in dBZ) showing the evolution of a hurricane
3403:
company offer a software capable to produce those types of images.
3279:
3110:
2333:
652:
424:
229:, suspecting the hurricane was very large, took a trip to the U.S.
62:
7837:
6832:
5795:
IRIS Product & Display Manual : Configuring IRIS Products
4253:
at the RIKEN Advanced Institute for Computational Science (AICS).
3929:
3768:
3710:
8602:
8527:
8252:
8124:
7694:
6842:
6790:
6548:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from
6004:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from
5863:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from
5820:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from
5501:
3986:
3852:
3436:
3291:
3242:
2760:{\displaystyle \Delta \Theta ={\frac {4\pi v\Delta t}{\lambda }}}
1329:{\displaystyle \sigma ={\bar {\sigma }}=V\sum \sigma _{j}=V\eta }
549:
455:
384:
190:
7740:
6061:
5467:
Schurr, Terry; Heinselman, P.; Scharfenberg, K. (October 2003).
4434:
typically records only about 10-15 new meteorite falls annually
4072:
klystron and other related equipment is offset by this benefit.
3343:
Usage: Reflectivity, Doppler and polarimetric data can use PPI.
3032:
Radial component of real winds when scanning through 360 degrees
8678:
8663:
8658:
8158:
8078:
8073:
8068:
8047:
7970:
7263:
and 40th Anniversary Radar Meteorology Conference. Boston, MA:
6359:
Golbon-Haghighi, M.H.; Zhang G.; Li Y.; Doviak R. (June 2016).
6062:
Testud, J.; Le Bouar, E.; Obligis, E.; Ali-Mehenni, M. (2000).
5029:
4558:
and 40th Anniversary Radar Meteorology Conference. Boston, MA:
4474:
and 40th Anniversary Radar Meteorology Conference. Boston, MA:
4313:
4308:
4196:
4180:
3960:
3874:
3620:
3396:
3355:
3264:
3113:
2818:
2810:{\displaystyle {\frac {\lambda \Delta \Theta }{4\pi \Delta t}}}
2280:
Where a and b depend on the type of precipitation (snow, rain,
459:
451:
443:
317:
233:
8578:
Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS)
7684:
6543:"New Radar Technology Can Increase Tornado Warning Lead Times"
5674:
4059:
4040:
algorithm on weather radar; such an event occurred in 2009 in
2328:
8618:
Prediction and Research Moored Array in the Atlantic (PIRATA)
8532:
8352:
8287:
8063:
7824:
6540:
3541:
3432:
3109:
of air while falling (water droplets). This causes the water
2415:
864:
403:
254:
163:, developed the first operational weather radars. In Canada,
85:
8679:
Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR)
7877:
7465:"Part II: Development of Operational Doppler Weather Radars"
6151:
5845:, National Weather Service (Texas Geographic Society – 2007)
5536:
5466:
4635:
Dan Rather Showed the First Radar Image of a Hurricane on TV
3350:
446:) radar is preferred but is more expensive than a 5 cm
8512:
7945:
7887:
7484:
10.1175/1520-0434(1998)013<0244:HOOUOW>2.0.CO;2
7455:
10.1175/1520-0434(1998)013<0219:HOOUOW>2.0.CO;2
6804:
10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[0278:ROOBMO]2.0.CO;2
6573:
6297:
10.1175/1520-0434(1998)013<0327:TRTBSS>2.0.CO;2
6185:
10.1175/1520-0450(2000)039<1405:CPEICB>2.0.CO;2
6089:
10.1175/1520-0426(2000)017<0332:TRPAAT>2.0.CO;2
6000:
National Weather Service Office, Buffalo NY (8 June 2009).
5773:
10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0219:RIOSRA>2.0.CO;2
4193:
Center for Collaborative Adaptive Sensing of the Atmosphere
4000:
Solid obstacles such as mountains, buildings, and aircraft.
3913:
The radar beam has a distribution of energy similar to the
3590:
3448:
2701:
1539:
630:
184:
93:
92:, calculate its motion, and estimate its type (rain, snow,
55:
7096:
7047:
6724:"How Bird Migrations Show Up Beautifully on Doppler Radar"
6618:
6616:
4717:
615:{\displaystyle {\text{Distance}}=c{\frac {\Delta t}{2n}},}
27:
Radar used to locate and monitor meteorological conditions
8593:
Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS)
7976:
Denmark - X-band doppler radar installation in Copenhagen
4606:"The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations"
4155:
Radar image of reflectivity with many non-weather echoes.
3905:
user into thinking that rain is lighter as it moves away.
3758:
The outgoing and returning waves are similarly polarized.
268:
The NSSL, created in 1964, began experimentation on dual
5854:
4803:
4215:
One example of scanning strategies is offered by the US
4163:
The same image but cleaned using the Doppler velocities.
454:
radar is used only for short-range units, and 1 cm
6775:"Butterfly swarm seen winging its way on weather radar"
6613:
6317:
6029:"Wind farms can appear sinister to weather forecasters"
5590:
5174:"What do the colors mean in the reflectivity products?"
3328:
Thunderstorm line viewed in reflectivity (dBZ) on a PPI
914:
Because the targets are not unique in each volume, the
296:
that Doppler radar was a crucial forecasting tool. The
65:
C-band, polarimetric, weather radar during construction
8598:
Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART)
7674:
7392:
Wakimoto, Roger M.; Srivastava, Ramesh (August 2003).
4203:
direction and compensating for data lost from others.
3755:
curve with power decreasing to half at half the width.
1252:
1230:
1208:
1186:
1157:
1128:
7462:
7433:
7337:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
5743:
5591:
Ryzhkov; Giangrande; Krause; Park; Schuur; Melnikov.
3637:
to the radar beam. The wind shear is associated with
3199:
2983:
2956:
2913:
2894:
2866:
2846:
2777:
2723:
2523:
2294:
2154:
2032:
1960:
1930:
1879:
1633:
1606:
1585:
1564:
1343:
1279:
1251:
1229:
1207:
1185:
1156:
1127:
1002:
928:
918:
has to be developed beyond the basic one. Assuming a
678:
577:
532:
483:
7001:"Doppler weather radar as a meteorite recovery tool"
6002:"Wind Farm Interference Showing Up on Doppler Radar"
5815:
5648:
5567:"Polarization diversity at McGill Radar Observatory"
5401:
5171:
3936:(Central lobe at 0 and secondary lobes on each side)
8474:Earth-based meteorological observation systems and
7501:"Weather radar highlights of NSSL's first 40 years"
4357:
4006:
Reflections from nearby buildings ("urban spikes").
3623:
to indicate the possibility of a tornado formation.
1913:{\displaystyle P_{r}\propto {\frac {\eta }{R^{2}}}}
1201:is the gain of the transmitting/receiving antenna,
986:{\displaystyle G_{t}=A_{r}(\mathrm {or} \,G_{r})=G}
225:was approaching the state of Texas, local reporter
7411:
7391:
7220:
6499:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
6200:IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing
5788:"CAPPI: Constant Altitude Plan Position Indicator"
3748:Return from side lobes of the beam are negligible.
3633:of inbound/outbound velocities with the zero line
3215:
3004:
2965:
2934:
2900:
2872:
2852:
2809:
2759:
2707:
2300:
2253:
2134:
1974:
1944:
1912:
1859:
1613:
1592:
1571:
1545:
1328:
1259:
1237:
1215:
1193:
1171:
1142:
1110:
985:
827:
614:
539:
518:
143:as seen on a ship's radar screen in December 1944.
7329:Cal.: Academic Press Second Edition. p. 562.
5180:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
4141:
4047:As with other structures that stand in the beam,
3700:Radar Integrated Display with Geospatial Elements
3682:Radar Integrated Display with Geospatial Elements
3105:tend to have a larger horizontal axis due to the
901:Scanned volume by using multiple elevation angles
8699:
7650:"How to use and interpret Doppler weather radar"
6999:Fries, Marc; Fries, Jeffrey (1 September 2010).
6787:
5378:"Q&As on Upgrade to Dual Polarization Radar"
4998:"ATMS 410 – Radar Meteorology: Beam propagation"
4172:purposes, such as clutter, birds, etc. subsets.
6406:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
5241:Nowcasting winter precipitation on the Internet
4799:
4797:
4667:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
3997:) dropped by military aircraft to fool enemies.
3949:simulating the energy viewed by weather targets
3769:Anomalous propagation (non-standard atmosphere)
2880:, so the unambiguous Doppler velocity range is
909:
555:
355:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
8628:Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project (TAO/TRITON)
7668:
5597:Doppler Weather Radar Research and Development
5405:Q&As on Upgrade to Dual Polarization Radar
4915:(2nd ed.). San Diego CA: Academic Press.
3853:Resolution and partially filled scanned volume
3066:phenomenon which often includes rotations and
8459:
8185:
7997:
7353:. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 304 pages.
6916:
6914:
6912:
6324:Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology
6318:Golbon-Haghighi, M.H.; Zhang G. (July 2019).
5470:Overview of the Joint Polarization Experiment
4063:Example of strong attenuation when a line of
3934:Idealized energy distribution of a radar beam
3761:There is no return from multiple reflections.
2935:{\displaystyle {\frac {\lambda }{4\Delta t}}}
2840:The phase between pulse pairs can vary from -
1245:is the radar cross section of the target and
8708:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment
8202:meteorological equipment and instrumentation
7416:. New York, US: Cambridge University Press.
