War of the currents

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sold to cities throughout the United States, making it a standard with Edison controlling all technical development and holding all the key patents. Direct current worked well with incandescent lamps, which were the principal load of the day. Direct-current systems could be directly used with storage batteries, providing valuable load-leveling and backup power during interruptions of generator operation. Direct-current generators could be easily paralleled, allowing economical operation by using smaller machines during periods of light load and improving reliability. Edison had invented a meter to allow customers to be billed for energy proportional to consumption, but this meter worked only with direct current. Direct current also worked well with electric motors, an advantage DC held throughout the 1880s. The primary drawback with the Edison direct current system was that it ran at 110 volts from generation to its final destination giving it a relatively short useful transmission range: to keep the size of the expensive copper conductors down generating plants had to be situated in the middle of population centers and could only supply customers less than a mile from the plant.

217: 487:, the commission sent out surveys to hundreds of experts on law and medicine, seeking their opinions, as well as contacting electrical experts, including Elihu Thomson and Thomas Edison. In late 1887, when death penalty commission member Southwick contacted Edison, the inventor stated he was against capital punishment and wanted nothing to do with the matter. After further prompting, Edison hit out at his chief electric power competitor, George Westinghouse, in what may have been the opening salvo in the war of currents, stating in a December 1887 letter to Southwick that it would be best to use current generated by "'alternating machines,' manufactured principally in this country by Geo. Westinghouse". Soon after the execution by electricity bill passed in June 1888, Edison was asked by a New York government official what means would be the best way to implement the state's new form of execution. "Hire out your criminals as linemen to the New York electric lighting companies" was Edison's 975:, in a meeting with the Board of Electrical Control and the AC electric companies, rejected the claims that the AC lines were perfectly safe saying "we get news of all who touch them through the coroners office". On October 11, 1889, John Feeks, a Western Union lineman, was high up in the tangle of overhead electrical wires working on what were supposed to be low-voltage telegraph lines in a busy Manhattan district. As the lunchtime crowd below looked on he grabbed a nearby line that, unknown to him, had been shorted many blocks away with a high-voltage AC line. The jolt entered through his bare right hand and exited his left steel studded climbing boot. Feeks was killed almost instantly, his body falling into the tangle of wire, sparking, burning, and smoldering for the better part of an hour while a horrified crowd of thousands gathered below. The source of the power that killed Feeks was not determined although United States Illuminating Company lines ran nearby. 416:

experimenting to get it working practically." Edison seemed to hold a view that the very high voltage used in AC systems was too dangerous and that it would take many years to develop a safe and workable system. Safety and avoiding the bad press of killing a customer had been one of the goals in designing his DC system and he worried that a death caused by a mis-installed AC system could hold back the use of electricity in general. Edison's understanding of how AC systems worked seemed to be extensive. He noted what he saw as inefficiencies and that, combined with the capital costs in trying to finance very large generating plants, led him to believe there would be very little cost savings in an AC venture. Edison was also of the opinion that DC was a superior system (a fact that he was sure the public would come to recognize) and inferior AC technology was being used by other companies as a way to get around his DC patents.

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Thomson-Houston or Westinghouse. He saw a real opportunity in 1891. The market was in a general downturn causing cash shortages for all the companies concerned and Villard was in talks with Thomson-Houston, which was now Edison General Electric's biggest competitor. Thomson-Houston had a habit of saving money on development by buying, or sometimes stealing, patents. Patent conflicts were stymieing the growth of both companies and the idea of saving on some 60 ongoing lawsuits as well as saving on profit losses of trying to undercut each other by selling generating plants below cost pushed forward the idea of this merger in financial circles. Edison hated the idea and tried to hold it off, but Villard thought his company, now winning its incandescent light patent lawsuits in the courts, was in a position to dictate the terms of any merger. As a committee of financiers, which included