7351:Short Course in Cloud Physics, Third Edition
7349:Yau, M. K.; Rogers, R. R. (1 January 1989).
7169:Meteoritics and Planetary Science Supplement
6947:"Meteoritical Bulletin: Search the Database"
5855:National Weather Service (31 January 2011).
5715:Examples of remote-sensed data by instrument
4794:
4632:
3705:
1267:is the distance from transmitter to target.
7316:
6696:
6509:
5961:at Urbana – Champaign. Retrieved 2009-04-26
5818:"RIDGE presentation of 2011 Joplin tornado"
5625:
5022:
4991:
4903:
4401:
4256:
3119:If two pulses are sent simultaneously with
2329:How to read reflectivity on a radar display
249:had killed an estimated 6000-12000 people.
218:" associated with a tornadic thunderstorm.
8583:Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR)
8466:
8452:
8192:
8178:
8004:
7990:
7699:NEXRAD Doppler radar network information:
7193:
7166:
6998:
6909:
6886:"FlySafe bird migration prediction module"
6644:. IntelliWeather Inc. 2008. Archived from
5101:
4964:
4899:
4897:
4895:
4893:
4891:
4889:
4887:
4885:
4883:
4804:National Weather Service (25 April 2013).
4758:. Environment Canada. 2002. Archived from
4752:"Information about Canadian radar network"
3730:The volume scanned by the beam is full of
3481:
3313:
411:Weather radars send directional pulses of
128:models to improve analyses and forecasts.
8613:Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS)
7825:National Weather Service in United States
7482:
7453:
7348:
7297:
7127:
7073:
7024:
6426:
6384:
6343:
6239:
6237:
6174:
6128:
6087:
5771:
5342:"What does a polarimetric radar measure?"
5146:
4881:
4879:
4877:
4875:
4873:
4871:
4869:
4867:
4865:
4863:
4735:
4302:
4272:
3498:
3365:Constant altitude plan position indicator
3351:Constant-altitude plan position indicator
3023:
1961:
1931:
1607:
1586:
1565:
1464:
1463:
1427:
1426:
1382:
1381:
963:
641:≈ 1.0003 is the refractive index of air.
533:
484:
390:for weather observation and forecasting.
8654:Coastal-Marine Automated Network (C-MAN)
7412:Bringi, V. N.; Chandrasekar, V. (2001).
7333:
6352:
6311:
5927:
5649:Government of Canada (25 January 2012).
5058:
4744:
4405:
4371:
4329:
4319:
4316:and can be used at virtually all times.
4260:
4179:
4158:
4150:
4122:
4091:
4058:
4018:
3954:
3941:
3928:
3864:
3856:
3842:wavelength radars are usually employed.
3709:
3685:
3668:
3597:Main algorithms for Doppler velocities:
3551:
3522:
3502:
3485:
3452:
3410:
3354:
3323:
3305:
3089:
3027:
2828:
2467:
2332:
896:
651:
402:
350:NEXRADs were completely dual-polarized.
302:
276:uses. In May 1973, a tornado devastated
189:
135:
96:etc.). Modern weather radars are mostly
54:
46:
31:
8669:Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS)
8649:Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP)
8533:Meteorological Aerodrome Report (METAR)
7966:Sweden (and Scandinavia and Baltic sea)
7725:Realtime weather radar for South Africa
7615:. Environment and Climate Change Canada
6749:"Following Bird Migration with Doppler"
6398:
6396:
6026:
5923:
5921:
5737:
5702:
5642:
5542:"Target ID Radar Images PPI 0.5-degree"
5151:(3rd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.
5108:Skolnik, Merrill I. (22 January 2008).
5107:
5065:Skolnik, Merrill I. (22 January 2008).
5064:
4958:
4946:. American Meteorological Society. 2012
4929:
4545:
4514:
4118:
3836:
3547:
3257:have been world leaders in this field.
3123:polarization (vertical and horizontal,
2362:
2019:) of the drops. This gives a truncated
519:{\displaystyle \,{v=hr^{2}\theta ^{2}}}
398:
14:
8700:
8674:Road Weather Information System (RWIS)
7675:OU's Atmospheric Radar Research Center
7613:"Commons errors in interpreting radar"
7559:National Hurricane Research Laboratory
7374:
7323:Doppler Radar and Weather Observations
7302:(in French). Paris, France: Ellipses.
7223:Lunar and Planetary Science Conference
7196:Lunar and Planetary Science Conference
6234:
6197:
5936:. Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
5900:"Commons errors in interpreting radar"
5632:Doppler Radar and Weather Observations
5296:
5294:
5292:
5230:
5228:
5226:
5028:
4968:Understanding the Properties of Matter
4913:Doppler Radar and Weather Observations
4860:
4652:
4650:
4648:
4226:
4206:
4195:(CASA) aims to supplement the regular
3971:
3005:{\displaystyle {\frac {c\Delta t}{2}}}
2393:
2007:Reflectivity perceived by the radar (Z
893:= height of the feedhorn above ground.
379:In 2023, the private American company
292:. NSSL's research helped convince the
8559:
8486:
8447:
8173:
8011:
7985:
7647:
7585:Environment and Climate Change Canada
7251:
6402:
6272:
6266:
5894:
5892:
5890:
5888:
5886:
5884:
5882:
5708:
5584:
5460:
5300:
5198:
5039:. SKYbrary. p. 2. Archived from
4847:
4783:, Parent du Châtelet, Jacques et al.
4462:
4416:Park Forest, Illinois, meteorite fall
3406:
1216:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \lambda }
647:
7701:Research Tools: Dual Polarized Radar
6393:
5928:Herbster, Chris (3 September 2008).
5918:
5902:. Environment Canada. Archived from
5780:
4787:(2005) 32nd Radar Conference of the
4656:
3337:different distances from the radar.
1600:is temporal duration of a pulse and
1238:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \sigma }
7531:
7054:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
7005:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
6541:National Severe Storms Laboratory.
5861:Jetstream Online School for Weather
5651:"Weather Monitoring Infrastructure"
5289:
5223:
5140:
4645:
4419:falling, high-velocity meteorites.
3823:
3783:
3431:composite products, one can locate
3098:will reveal the form of the droplet
2355:green: 20 dBZ (light precipitation)
24:
7595:from the original on 7 August 2016
7414:Polarimetric Doppler Weather Radar
6668:"Bird Detection via Dopplar Radar"
5970:Bart Geerts and Dave Leon (2003).
5879:
5638:Cal.: Academic Press. p. 562.
5429:
5339:
3568:Main algorithms for reflectivity:
3201:
2990:
2957:
2923:
2824:
2798:
2787:
2784:
2745:
2727:
2724:
2684:
2637:
2634:
2622:
2578:
2337:NWS color scale of reflectivities.
2295:
2203:
2108:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1411:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1378:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1172:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle P_{t}}
1143:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle P_{r}}
959:
956:
592:
332:) in 1993. This led to a complete
25:
8734:
8503:Automated airport weather station
7712:
7564:
7509:National Severe Storms Laboratory
6977:International Meteor Organization
5442:National Severe Storms Laboratory
5352:National Severe Storms Laboratory
3722:International Standard Atmosphere
3690:Map of the RIDGE presentation of
3518:
2457:
2456:Until dual-polarization (section
263:National Severe Storms Laboratory
8633:Voluntary observing ship program
8145:Multifunction Phased Array Radar
8130:Advanced Technology Demonstrator
7075:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2010.01167.x
7026:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2010.01115.x
6027:Lammers, Dirk (29 August 2009).
5934:Introduction to NEXRAD Anomalies
5857:"Downloading RIDGE Radar Images"
5538:J. S. Marshall Radar Observatory
5504:J. S. Marshall Radar Observatory
5476:. NSSL and CIMMS. Archived from
5234:
5207:. stoenworks.com. Archived from
5147:Yau, M.K.; Rogers, R.R. (1989).
4633:Megan Garber (29 October 2012).
4358:Doppler radar and bird migration
4233:Multifunction Phased Array Radar
3908:
3442:
3276:J. S. Marshall Radar Observatory
3103:Droplets of falling liquid water
1624:In combining the two equations:
330:J. S. Marshall Radar Observatory
265:(NSSL) in the US in particular.
194:1960s radar technology detected
8508:Automatic weather station (AWS)
7265:American Meteorological Society
7245:
7214:
7187:
7160:
7090:
7041:
6992:
6972:"Fireballs and Meteorite Falls"
6964:
6939:
6878:
6826:
6781:
6767:
6741:
6716:
6690:
6660:
6634:
6625:
6567:
6534:
6503:
6485:
6471:American Meteorological Society
6459:
6253:American Meteorological Society
6191:
6145:
6096:
6055:
6020:
5993:
5980:
5964:
5948:
5848:
5836:
5809:
5719:J.S. Marshall Radar Observatory
5709:Fabry, Frédéric (August 2010).
5696:American Meteorological Society
5668:
5619:
5559:
5530:
5508:"Definition: dual-polarization"
5495:
5423:
5395:
5370:
5333:
5303:"Lecture on Polarimetric Radar"
5255:
5199:Stoen, Hal (27 November 2001).
5192:
5165:
4985:
4841:
4823:
4789:American Meteorological Society
4774:
4657:Cobb, Susan (29 October 2004).
3085:
2645:
2437:errors due to the calculation.