578:. With many participants shouting for the demonstration to stop and others walking out, Brown subjected a caged dog to several shocks with increasing levels of direct current up to 1,000 volts, which the dog survived. Brown then applied 330 volts of alternating current which killed the dog. Four days later he held a second demonstration to answer critics' claims that the DC probably weakened the dog before it died. In this second demonstration, three dogs were killed in quick succession with 300 volts of AC. Brown wrote to a colleague that he was sure this demonstration would get the New York Board of Electrical Control to limit AC installations to 300 volts. Brown's campaign to restrict AC to 300 volts was unsuccessful but legislation did come close to passing in Ohio and Virginia. 963: 168: 240: 423:" and sent it to newspapers and to companies that had purchased or were planning to purchase electrical equipment from Edison competitors, including Westinghouse and Thomson-Houston, stating that the competitors were infringing on Edison's incandescent light and other electrical patents. It warned that purchasers could find themselves on the losing side of a court case if those patents were upheld. The pamphlet also emphasized the safety and efficiency of direct current, with the claim DC had not caused a single death, and included newspaper stories of accidental electrocutions caused by alternating current. 124:, a New York electrical engineer, claimed the AC-based lighting companies were putting the public at risk using high-voltage systems installed in a slipshod manner. Brown also claimed that alternating current was more dangerous than direct current and tried to prove this by publicly killing animals with both currents, with technical assistance from Edison Electric. The Edison company and Brown colluded further in their parallel goals to limit the use of AC with attempts to push through legislation to severely limit AC installations and voltages. Both also colluded with Westinghouse's chief AC rival, the 500:

used it. These deaths included a 15-year-old boy killed on April 15 by a broken telegraph line that had been energized with alternating current from a United States Illuminating Company line; a clerk killed two weeks later by an AC line; and a Brush Electric Company lineman killed in May by the AC line he was cutting. The press in New York seemed to switch overnight from stories about electric lights vs gas lighting to "death by wire" incidents, with each new report seeming to fan public resentment against high voltage AC and the dangerously tangled overhead electrical wires in the city.

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Medico-Legal Society, the chairman of the death penalty commission, and Thomas Edison looking on. Brown used alternating current for all of his tests on animals larger than a human, including 4 calves and a lame horse, all dispatched with 750 volts of AC. Based on these results the Medico-Legal Society's December meeting recommended the use of 1,000–1,500 volts of alternating current for executions and newspapers noted the AC used was half the voltage used in the power lines over the streets of American cities.

761:, who had been an assistant at Brown's July 1888 public electrocution of dogs with AC at Columbia College, had the results of those experiments submitted to the committee. The claims that AC was more deadly than DC and was the best current to use was questioned, with some committee members pointing out that Brown's experiments were not scientifically carried out and were on animals smaller than a human being. At their November meeting the committee recommended 3,000 volts although the type of electricity, 509: 395:) tore down a large number of the lines, cutting off utilities in the city. This spurred on the idea of having these lines moved underground but it was stopped by a court injunction obtained by Western Union. Legislation to give all the utilities 90 days to move their lines into underground conduits supplied by the city was slowly making its way through the government but that was also being fought in court by the United States Illuminating Company, who claimed their AC lines were perfectly safe. 59: 802:

turned to Edison Electric as well as Thomson-Houston Electric Company to help obtaining the equipment. This became another behind-the-scenes maneuver to acquire Westinghouse AC generators to supply the current, apparently with the help of the Edison company and Westinghouse's chief AC rival, Thomson-Houston. Thomson-Houston arranged to acquire three Westinghouse AC generators by replacing them with new Thomson-Houston AC generators. Thomson-Houston president

6852: 43: 790:, Westinghouse spelled out where Brown's experiments were wrong and claimed again that Brown was being employed by the Edison company. Brown's December 18 letter refuted the claims and Brown even challenged Westinghouse to an electrical duel, with Brown agreeing to be shocked by ever-increasing amounts of DC power if Westinghouse submitted himself to the same amount of increasing AC power, first to quit loses. Westinghouse declined the offer. 1222: 905:

in the electrical field and brought up possible collusion between Brown and Edison, which Brown again denied. Many witnesses were called by both sides to give firsthand anecdotal accounts about encounters with electricity and evidence was given by medical professionals on the human body's nervous system and the electrical conductivity of skin. Brown was accused of fudging his tests on animals, hiding the fact that he was using lower

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of doctors and lawyers, was given the task of working out the details and in late 1888 through early 1889 conducted a series of animal experiments on voltage amounts, electrode design and placement, and skin conductivity. During this time they sought the advice of Harold Brown as a consultant. This ended up expanding the war of currents into the development of the chair and the general debate over capital punishment in the US.