1991:
1923:The return varies inversely to
1485:
1406:
1355:
656:The radar beam path with height
415:radiation, on the order of one
7635:. Weather Underground on radar
6642:"IntelliWeather StormPredator"
4711:
4685:
4626:
4598:
4584:
4539:
4508:
4456:
4184:Phased Array Weather Radar in
4142:Solutions and future solutions
4087:
4054:
3947:Diffraction by a circular slit
2584:
2559:
2242:
2236:
2080:
2071:
1834:
1821:
1693:
1684:
1621:is the beam width in radians.
1292:
1260:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle R}
1194:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle G}
1065:
1056:
974:
952:
781:
768:
724:
700:
307:NEXRAD in South Dakota with a
13:
1:
8608:Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW)
8560:
8154:Joint Polarization Experiment
7729:South African Weather Service
7706:Joint Polarization Experiment
7690:Hong Kong radar image gallery
7633:"Understanding Weather Radar"
7294:, 806 pages, AMS Code RADMET.
5675:Parent du Châtelet, Jacques;
5149:Short Course in Cloud Physics
5119:(3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
4737:10.1080/07055900.1991.9649414
4505:, 806 pages, AMS Code RADMET.
4449:
4337:a line of thunderstorms from
4014:
3664:
3185:Linear Depolarization Ratio (
3057:
2662:distance from radar to target
2509:
1996:Return echoes from targets ("
1986:
7786:El Salvador Marn radar sites
7436:"Part I: The Pre-NEXRAD Era"
5930:"Anomalous Propagation (AP)"
4848:Olick, Diana (16 May 2023).
4693:"NSSL Research Tools: Radar"
4268:Weather radar with radome up
4146:
3573:Vertically Integrated Liquid
2445:output from models, such as
2443:numerical weather prediction
910:Calibrating return intensity
556:Listening for return signals
393:
357:has been experimenting with
126:numerical weather prediction
7:
8487:
8057:Weather surveillance radars
7791:France overseas departments
7669:Networks and radar research
7526:
6701:. Urbana – Champaign, IL.:
6510:WDT Support (7 July 2015).
4288:
3472:
3269:ARMOR Doppler Weather Radar
3143:Differential Reflectivity (
3040:
2463:
2425:reported at the underlying
370:National Science Foundation
10:
8739:
7971:UK and Ireland radar sites
7680:Canadian weather radar FAQ
7569:
6467:"List of lectures on CASA"
5816:National Weather Service.
5402:National Weather Service.
5243:. theweatherprediction.com
5172:National Weather Service.
4971:. CRC Press. p. 131.
4756:The National Radar Program
4323:
4243:National Severe Storms Lab
4230:
4175:
4130:
3873:and the bottom one from a
3787:
3772:
3529:Darwin, Northern Territory
3446:
3418:
3415:Base PPI versus Composite.
3362:
3317:
3216:{\displaystyle \Phi _{dp}}
2835:pulse repetition frequency
2475:
131:
74:weather surveillance radar
8641:
8603:FluxNet Project (FluxNet)
8570:
8566:
8555:
8493:
8482:
8208:
8092:
8056:
8020:
7538:Australian Weather Radars
7273:10.1007/978-1-935704-15-7
6345:10.1175/JTECH-D-18-0147.1
6220:10.1109/TGRS.2023.3254555
6109:J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol
6068:J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol
5986:Thomas A. Niziol (1998).
5263:"Precipitation Type Maps"
4611:Colorado State University
4568:10.1007/978-1-935704-15-7
4484:10.1007/978-1-935704-15-7
4390:appearing on its radars.
3706:Limitations and artifacts
3167:Correlation Coefficient (
1614:{\displaystyle \,\theta }
540:{\displaystyle \,\theta }
290:tornadic vortex signature
155:at first working for the
51:Weather (WF44) radar dish
7912:Metservice - New Zealand
7298:Blanchard, Yves (2004).
5311:Texas A&M University
5205:Aviation Tutorials Index
5201:"Airborne Weather Radar"
4437:Meteorites occur when a
4402:Meteorite fall detection
4384:National Weather Service
4257:Specialized applications
4133:Three body scatter spike
4038:tornado vortex signature
3617:Tornado Vortex Signature
3469:image during that time.
3428:National Weather Service
3180:tornado vortex signature
3176:tornado debris signature
2966:{\displaystyle \Delta t}
2301:{\displaystyle \Lambda }
845:= distance radar–target,
348:National Weather Service
334:Canadian Doppler network
294:National Weather Service
247:1900 Galveston hurricane
8664:Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL)
8498:Aircraft report (AIREP)
8283:Ice accretion indicator
8021:Military weather radars
7655:. Iowa State University
7470:Weather and Forecasting
7441:Weather and Forecasting
7181:2010M&PSA..73.5365F
7120:10.1126/science.1227163
7066:2011M&PS...46..339B
7017:2010M&PS...45.1476F
6926:American Meteor Society
6890:/www.flysafe-birdtam.eu
6599:10.1175/WAF-D-15-0063.1
6578:Weather and Forecasting
6497:Radar Operations Center
6276:Weather and Forecasting
6249:Glossary of Meteorology
6130:10.1175/2007JTECHA936.1
5797:. SIGMET. November 2004
5751:Weather and Forecasting
5711:"Radial velocity CAPPI"
5688:32nd Conférence radar,
4944:Glossary of Meteorology
4515:Douglas, R. H. (2000).
4424:American Meteor Society
4241:is being tested at the
4027:The rotating blades of
4003:Ground and sea clutter.
3751:The beam is close to a
3490:Vertical cross-section.
3482:Vertical cross sections
3320:Plan position indicator
3314:Plan position indicator
2695:time between two pulses
2288:), which has different
1975:{\displaystyle \,R^{4}}
1945:{\displaystyle \,R^{2}}
1593:{\displaystyle \,\tau }
8323:Present weather sensor
7907:Australian radar sites
6856:10.1525/auk.2009.09080
6703:University of Illinois
6437:10.1175/2009BAMS2507.1
5977:. Retrieved 2009-04-26
5959:University of Illinois
5679:; et al. (2005).
5237:"Winter Weather Radar"
4965:de Podesta, M (2002).
4695:. NSSL. Archived from
4517:"Stormy Weather Group"
4411:
4342:
4303:Receivers/transmitters
4273:Avionics weather radar
4269:
4188:
4164:
4156:
4128:
4127:Three-body scattering.
4097:
4068:
4024:
3964:
3950:
3937:
3878:
3862:
3795:Temperature inversions
3714:
3695:
3674:
3561:
3532:
3513:Range Height Indicator
3508:
3499:Range Height Indicator
3491:
3458:
3421:Composite reflectivity
3416:
3360:
3329:
3217:
3099:
3033:
3024:Doppler interpretation
3006:
2967:
2936:
2902:
2874:
2854:
2837:
2811:
2761:
2709:
2473:
2338:
2302:
2255:
2136:
2013:drop size distribution
1976:
1946:
1914:
1861:
1615:
1594:
1573:
1547:
1330:
1261:
1239:
1217:
1195:
1179:is transmitted power,
1173:
1144:
1112:
987:
902:
829:
657:
616:
541:
520:
408:
312:
207:
204:Minneapolis-Saint Paul
169:drop size distribution
144:
66:
60:University of Oklahoma
52:
44:
7900:Australia and Oceania
7685:McGill radar homepage
5975:University of Wyoming
5301:Carey, Larry (2003).
4409:
4333:
4320:Thunderstorm tracking
4264:
4183:
4162:
4154:
4126:
4095:
4062:
4022:
3958:
3945:
3932:
3868:
3860:
3775:Anomalous propagation
3713:
3689:
3672:
3555:
3526:
3506:
3489:
3456:
3414:
3358:
3327:
3306:Radar display methods
3218:
3093:
3031:
3007:
2968:
2937:
2903:
2875:
2855:
2832:
2812:
2762:
2710:
2506:from pulse to pulse.
2471:
2336:
2303:
2256:
2137:
1977:
1947:
1915:
1862:
1616:
1595:
1574:
1548:
1331:
1262:
1240:
1223:is radar wavelength,
1218:
1196:
1174:
1145:
1113:
988:
900:
830:
655:
617:
542:
521:
406:
353:Since 2003, the U.S.
306:
193:
139:
82:Doppler weather radar
58:
50:
35:
8538:Pilot report (PIREP)
8248:Dark adaptor goggles
7553:Lockheed WP-3D Orion
7257:Radar in meteorology
6697:Diana Yates (2008).
6512:"What is SAILS mode"
6386:10.3390/atmos7060083
5954:Diana Yates (2008).
5867:on 16 September 2011
5681:"Le projet PANTHERE"
5655:Environnement Canada
4552:Radar in meteorology
4468:Radar in meteorology
4432:Meteoritical Society
4119:Multiple reflections
3837:Non-Rayleigh targets
3657:under thunderstorms.
3548:Automatic algorithms
3197:
3192:Differential Phase (
3094:Targeting with dual-
2981:
2954:
2911:
2901:{\displaystyle \pm }
2892:
2873:{\displaystyle \pi }
2864:
2853:{\displaystyle \pi }
2844:
2775:
2721:
2521:
2363:Aviation conventions
2292:
2152:
2030:
1958:
1928:
1877:
1631:
1604:
1583:
1579:is the light speed,
1562:
1341:
1277:
1249:
1227:
1205:
1183:
1154:
1125:
1000:
926:
676:
575:
530:
481:
427:tube connected by a
399:Sending radar pulses
363:atmospheric sounding
278:Union City, Oklahoma
259:Alberta Hail Project
98:pulse-Doppler radars
7780:Caribbean composite
7755:Caribbean composite
7741:Aruba (via Caracas)
7235:2011LPI....42.1130F
7208:2010LPI....41.1179F
7112:2012Sci...338.1583J
7106:(6114): 1583–1587.
6896:on 20 November 2015
6591:2016WtFor..31..329O
6419:2009BAMS...90.1797M
6377:2016Atmos...7...83G
6336:2019JAtOT..36.1285G
6289:1998WtFor..13..327L
6212:2023ITGRS..6154555J
6167:2000JApMe..39.1405C
6121:2008JAtOT..25.1118V
6080:2000JAtOT..17..332T
5764:2004WtFor..19..219H
5271:The Weather Network
5211:on 19 December 2002
4673:on 15 February 2013
4414:An image shows the
4388:monarch butterflies
4372:non-weather targets
4283:pulse-Doppler radar
4227:Electronic sounding
4207:Scanning strategies
4106:dielectric constant
3993:Thin metal strips (
3972:Non-weather targets
3897:has about half the
3833:data for the area.
3799:index of refraction
3692:2011 Joplin tornado
3585:Potential wind gust
3395:and development of
2945:This is called the
2478:Pulse-Doppler radar
2400:The Weather Channel
2394:Precipitation types
2184:
2069:
2002:Rayleigh scattering
1572:{\displaystyle \,c}
1150:is received power,
666:standard atmosphere
437:Rayleigh scattering
118:television stations
109:World War II, radar
8293:Lightning detector
8064:WSR-1, 1A, 3 and 4
7761:Environment Canada
6678:on 30 October 2015
6648:on 5 December 2011
6522:on 4 February 2017
5824:on 28 October 2011
5572:. 7 September 2014
5178:WSR-88D Radar FAQs
4699:on 14 October 2016
4562:. pp. 61–68.
4430:maintained by the
4412:
4343:
4270:
4239:Phased-array radar
4189:
4165:
4157:
4129:
4098:
4069:
4042:Dodge City, Kansas
4025:
3983:Earth's atmosphere
3965:
3951:
3938:
3879:
3863:
3715:
3696:
3675:
3562:
3533:
3527:Berrimah Radar in
3509:
3492:
3459:
3417:
3407:Vertical composite
3361:
3330:
3284:Environment Canada
3213:
3100:
3078:) and divergence (
3034:
3002:
2963:
2932:
2898:
2870:
2850:
2838:
2807:
2757:
2705:
2700:
2474:
2339:
2298:
2251:
2161:
2132:
2046:
1972:
1942:
1910:
1857:
1611:
1590:
1569:
1543:
1538:
1326:
1257:
1256:
1235:
1234:
1213:
1212:
1191:
1190:
1169:
1168:
1140:
1139:
1108:
983:
903:
825:
658:
648:Determining height
612:
537:
516:
450:system. 3 cm
409:
368:Also in 2003, the
359:phased-array radar
322:Environment Canada
313:
311:in the background.
208:
206:metropolitan area.
145:
67:
53:
45:
8718:Radar meteorology
8695:
8694:
8691:
8690:
8687:
8686:
8551:
8550:
8523:Hurricane Hunters
8441:
8440:
8383:Thermo-hygrograph
8373:Sunshine recorder
8238:Ceiling projector
8167:
8166:
7511:'s first 40 years
7292:978-1-935704-15-7
7282:978-0-933876-86-6
6413:(12): 1797–1817.
6155:J. Appl. Meteorol
6043:on 31 August 2009
6033:Houston Chronicle
5546:McGill University
5512:McGill University
5502:Fabry, Frédéric;
5448:on 22 August 2018
5358:on 22 August 2018
5158:978-0-08-034864-3
5126:978-0-07-148547-0
5087:978-0-07-148547-0
5032:(14 March 2007).
4978:978-0-415-25788-6
4922:978-0-12-221420-2
4577:978-1-935704-15-7
4521:McGill University
4503:978-1-935704-15-7
4493:978-0-933876-86-6
4422:According to the
3969:
3968:
3753:Gaussian function
3393:tropical cyclones
3389:McGill University
3273:McGill University
3054:scanning angles.
3000:
2930:
2805:
2771:= target speed =
2755:
2696:
2678:
2663:
2591:
2231:
1908:
1855:
1838:
1761:
1729:
1714:
1534:
1502:
1295:
1106:
1086:
784:
607:
581:
433:parabolic antenna
388:space-based radar
181:convective clouds
36:Weather radar in
16:(Redirected from
8730:
8568:
8567:
8557:
8556:
8484:
8483:
8476:weather stations
8468:
8461:
8454:
8445:
8444:
8423:Whole sky camera
8368:Stevenson screen
8273:Heat flux sensor
8194:
8187:
8180:
8171:
8170:
8079:WSR-88D (NEXRAD)
8074:WSR-74C and -74S
8006:
7999:
7992:
7983:
7982:
7838:China (mainland)
7664:
7662:
7660:
7654:
7644:
7642:
7640:
7624:
7622:
7620:
7604:
7602:
7600:
7594:
7581:
7532:Related articles
7520:
7518:
7516:
7496:
7486:
7459:
7457:
7427:
7408:; AMS Code MM52.
7407:
7388:
7385:10.1002/wea.4482
7364:
7345:
7330:
7313:
7286:
7239:
7238:
7218:
7212:
7211:
7191:
7185:
7184:
7164:
7158:
7157:
7131:
7129:2060/20140017286
7094:
7088:
7087:
7077:
7045:
7039:
7038:
7028:
7011:(9): 1476–1487.
6996:
6990:
6989:
6987:
6985:
6968:
6962:
6961:
6959:
6957:
6951:www.lpi.usra.edu
6943:
6937:
6936:
6934:
6932:
6918:
6907:
6905:
6903:
6901:
6892:. Archived from
6882:
6876:
6875:
6839:
6830:
6824:
6823:
6785:
6779:
6778:
6771:
6765:
6764:
6762:
6760:
6745:
6739:
6738:
6736:
6734:
6720:
6714:
6713:
6711:
6709:
6694:
6688:
6687:
6685:
6683:
6674:. Archived from
6664:
6658:
6657:
6655:
6653:
6638:
6632:
6629:
6623:
6620:
6611:
6610:
6571:
6565:
6564:
6562:
6560:
6554:
6547:
6538:
6532:
6531:
6529:
6527:
6518:. Archived from
6507:
6501:
6500:
6489:
6483:
6482:
6480:
6478:
6463:
6457:
6456:
6430:
6400:
6391:
6390:
6388:
6356:
6350:
6349:
6347:
6330:(7): 1285–1296.
6315:
6309:
6308:
6270:
6264:
6263:
6261:
6259:
6241:
6232:
6231:
6195:
6189:
6188:
6178:
6161:(9): 1405–1433.
6149:
6143:
6142:
6132:
6115:(7): 1118–1135.
6100:
6094:
6093:
6091:
6059:
6053:
6052:
6050:
6048:
6039:. Archived from
6037:Associated Press
6024:
6018:
6017:
6015:
6013:
5997:
5991:
5984:
5978:
5968:
5962:
5952:
5946:
5945:
5943:
5941:
5925:
5916:
5915:
5913:
5911:
5896:
5877:
5876:
5874:
5872:
5852:
5846:
5840:
5834:
5833:
5831:
5829:
5813:
5807:
5806:
5804:
5802:
5792:
5784:
5778:
5777:
5775:
5741:
5735:
5734:
5732:
5730:
5721:. Archived from
5706:
5700:
5699:
5685:
5672:
5666:
5665:
5663:
5661:
5646:
5640:
5639:
5623:
5617:
5616:
5614:
5612:
5603:. Archived from
5588:
5582:
5581:
5579:
5577:
5571:
5563:
5557:
5556:
5554:
5552:
5534:
5528:
5527:
5525:
5523:
5514:. Archived from
5499:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5488:
5482:
5475:
5464:
5458:
5457:
5455:
5453:
5444:. Archived from
5427:
5421:
5420:
5418:
5416:
5410:
5399:
5393:
5392:
5390:
5388:
5382:
5374:
5368:
5367:
5365:
5363:
5354:. Archived from
5337:
5331:
5330:
5328:
5326:
5320:
5314:. Archived from
5307:
5298:
5287:
5286:
5284:
5282:
5277:on 24 March 2010
5273:. Archived from
5259:
5253:
5252:
5250:
5248:
5232:
5221:
5220:
5218:
5216:
5196:
5190:
5189:
5187:
5185:
5169:
5163:
5162:
5144:
5138:
5137:
5135:
5133:
5114:
5105:
5099:
5098:
5096:
5094:
5076:(3rd ed.).
5071:
5062:
5056:
5055:
5053:
5051:
5045:
5038:
5026:
5020:
5019:
5017:
5015:
5009:
5003:. Archived from
5002:
4989:
4983:
4982:
4962:
4956:
4955:
4953:
4951:
4937:
4933:
4927:
4926:
4901:
4858:
4857:
4845:
4839:
4838:
4827:
4821:
4820:
4818:
4816:
4801:
4792:
4791:, Albuquerque NM
4778:
4772:
4771:
4769:
4767:
4748:
4742:
4741:
4739:
4724:Atmosphere-Ocean
4715:
4709:
4708:
4706:
4704:
4689:
4683:
4682:
4680:
4678:
4669:. Archived from
4654:
4643:
4642:
4630:
4624:
4623:
4621:
4619:
4602:
4596:
4595:
4588:
4582:
4581:
4543:
4537:
4536:
4534:
4532:
4523:. Archived from
4512:
4506:
4497:
4460:
4247:Norman, Oklahoma
4186:Norman, Oklahoma
3925:
3924:
3882:volume scanned.