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this as a way to build a truly competitive system instead of simply building another barely competitive DC lighting system using patents just different enough to get around the Edison patents. The Edison DC system of centralized DC plants with their short transmission range also meant there was a patchwork of un-supplied customers between Edison's plants that Westinghouse could easily supply with AC power.

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There were many rebuttals to Brown's claims in the newspapers and letters to the board, with people pointing out he was showing no scientific evidence that AC was more dangerous than DC. Westinghouse pointed out in letters to various newspapers the number of fires caused by DC equipment and suggested that Brown was obviously being controlled by Edison, something Brown continually denied.

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worried about what would happen with the equipment after they sold it, assuming customers would follow a risky practice of installing as many lights and generators as they could get away with. He also thought the idea of using AC lighting in residential homes was too dangerous and had the company hold back on that type of installation until a safer transformer could be developed.

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plants linked to loads via long-distance transmission was slowly being combined with the ability to link it up with all of the existing systems that needed to be supplied. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low-voltage incandescent lighting, high voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In the engineered

342:(another competitor offering AC- and DC-based systems) had built 22 power stations. Thomson-Houston was expanding their business while trying to avoid patent conflicts with Westinghouse, arranging deals such as coming to agreements over lighting company territory, paying a royalty to use the Stanley AC transformer patent, and allowing Westinghouse to use their 1066:

controlled three quarters of the US electrical business. From this point on, General Electric and Westinghouse were both marketing alternating current systems. Edison put on a brave face, noting to the media how his stock had gained value in the deal, but privately he was bitter that his company and all of his patents had been turned over to the competition.

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York as well as using one of them in an efficiency test. They also showed that Brown had received $ 5,000 from Edison Electric to purchase the surplus Westinghouse generators from Thomson-Houston. Further Edison involvement was contained in letters from Edison treasurer Hastings asking Brown to send anti-AC pamphlets to all the legislators in the state of

1058:, worked on the deal in early 1892, things went against Villard. In Morgan's view, Thomson-Houston looked on the books to be the stronger of the two companies and engineered a behind the scenes deal announced on April 15, 1892, that put the management of Thomson-Houston in control of the new company, now called 1040:

Even with the Westinghouse propaganda losses, the war of currents itself was winding down with direct current on the losing side. This was due in part to Thomas Edison himself leaving the electric power business. Edison was becoming marginalized in his own company, having lost majority control in the

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titled "The Dangers of Electric Lighting". Edison put forward the view that burying the high-voltage lines was not a solution, and would simply move the deaths underground and be a "constant menace" that could short with other lines threatening people's homes and lives. He stated the only way to make

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When the chair was first used, on August 6, 1890, the technicians on hand misjudged the voltage needed to kill William Kemmler. After the first jolt of electricity Kemmler was found to be still breathing. The procedure had to be repeated and a reporter on hand described it as "an awful spectacle, far

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and obtained a patent option on Galileo Ferraris' induction motor design. Although the acquisition of a feasible AC motor gave Westinghouse a key patent in building a completely integrated AC system, the general shortage of cash the company was going through by 1890 meant development had to be put on

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that allowed the voltage to be "stepped up" to much higher transmission voltages and then dropped down to a lower end user voltage for business and residential use. The high voltages allowed a central generating station to supply a large area, up to 7-mile (11 km) long circuits. Westinghouse saw

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In January 1998, Consolidated Edison started to eliminate DC service. At that time there were 4,600 DC customers. By 2006, there were only 60 customers using DC service, and on November 14, 2007, the last direct-current distribution by Con Edison was shut down. Customers still using DC were provided

1016:, was much improved, highlighting that his AC/transformer system actually used lower household voltages than the Edison DC system. He also pointed out 87 deaths in one year caused by street cars and gas lighting, versus only 5 accidental electrocutions and no in-home deaths attributed to AC current. 946:

The story was based on 45 letters stolen from Brown's office that spelled out Brown's collusion with Thomson-Houston and Edison Electric. The majority of the letters were correspondence between Brown and Thomson-Houston on the topic of acquiring the three Westinghouse generators for the state of New

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Thomson-Houston was continuing to expand, buying seven smaller electric companies including a purchase of the Brush Electric Company in 1889. By 1890 Thomson-Houston controlled the majority of the arc lighting systems in the US and a collection of its own US AC patents. Several of the business deals

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What brought Brown to the forefront of the debate over AC and his motives remain unclear, but historians note there grew to be some form of collusion between the Edison company and Brown. Edison records seem to show it was Edison Electric Light treasurer Francis S. Hastings who came up with the idea

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Brown, determined to prove alternating current was more dangerous than direct current, at some point contacted Thomas Edison to see if he could make use of equipment to conduct experiments. Edison immediately offered to assist Brown in his crusade against AC companies. Before long, Brown was loaned

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After Westinghouse installed his first large scale system, Edison wrote in a November 1886 private letter to Edward Johnson, "Just as certain as death Westinghouse will kill a customer within six months after he puts in a system of any size, He has got a new thing and it will require a great deal of

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As AC systems continued to spread into territories covered by DC systems, with the companies seeming to impinge on Edison patents including incandescent lighting, things got worse for the company. The price of copper was rising, adding to the expense of Edison's low voltage DC system, which required

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of Thomson-Houston was concerned about AC safety and put a great deal of effort into developing a lightning arrestor for high-tension power lines as well as a magnetic blowout switch that could shut the system down in a power surge, a safety feature the Westinghouse system did not have. Thomson also

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In March 1886 Stanley, with Westinghouse's backing, installed the first multiple-voltage AC power system, a demonstration incandescent lighting system, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. Expanded to the point where it could light 23 businesses along main street with very little power loss over 4000

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to attack Brown, Edison, and their supporters. His strategy was to show that Brown had falsified his test on the killing power of AC and to prove that electricity would not cause certain death and simply lead to torturing the condemned. In cross examination he questioned Brown's lack of credentials

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had at least two reasons for obtaining the Westinghouse generators; he did not want his company's equipment to be associated with the death penalty and he wanted to use one to prove a point, paying Brown to set up a public efficiency test to show that Westinghouse's sales claim of manufacturing 50%

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In March 1889 when members of the Medico-Legal Society embarked on another series of tests to work out the details of electrode composition and placement they turned to Brown for technical assistance. Edison treasurer Hastings tried unsuccessfully to obtain a Westinghouse AC generator for the test.

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Although New York had a criminal procedure code that specified electrocution via an electric chair, it did not spell out the type of electricity, the amount of current, or its method of supply, since these were still relative unknowns. The New York Medico-Legal Society, an informal society composed

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On June 8, Brown was lobbying in person before the New York Board of Electrical Control, asking that his letter to the paper be read into the meeting's record and demanding severe regulations on AC including limiting voltage to 300 volts, a level that would make AC next to useless for transmission.

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At the beginning of attacks on AC, Westinghouse, in a June 7, 1888 letter, tried to defuse the situation. He invited Edison to visit him in Pittsburgh and said "I believe there has been a systemic attempt on the part of some people to do a great deal of mischief and create as great a difference as

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As the number of deaths attributed to high voltage lighting around the country continued to mount, a cluster of deaths in New York City in the spring of 1888 related to AC arc lighting set off a media frenzy against the "deadly arc-lighting current" and the seemingly callous lighting companies that

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was established in New York City. Edison designed his utility to compete with the then established gas lighting utilities, basing it on a relatively low 110-volt direct current supply to power a high resistance incandescent lamp he had invented for the system. Edison direct current systems would be

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By the early 1890s, the war was winding down. Further deaths caused by AC lines in New York City forced electric companies to fix safety problems. Thomas Edison no longer controlled Edison Electric, and subsidiary companies were beginning to add AC to the systems they were building. Mergers reduced

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due to the site of the accident being near the New York government offices and the horrifying affair galvanized them into the action of passing the law on moving utilities underground. The electric companies involved obtained an injunction preventing their lines from being cut down immediately but