3824:Under refraction
3790:Super refraction
3784:Super refraction
3745:No amplification
3507:Image of an RHI.
3222:
3220:
3219:
3214:
3212:
3211:
3107:drag coefficient
3076:outflow boundary
3011:
3009:
3008:
3003:
3001:
2996:
2985:
2972:
2970:
2969:
2964:
2941:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2931:
2929:
2915:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2899:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2871:
2859:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2816:
2814:
2813:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2790:
2779:
2766:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2756:
2751:
2734:
2714:
2712:
2711:
2706:
2704:
2703:
2697:
2694:
2679:
2677:radar wavelength
2676:
2664:
2661:
2644:
2640:
2630:
2629:
2609:
2608:
2596:
2592:
2587:
2571:
2570:
2551:
2539:
2538:
2427:weather stations
2307:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2260:
2258:
2257:
2252:
2232:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2212:
2210:
2209:
2194:
2193:
2183:
2169:
2141:
2139:
2138:
2133:
2125:
2124:
2115:
2114:
2099:
2098:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2074:
2068:
2054:
2042:
2041:
2023:, of the form:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1919:
1917:
1916:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1906:
1894:
1889:
1888:
1870:Which leads to:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1853:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1832:
1813:
1811:
1810:
1801:
1800:
1791:
1790:
1778:
1777:
1762:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1746:
1745:
1732:
1730:
1725:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1712:
1711:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1680:
1679:
1678:
1669:
1668:
1658:
1656:
1655:
1643:
1642:
1620:
1618:
1617:
1612:
1599:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1578:
1576:
1575:
1570:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1535:
1530:
1529:
1528:
1519:
1518:
1505:
1503:
1498:
1490:
1480:
1446:
1401:
1335:
1333:
1332:
1327:
1316:
1315:
1297:
1296:
1288:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1244:
1242:
1241:
1236:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1214:
1200:
1198:
1197:
1192:
1178:
1176:
1175:
1170:
1167:
1166:
1149:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1117:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1104:
1092:
1087:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1074:
1073:
1068:
1052:
1048:
1047:
1038:
1037:
1027:
1025:
1024:
1012:
1011:
992:
990:
989:
984:
973:
972:
962:
951:
950:
938:
937:
920:monostatic radar
834:
832:
831:
826:
821:
820:
808:
807:
798:
797:
785:
780:
779:
761:
760:
751:
750:
732:
731:
722:
721:
712:
711:
696:
695:
686:
662:refractive index
621:
619:
618:
613:
608:
606:
598:
590:
582:
579:
546:
544:
543:
538:
525:
523:
522:
517:
515:
514:
513:
504:
503:
421:cavity magnetron
372:established the
324:constructed the
212:cathode ray tube
38:Norman, Oklahoma
21:
8738:
8737:
8733:
8732:
8731:
8729:
8728:
8727:
8698:
8697:
8696:
8683:
8637:
8562:
8547:
8489:
8478:
8472:
8442:
8437:
8403:Weather balloon
8398:Transmissometer
8363:Sounding rocket
8308:Pan evaporation
8233:Ceiling balloon
8204:
8198:
8168:
8163:
8093:Research radars
8088:
8052:
8016:
8010:
7980:
7951:POLRAD – Poland
7916:
7897:
7723:South Africa -
7715:
7671:
7658:
7656:
7652:
7638:
7636:
7631:
7618:
7616:
7611:
7598:
7596:
7592:
7579:
7575:
7572:
7567:
7534:
7529:
7514:
7512:
7499:
7424:
7404:
7361:
7317:Doviak, R. J.;
7310:
7283:
7261:Battan Memorial
7248:
7243:
7242:
7219:
7215:
7192:
7188:
7165:
7161:
7095:
7091:
7046:
7042:
6997:
6993:
6983:
6981:
6970:
6969:
6965:
6955:
6953:
6945:
6944:
6940:
6930:
6928:
6922:"Fireball FAQs"
6920:
6919:
6910:
6899:
6897:
6884:
6883:
6879:
6837:
6831:
6827:
6786:
6782:
6773:
6772:
6768:
6758:
6756:
6755:. 10 April 2011
6747:
6746:
6742:
6732:
6730:
6728:Smithsonian.com
6722:
6721:
6717:
6707:
6705:
6695:
6691:
6681:
6679:
6666:
6665:
6661:
6651:
6649:
6640:
6639:
6635:
6630:
6626:
6621:
6614:
6575:Observations".
6572:
6568:
6558:
6556:
6552:
6545:
6539:
6535:
6525:
6523:
6508:
6504:
6491:
6490:
6486:
6476:
6474:
6465:
6464:
6460:
6428:10.1.1.167.2430
6401:
6394:
6357:
6353:
6316:
6312:
6271:
6267:
6257:
6255:
6243:
6242:
6235:
6196:
6192:
6176:10.1.1.324.4101
6150:
6146:
6101:
6097:
6060:
6056:
6046:
6044:
6025:
6021:
6011:
6009:
6008:on 20 June 2009
5998:
5994:
5985:
5981:
5969:
5965:
5953:
5949:
5939:
5937:
5926:
5919:
5909:
5907:
5906:on 30 June 2006
5898:
5897:
5880:
5870:
5868:
5853:
5849:
5841:
5837:
5827:
5825:
5814:
5810:
5800:
5798:
5790:
5786:
5785:
5781:
5742:
5738:
5728:
5726:
5725:on 20 June 2017
5707:
5703:
5683:
5673:
5669:
5659:
5657:
5647:
5643:
5626:Doviak, R. J.;
5624:
5620:
5610:
5608:
5589:
5585:
5575:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5564:
5560:
5550:
5548:
5535:
5531:
5521:
5519:
5518:on 10 June 2008
5500:
5496:
5486:
5484:
5483:on 3 March 2016
5480:
5473:
5465:
5461:
5451:
5449:
5430:Schuur, Terry.
5428:
5424:
5414:
5412:
5408:
5400:
5396:
5386:
5384:
5383:. 3 August 2012
5380:
5376:
5375:
5371:
5361:
5359:
5340:Schuur, Terry.
5338:
5334:
5324:
5322:
5321:on 3 March 2016
5318:
5305:
5299:
5290:
5280:
5278:
5261:
5260:
5256:
5246:
5244:
5233:
5224:
5214:
5212:
5197:
5193:
5183:
5181:
5170:
5166:
5159:
5145:
5141:
5131:
5129:
5127:
5112:
5106:
5102:
5092:
5090:
5088:
5069:
5063:
5059:
5049:
5047:
5043:
5036:
5027:
5023:
5013:
5011:
5010:on 15 June 2010
5007:
5000:
4990:
4986:
4979:
4963:
4959:
4949:
4947:
4938:
4935:
4934:
4930:
4923:
4902:
4861:
4846:
4842:
4829:
4828:
4824:
4814:
4812:
4802:
4795:
4779:
4775:
4765:
4763:
4762:on 29 June 2004
4750:
4749:
4745:
4716:
4712:
4702:
4700:
4691:
4690:
4686:
4676:
4674:
4655:
4646:
4631:
4627:
4617:
4615:
4604:
4603:
4599:
4590:
4589:
4585:
4578:
4556:Battan Memorial
4544:
4540:
4530:
4528:
4513:
4509:
4494:
4472:Battan Memorial
4461:
4457:
4452:
4428:meteorite falls
4404:
4368:bird migrations
4366:. It can track
4360:
4328:
4322:
4305:
4291:
4275:
4259:
4235:
4229:
4209:
4178:
4149:
4144:
4135:
4121:
4090:
4057:
4017:
3974:
3911:
3855:
3839:
3826:
3792:
3786:
3777:
3771:
3708:
3684:
3667:
3550:
3521:
3501:
3484:
3475:
3451:
3445:
3423:
3409:
3367:
3353:
3322:
3316:
3308:
3233:
3204:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3172:
3162:
3155:
3148:
3135:
3128:
3088:
3074:, convergence (
3060:
3043:
3026:
2986:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2955:
2952:
2951:
2919:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2887:
2865:
2862:
2861:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2827:
2825:Doppler dilemma
2791:
2780:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2735:
2733:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2699:
2698:
2693:
2681:
2680:
2675:
2666:
2665:
2660:
2647:
2646:
2625:
2621:
2620:
2616:
2604:
2600:
2566:
2562:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2534:
2530:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2512:
2484:
2466:
2396:
2365:
2331:
2311:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2267:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2211:
2199:
2195:
2189:
2185:
2170:
2165:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2120:
2116:
2104:
2100:
2094:
2090:
2084:
2079:
2078:
2070:
2055:
2050:
2037:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2017:Marshall-Palmer
2010:
1994:
1989:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1956:
1955:
1936:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1884:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1828:
1824:
1817:
1812:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1792:
1786:
1782:
1773:
1769:
1751:
1747:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1731:
1718:
1716:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1683:
1682:
1681:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1651:
1647:
1638:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1537:
1536:
1524:
1520:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1504:
1491:
1489:
1482:
1481:
1450:
1410:
1403:
1402:
1359:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1338:
1311:
1307:
1287:
1286:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1162:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1151:
1133:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1079:
1075:
1069:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1043:
1039:
1033:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1020:
1016:
1007:
1003:
1001:
998:
997:
968:
964:
955:
946:
942:
933:
929:
927:
924:
923:
912:
892:
878:elevation angle
875:
862:
853:
816:
812:
803:
799:
793:
789:
775:
771:
756:
752:
746:
742:
727:
723:
717:
713:
707:
703:
691:
687:
685:
677:
674:
673:
650:
599:
591:
589:
578:
576:
573:
572:
558:
531:
528:
527:
509:
505:
499:
495:
485:
482:
479:
478:
401:
396:
280:, just west of
272:signals and on
223:Hurricane Carla
134:
88:used to locate
84:, is a type of
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8736:
8726:
8725:
8723:Weather radars
8720:
8715:
8710:
8693:
8692:
8689:
8688:
8685:
8684:
8682:
8681:
8676:
8671:
8666:
8661:
8656:
8651:
8645:
8643:
8639:
8638:
8636:
8635:
8630:
8625:
8620:
8615:
8610:
8605:
8600:
8595:
8590:
8585:
8580:
8574:
8572:
8564:
8563:
8553:
8552:
8549:
8548:
8546:
8545:
8540:
8535:
8530:
8525:
8520:
8515:
8510:
8505:
8500:
8494:
8491:
8490:
8480:
8479:
8471:
8470:
8463:
8456:
8448:
8439:
8438:
8436:
8435:
8430:
8425:
8420:
8415:
8410:
8405:
8400:
8395:
8390:
8385:
8380:
8375:
8370:
8365:
8360:
8355:
8350:
8345:
8340:
8335:
8330:
8325:
8320:
8315:
8310:
8305:
8300:
8295:
8290:
8285:
8280:
8275:
8270:
8265:
8260:
8255:
8250:
8245:
8240:
8235:
8230:
8225:
8220:
8215:
8209:
8206:
8205:
8197:
8196:
8189:
8182:
8174:
8165:
8164:
8162:
8161:
8156:
8151:
8142:
8137:
8132:
8127:
8122:
8117:
8112:
8107:
8102:
8096:
8094:
8090:
8089:
8087:
8086:
8081:
8076:
8071:
8066:
8060:
8058:
8054:
8053:
8051:
8050:
8045:
8040:
8035:
8030:
8024:
8022:
8018:
8017:
8014:weather radars
8009:
8008:
8001:
7994:
7986:
7979:
7978:
7973:
7968:
7963:
7958:
7953:
7948:
7943:
7938:
7933:
7928:
7926:Czech Republic
7922:
7921:
7920:
7915:
7914:
7909:
7903:
7902:
7901:
7896:
7895:
7890:
7885:
7880:
7875:
7870:
7865:
7860:
7855:
7850:
7845:
7840:
7834:
7833:
7832:
7828:
7827:
7822:
7817:
7812:
7807:
7802:
7788:
7783:
7773:
7768:
7766:Cayman Islands
7763:
7758:
7748:
7743:
7737:
7736:
7732:
7731:
7720:
7719:
7714:
7713:Real time data
7711:
7710:
7709:
7703:
7697:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7677:
7670:
7667:
7666:
7665:
7645:
7628:
7627:
7626:
7625:
7606:
7605:
7571:
7568:
7566:
7565:External links
7563:
7562:
7561:
7556:
7550:
7545:
7540:
7533:
7530:
7528:
7525:
7524:
7523:
7522:
7521:
7497:
7477:(2): 244–252.
7460:
7448:(2): 219–243.
7428:
7422:
7409:
7402:
7389:
7372:
7359:
7346:
7331:
7314:
7308:
7295:
7281:
7255:, ed. (1990).
7247:
7244:
7241:
7240:
7229:(1608): 1130.
7213:
7202:(1533): 1179.
7186:
7159:
7089:
7060:(3): 339–363.
7040:
6991:
6963:
6938:
6908:
6877:
6850:(1): 119–128.
6825:
6798:(2): 278–290.
6780:
6766:
6740:
6715:
6689:
6659:
6633:
6624:
6612:
6585:(1): 329–340.
6566:
6555:on 27 May 2010
6533:
6502:
6484:
6458:
6392:
6351:
6310:
6283:(2): 327–340.
6265:
6233:
6190:
6144:
6095:
6074:(3): 332–356.
6054:
6019:
5992:
5979:
5963:
5947:
5917:
5878:
5847:
5835:
5808:
5779:
5758:(2): 219–239.
5736:
5701:
5667:
5641:
5618:
5607:on 3 June 2009
5583:
5558:
5529:
5494:
5459:
5422:
5394:
5369:
5332:
5288:
5254:
5222:
5191:
5164:
5157:
5139:
5125:
5117:Radar Handbook
5100:
5086:
5074:Radar Handbook
5057:
5046:on 31 May 2011
5021:
4992:Doviak, R.J.;
4984:
4977:
4957:
4940:"Pulse volume"
4928:
4921:
4859:
4840:
4837:. 14 May 2023.
4822:
4793:
4773:
4743:
4730:(3): 479–516.
4710:
4684:
4644:
4625:
4597:
4583:
4576:
4538:
4527:on 6 July 2011
4507:
4492:
4466:, ed. (1990).
4454:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4403:
4400:
4374:section). The
4359:
4356:
4352:radar trackers
4324:Main article:
4321:
4318:
4304:
4301:
4290:
4287:
4274:
4271:
4266:Global Express
4258:
4255:
4228:
4225:
4208:
4205:
4177:
4174:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4131:Main article:
4120:
4117:
4089:
4086:
4056:
4053:
4016:
4013:
4008:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3998:
3973:
3970:
3967:
3966:
3952:
3939:
3910:
3907:
3854:
3851:
3838:
3835:
3825:
3822:
3788:Main article:
3785:
3782:
3773:Main article:
3770:
3767:
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3762:
3759:
3756:
3749:
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3743:
3737:
3733:meteorological
3728:
3725:
3707:
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3683:
3680:
3666:
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3658:
3624:
3613:
3595:
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3588:
3582:
3576:
3549:
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3520:
3519:Radar networks
3517:
3500:
3497:
3483:
3480:
3474:
3471:
3444:
3441:
3419:Main article:
3408:
3405:
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3363:Main article:
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3318:Main article:
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3170:
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3133:
3126:
3087:
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3059:
3056:
3047:synoptic scale
3042:
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3025:
3022:
3013:
3012:
2999:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2962:
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2558:
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2549:
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2537:
2533:
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2526:
2511:
2508:
2502:difference or
2492:Doppler effect
2465:
2462:
2395:
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2388:
2387:
2381:
2375:
2364:
2361:
2357:
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2250:
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2238:
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2208:
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2202:
2198:
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2179:
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2173:
2168:
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2128:
2123:
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2113:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2093:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2053:
2049:
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2040:
2036:
2021:Gamma function
2008:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1969:
1965:
1939:
1935:
1921:
1920:
1905:
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1897:
1892:
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1527:
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1189:
1165:
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979:
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961:
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949:
945:
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916:radar equation
911:
908:
895:
894:
890:
885:
873:
868:
860:
855:
851:
846:
836:
835:
824:
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792:
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783:
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764:
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730:
726:
720:
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710:
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702:
699:
694:
690:
684:
681:
649:
646:
635:speed of light
629:= 299,792.458
623:
622:
611:
605:
602:
597:
594:
588:
585:
566:speed of light
557:
554:
552:of depth "h".
536:
512:
508:
502:
498:
494:
491:
488:
419:long, using a
400:
397:
395:
392:
298:Super Outbreak
274:Doppler effect
261:in Canada and
242:Gulf of Mexico
236:radar site in
231:Weather Bureau
159:and later for
133:
130:
102:severe weather
72:, also called
26:
18:Weather radars
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8735:
8724:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8709:
8706:
8705:
8703:
8680:
8677:
8675:
8672:
8670:
8667:
8665:
8662:
8660:
8657:
8655:
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8650:
8647:
8646:
8644:
8642:United States
8640:
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8621:
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8616:
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8609:
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8485:
8481:
8477:
8469:
8464:
8462:
8457:
8455:
8450:
8449:
8446:
8434:
8431:
8429:
8428:Wind profiler
8426:
8424:
8421:
8419:
8416:
8414:
8413:Weather radar
8411:
8409:
8406:
8404:
8401:
8399:
8396:
8394:
8391:
8389:
8386:
8384:
8381:
8379:
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8371:
8369:
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8364:
8361:
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8356:
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8349:
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8344:
8341:
8339:
8336:
8334:
8331:
8329:
8326:
8324:
8321:
8319:
8318:Pyrheliometer
8316:
8314:
8311:
8309:
8306:
8304:
8301:
8299:
8296:
8294:
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8289:
8286:
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8281:
8279:
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8269:
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8264:
8261:
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8176:
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8059:
8055:
8049:
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8044:
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8039:
8036:
8034:
8031:
8029:
8028:SCR-658 radar
8026:
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8023:
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8007:
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8000:
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7993:
7988:
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7816:
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7811:
7808:
7806:
7805:French Guyana
7803:
7800:
7796:
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7789:
7787:
7784:
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7614:
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7609:
7608:
7607:
7591:
7587:
7586:
7578:
7574:
7573:
7560:
7557:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7548:Barber's pole
7546:
7544:
7541:
7539:
7536:
7535:
7510:
7506:
7502:
7498:
7494:
7490:
7485:
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7476:
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7466:
7461:
7456:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7442:
7437:
7432:
7431:
7429:
7425:
7423:0-521-01955-9
7419:
7415:
7410:
7405:
7403:1-878220-57-8
7399:
7395:
7390:
7386:
7382:
7378:
7373:
7371:
7370:0-7506-3215-1
7367:
7362:
7360:9780750632157
7356:
7352:
7347:
7343:
7339:
7338:
7332:
7328:
7324:
7320:
7315:
7311:
7309:2-7298-1802-2
7305:
7301:
7296:
7293:
7289:
7284:
7278:
7274:
7270:
7266:
7262:
7258:
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7236:
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7197:
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6333:
6329:
6325:
6321:
6314:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6294:
6290:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6277:
6269:
6254:
6250:
6246:
6245:"Brught band"
6240:
6238:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6201:
6194:
6186:
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5931:
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5343:
5336:
5317:
5313:
5312:
5304:
5297:
5295:
5293:
5276:
5272:
5268:
5267:Types of Maps
5264:
5258:
5242:
5238:
5231:
5229:
5227:
5210:
5206:
5202:
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4969:
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4932:
4924:
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4914:
4910:
4906:
4905:Doviak, R. J.
4900:
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4672:
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4663:NOAA Magazine
4660:
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4425:
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4408:
4399:
4396:
4395:windmill farm
4391:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4364:precipitation
4355:
4353:
4348:
4340:
4339:AutoNowcaster
4336:
4332:
4327:
4317:
4315:
4310:
4300:
4297:
4294:the vertical
4286:
4284:
4280:
4267:
4263:
4254:
4252:
4251:3D NowCasting
4248:
4244:
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4234:
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4222:
4218:
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4204:
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4116:
4113:
4109:
4107:
4101:
4094:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4066:
4065:thunderstorms
4061:
4052:
4050:
4045:
4043:
4039:
4034:
4030:
4021:
4012:
4005:
4002:
3999:
3996:
3992:
3991:
3990:
3988:
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3979:
3962:
3957:
3953:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3926:
3923:
3919:
3916:
3909:Beam geometry
3906:
3902:
3900:
3896:
3891:
3888:
3887:wind profiler
3883:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3859:
3850:
3848:
3843:
3834:
3832:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3811:
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3803:
3800:
3796:
3791:
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3760:
3757:
3754:
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3742:
3738:
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3734:
3729:
3726:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3718:
3712:
3703:
3701:
3693:
3688:
3679:
3671:
3659:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3635:perpendicular
3632:
3628:
3625:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3592:
3589:
3586:
3583:
3580:
3577:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3569:
3566:
3559:
3554:
3545:
3543:
3537:
3530:
3525:
3516:
3514:
3505:
3496:
3488:
3479:
3470:
3466:
3464:
3455:
3450:
3443:Accumulations
3440:
3438:
3434:
3429:
3422:
3413:
3404:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3384:
3377:
3376:
3375:
3371:
3366:
3357:
3348:
3344:
3341:
3338:
3334:
3326:
3321:
3311:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3244:
3234:
3227:
3223:
3208:
3205:
3191:
3188:
3184:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3166:
3163:
3156:
3149:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3129:
3122:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3097:
3092:
3083:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3055:
3051:
3048:
3038:
3030:
3021:
3017:
2997:
2993:
2987:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2960:
2948:
2926:
2920:
2916:
2895:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2867:
2847:
2836:
2831:
2822:
2820:
2801:
2795:
2792:
2781:
2770:
2752:
2748:
2742:
2739:
2736:
2730:
2715:
2690:
2687:
2672:
2669:
2657:
2654:
2648:
2641:
2631:
2626:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2588:
2581:
2575:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2553:
2547:
2543:
2540:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2524:
2516:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2482:Doppler radar
2479:
2470:
2461:
2459:
2454:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2435:interpolation
2432:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2417:
2413:
2412:freezing rain
2409:
2405:
2401:
2391:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2368:
2360:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2335:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2314:
2313:
2287:
2283:
2275:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2248:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2228:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2206:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2186:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2155:
2148:
2147:
2146:
2129:
2126:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2101:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2075:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2034:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1984:
1982:
1967:
1963:
1952:
1937:
1933:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1881:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1814:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1758:
1752:
1748:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1726:
1722:
1719:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1690:
1687:
1675:
1671:
1665:
1661:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1622:
1608:
1587:
1566:
1531:
1525:
1521:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1492:
1486:
1447:
1407:
1356:
1352:
1346:
1337:
1336:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1289:
1283:
1280:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1268:
1253:
1231:
1209:
1187:
1163:
1159:
1134:
1130:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1080:
1076:
1070:
1062:
1059:
1049:
1044:
1040:
1034:
1030:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1004:
996:
995:
994:
980:
977:
969:
965:
947:
943:
939:
934:
930:
921:
917:
907:
899:
889:
886:
883:
882:radar horizon
879:
872:
869:
866:
859:
856:
850:
847:
844:
841:
840:
839:
822:
817:
813:
809:
804:
800:
794:
790:
786:
776:
772:
765:
762:
757:
753:
747:
743:
739:
736:
733:
728:
718:
714:
708:
704:
697:
692:
688:
682:
679:
672:
671:
670:
667:
663:
654:
645:
642:
640:
636:
632:
628:
609:
603:
600:
595:
586:
583:
571:
570:
569:
567:
563:
553:
551:
534:
510:
506:
500:
496:
492:
489:
486:
475:
473:
469:
463:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
440:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
405:
391:
389:
386:
382:
377:
375:
371:
366:
364:
360:
356:
351:
349:
344:
338:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
310:
305:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
282:Oklahoma City
279:
275:
271:
266:
264:
260:
256:
250:
248:
243:
239:
235:
232:
228:
224:
219:
217:
213:
205:
201:
197:
192:
188:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
165:J.S. Marshall
162:
158:
154:
150:
142:
141:Typhoon Cobra
138:
129:
127:
123:
119:
115:
110:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
90:precipitation
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
70:Weather radar
64:
61:
57:
49:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
8659:NEXRAD radar
8543:Weather ship
8418:Weather vane
8412:
8408:Weather buoy
8298:Nephelometer
8200:Earth-based
8120:NSSL Doppler
8013:
7657:. Retrieved
7637:. Retrieved
7617:. Retrieved
7597:. Retrieved
7583:
7513:. Retrieved
7504:
7474:
7468:
7445:
7439:
7413:
7393:
7376:
7350:
7341:
7335:
7322:
7319:Zrnic, D. S.
7299:
7256:
7253:Atlas, David
7246:Bibliography
7226:
7222:
7216:
7199:
7195:
7189:
7172:
7168:
7162:
7103:
7099:
7092:
7057:
7053:
7043:
7008:
7004:
6994:
6982:. Retrieved
6975:
6966:
6954:. Retrieved
6950:
6941:
6929:. Retrieved
6925:
6898:. Retrieved
6894:the original
6889:
6880:
6847:
6841:
6828:
6795:
6789:
6783:
6769:
6757:. Retrieved
6752:
6743:
6731:. Retrieved
6727:
6718:
6706:. Retrieved
6692:
6680:. Retrieved
6676:the original
6672:srh.noaa.gov
6671:
6662:
6650:. Retrieved
6646:the original
6636:
6627:
6582:
6576:
6569:
6559:29 September
6557:. Retrieved
6550:the original
6536:
6524:. Retrieved
6520:the original
6515:
6505:
6496:
6487:
6475:. Retrieved
6470:
6461:
6410:
6404:
6368:
6364:
6354:
6327:
6323:
6313:
6280:
6274:
6268:
6256:. Retrieved
6248:
6203:
6199:
6193:
6158:
6154:
6147:
6112:
6108:
6098:
6071:
6067:
6057:
6045:. Retrieved
6041:the original
6022:
6010:. Retrieved
6006:the original
5995:
5982:
5966:
5950:
5938:. Retrieved
5933:
5908:. Retrieved
5904:the original
5869:. Retrieved
5865:the original
5860:
5850:
5838:
5826:. Retrieved
5822:the original
5811:
5799:. Retrieved
5794:
5782:
5755:
5749:
5739:
5727:. Retrieved
5723:the original
5714:
5704:
5687:
5677:Météo-France
5670:
5658:. Retrieved
5654:
5644:
5631:
5628:Zrnic, D. S.
5621:
5609:. Retrieved
5605:the original
5596:
5586:
5574:. Retrieved
5561:
5549:. Retrieved
5532:
5520:. Retrieved
5516:the original
5497:
5485:. Retrieved
5478:the original
5469:
5462:
5450:. Retrieved
5446:the original
5435:
5425:
5413:. Retrieved
5404:
5397:
5385:. Retrieved
5372:
5360:. Retrieved
5356:the original
5345:
5335:
5323:. Retrieved
5316:the original
5309:
5279:. Retrieved
5275:the original
5266:
5257:
5245:. Retrieved
5240:
5235:Haby, Jeff.
5213:. Retrieved
5209:the original
5204:
5194:
5182:. Retrieved
5177:
5167:
5148:
5142:
5130:. Retrieved
5116:
5103:
5091:. Retrieved
5073:
5060:
5048:. Retrieved
5041:the original
5024:
5012:. Retrieved
5005:the original
4994:Zrnic, D. S.
4987:
4967:
4960:
4948:. Retrieved
4943:
4936:(in English)
4931:
4912:
4909:Zrnic, D. S.
4853:
4843:
4834:
4825:
4813:. Retrieved
4785:Météo-France
4780:
4776:
4764:. Retrieved
4760:the original
4755:
4746:
4727:
4723:
4713:
4701:. Retrieved
4697:the original
4687:
4675:. Retrieved
4671:the original
4662:
4639:The Atlantic
4638:
4628:
4616:. Retrieved
4609:
4600:
4586:
4551:
4548:Atlas, David
4541:
4529:. Retrieved
4525:the original
4510:
4467:
4464:Atlas, David
4458:
4444:
4436:
4421:
4413:
4392:
4361:
4347:thunderstorm
4344:
4338:
4306:
4292:
4276:
4236:
4214:
4210:
4201:
4190:
4170:
4166:
4136:
4114:
4110:
4102:
4099:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4046:
4026:
4009:
3975:
3933:
3920:
3912:
3903:
3892:
3884:
3880:
3844:
3840:
3827:
3819:
3812:
3804:
3802:conditions.
3793:
3778:
3764:
3732:
3731:
3716:
3699:
3697:
3676:
3634:
3630:
3609:
3605:
3596:
3584:
3578:
3567:
3563:
3538:
3534:
3512:
3510:
3493:
3476:
3467:
3463:hydrological
3460:
3424:
3400:
3385:
3381:
3372:
3368:
3345:
3342:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3309:
3300:Météo-France
3259:
3247:
3240:
3229:
3193:
3186:
3168:
3158:
3151:
3144:
3131:
3124:
3118:
3101:
3096:polarization
3086:Polarization
3061:
3052:
3044:
3035:
3018:
3014:
2944:
2839:
2768:
2716:
2517:
2513:
2503:
2489:
2485:
2458:Polarization
2455:
2420:
2397:
2389:
2383:
2377:
2371:
2366:
2358:
2340:
2279:
2270:Z-R relation
2269:
2263:
2144:
2016:
2006:
1998:reflectivity
1995:
1992:Reflectivity
1954:
1924:
1922:
1869:
1623:
1557:
1269:
1120:
913:
904:
887:
870:
857:
848:
842:
837:
659:
643:
638:
626:
624:
559:
476:
472:pulse volume
471:
464:
441:
410:
378:
367:
352:
339:
314:
270:polarization
267:
251:
220:
209:
173:reflectivity
146:
106:
81:
77:
73:
69:
68:
29:
8388:Thermometer
8378:Tethersonde
8358:Solarimeter
8348:Snow pillow
8313:Pyranometer
8258:Disdrometer
7893:South Korea
7868:Philippines
7815:Puerto Rico
7648:Jeff Duda.
7543:Backscatter
6956:28 February
6931:28 February
6652:26 November
6258:21 February
6047:1 September
6012:1 September
5690:Albuquerque
5611:12 February
5281:14 December
5247:14 December
5215:15 December
5078:McGraw-Hill
5050:19 November
5014:19 February
4950:14 February
4835:Tomorrow.io
4380:butterflies
4376:radio waves
4088:Bright band
4055:Attenuation
4049:attenuation
3915:diffraction
3808:warm fronts
3741:attenuation
3651:gust fronts
3602:Mesocyclone
3579:VIL Density
3558:mesocyclone
3296:attenuation
3226:attenuation
3072:mesocyclone
2504:phase shift
2404:AccuWeather
2015:(e.g. N of
1953:instead of
562:millisecond
417:microsecond
383:launched a
381:Tomorrow.io
153:David Atlas
8702:Categories
8393:Tide gauge
8338:Snow gauge
8333:Rain gauge
8328:Radiosonde
8303:Nephoscope
8278:Hygrometer
8268:Field mill
8243:Ceilometer
8213:Anemometer
7799:Martinique
7795:Guadeloupe
7344:: 522–545.
6900:9 November
6759:9 November
6733:9 November
6708:9 November
6682:9 November
6526:9 February
6516:Radarscope
6365:Atmosphere
5940:11 October
5660:29 October
4618:30 January
4450:References
4382:). The US
4335:Nowcasting
4326:Nowcasting
4231:See also:
4221:MESO-SAILS
4033:wind farms
4031:on modern
4015:Wind farms
3978:arthropods
3847:Mie theory
3831:lapse rate
3665:Animations
3655:turbulence
3647:microburst
3627:Wind shear
3447:See also:
3290:(North of
3121:orthogonal
3068:turbulence
3058:Meso scale
2510:Pulse pair
2476:See also:
2286:stratiform
2282:convective
1987:Data types
880:above the
468:resolution
227:Dan Rather
200:supercells
198:producing
177:stratiform
8571:Worldwide
8561:By region
8518:Dropsonde
8343:Snowboard
8263:Dropsonde
8228:Barometer
8223:Barograph
8218:Atmometer
8135:CSU-CHILL
8048:AN/FPS-41
8038:AN/APS-2F
8033:AN/APQ-13
7843:Hong Kong
7659:5 January
7639:5 January
7619:5 January
7599:5 January
7505:Highlight
7493:123719565
7327:San Diego
7154:206543838
7138:0036-8075
7084:1945-5100
7035:1945-5100
6864:1938-4254
6812:1938-4254
6607:0882-8156
6477:31 August
6445:1520-0477
6423:CiteSeerX
6371:(6): 83.
6305:1520-0434
6228:257448887
6171:CiteSeerX
5636:San Diego
5184:20 August
4641:(Report).
4439:meteoroid
4370:as well (
4296:gyroscope
4279:ARINC 708
4147:Filtering
4029:windmills
3899:beamwidth
3815:waveguide
3643:downburst
3639:downdraft
3531:Australia
3495:scanned.
3288:King City
3202:Φ
3080:downburst
3064:mesoscale
2991:Δ
2958:Δ
2924:Δ
2917:λ
2896:±
2868:π
2848:π
2799:Δ
2796:π
2788:Θ
2785:Δ
2782:λ
2753:λ
2746:Δ
2740:π
2728:Θ
2725:Δ
2685:Δ
2670:λ
2638:Θ
2635:Δ
2623:Θ
2614:
2589:λ
2579:Δ
2557:π
2544:
2439:Mesoscale
2423:dew point
2296:Λ
2215:π
2204:Λ
2201:−
2163:∫
2109:Λ
2106:−
2048:∫
1896:η
1891:∝
1843:η
1826:π
1804:θ
1794:λ
1780:τ
1764:η
1749:θ
1735:π
1723:τ
1691:π
1672:λ
1609:θ
1588:τ
1522:θ
1508:π
1496:τ
1448:×
1324:η
1309:σ
1305:∑
1293:¯
1290:σ
1281:σ
1232:σ
1210:λ
1094:σ
1089:∝
1063:π
1050:σ
1041:λ
787:−
773:θ
766:
593:Δ
535:θ
507:θ
429:waveguide
413:microwave
394:Principle
343:polarized
326:King City
309:supercell
286:mesoscale
238:Galveston
216:hook echo
202:over the
179:rain and
157:Air Force
122:forecasts
42:rainshaft
8433:Windsock
8140:OU-PRIME
8043:AN/CPS-9
7956:Portugal
7878:Thailand
7863:Pakistan
7820:Trinidad
7751:Barbados
7735:Americas
7590:Archived
7527:See also
7515:15 March
7321:(1993).
7175:: 5365.
7146:23258889
6872:84619921
6820:86080517
6753:aba blog
6206:: 1–14.
6139:55123714
5630:(1993).
5551:18 April
5522:18 April
5487:19 April
5452:19 April
5415:18 April
5362:19 April
4996:(1993).
4911:(1993).
4815:26 April
4289:Antennas
3473:Echotops
3437:updrafts
3280:Montreal
3243:tornados
3111:molecule
3041:Synoptic
2464:Velocity
580:Distance
425:klystron
63:OU-PRIME
8528:Mesonet
8488:General
8253:Dewcell
8125:SMART-R
7941:Germany
7931:Finland
7888:Vietnam
7810:Jamaica
7776:Curacao
7570:General
7377:Weather
7231:Bibcode
7204:Bibcode
7177:Bibcode
7108:Bibcode
7100:Science
7062:Bibcode
7013:Bibcode
6843:The Auk
6791:The Auk
6587:Bibcode
6453:2391544
6415:Bibcode
6373:Bibcode
6332:Bibcode
6285:Bibcode
6208:Bibcode
6163:Bibcode
6117:Bibcode
6076:Bibcode
5910:23 June
5871:12 July
5828:12 July
5760:Bibcode
5729:14 June
5576:8 March
5132:1 April
5093:1 April
4766:14 June
4703:1 March
4677:7 March
4550:(ed.).
4176:Mesonet
3987:WSR-88D
3631:doublet
3615:TVS or
3606:doublet
3439:zones.
3292:Toronto
3045:In the
2947:Nyquist
2384:level 3
2378:level 2
2372:level 1
2312:and v.
867:radius,
838:where:
633:is the
550:frustum
456:Ka-band
385:Ka-band
196:tornado
132:History
114:surplus
107:During
8159:RaXPol
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