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noted "Death does not stop at the door, but comes right into the house, and perhaps as you are closing a door or turning on the gas you are killed." Harold Brown's reputation was rehabilitated almost overnight with newspapers and magazines seeking his opinion and reporters following him around New

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Feeks' public death sparked a new round of people fearing the electric lines over their heads in what has been called the "Electric Wire Panic". The blame seemed to settle on Westinghouse since, Westinghouse having bought many of the lighting companies involved, people assumed Feeks' death was the

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That spring Brown published "The Comparative Danger to Life of the Alternating and Continuous Electrical Current" detailing the animal experiments done at Edison's lab and claiming they showed AC was far deadlier than DC. This 61-page professionally printed booklet (possibly paid for by the Edison

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In order to more conclusively prove to the committee that AC was more deadly than DC, Brown contacted Edison Electric Light treasurer Francis S. Hastings to arrange the use of the West Orange laboratory. There on December 5, 1888 Brown set up an experiment with members of the press, members of the

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As arc lighting systems spread, so did stories of how the high voltages involved were killing people, usually unwary linemen, a strange new phenomenon that seemed to instantaneously strike a victim dead. One such story in 1881 of a drunken dock worker dying after he grabbed a large electric dynamo

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on power lines was rudimentary, with one electrician referring to it as having as much value "as a molasses covered rag", and exposure to the elements was eroding it over time. A third of the wires were simply abandoned by defunct companies and slowly deteriorating, causing damage to, and shorting

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Due to the hazards presented by high voltage electrical lines most European cities and the city of Chicago in the US required them to be buried underground. The City of New York did not require burying and had little in the way of regulation so by the end of 1887 the mishmash of overhead wires for

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systems were beginning to be installed in cities, powered by central generating plants. Arc lighting was capable of lighting streets, factory yards, or the interior of large buildings. Arc lamp systems used high voltages (above 3,000 volts) to supply current to multiple series-connected lamps, and

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Even though the institutional war of currents had ended in a financial merger, the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems followed a much longer technical merger. Due to innovation in the US and Europe, alternating current's economy of scale with very large generating

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The fifteen electric companies that existed five years before had merged down to two: General Electric and Westinghouse. The war of currents came to an end, and this merger of the Edison company, along with its lighting patents, and the Thomson-Houston, with its AC patents, created a company that

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George Westinghouse was characterized as a villain trying to defend pole-mounted AC installations that he knew were unsafe, and fumbled his replies to the questions put to him by reporters, attempting to point out all the other things in a large city that were more dangerous than AC. However, his

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asked Brown if he could supply the equipment needed for the executions as well as design the electric chair. Brown turned down the job of designing the chair but did agree to fulfill the contract to supply the necessary electrical equipment. The state refused to pay up front, and Brown apparently

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At a July meeting Board of Electrical Control, Brown's criticisms of AC and even his knowledge of electricity was challenged by other electrical engineers, some of whom worked for Westinghouse. At this meeting, supporters of AC provided anecdotal stories from electricians on how they had survived

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in December 1880 to supply a 2-mile (3.2 km) length of Broadway in New York City with a 3,500–volt demonstration arc lighting system. The disadvantages of arc lighting were: it was maintenance intensive, buzzed, flickered, constituted a fire hazard, was really only suitable for outdoor

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he thought it was time to retire from the lighting business and moved on to an iron ore refining project that preoccupied his time. Edison's dogmatic anti-AC values were no longer controlling the company. By 1889, Edison's Electric's own subsidiaries were lobbying to add AC power transmission to

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in Chicago and, although they made no profit, their demonstration of a safe, effective and highly flexible universal alternating current system powering all of the disparate electrical systems at the Exposition led to them winning the bid at the end of that year to build an AC power station at

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to step down from a high voltage so AC could be used for indoor lighting. Using high voltage allowed an AC system to transmit power over longer distances from more efficient large central generating stations. As the use of AC spread rapidly with other companies deploying their own systems, the

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in 1887. He bought the Waterhouse Electric Light Company in 1888 and the United States Illuminating Company in 1890, giving Westinghouse their own arc lighting systems as well as control over all the major incandescent lamp patents not controlled by Edison. In April 1888 Westinghouse engineer

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much heavier copper wires than higher voltage AC systems. Thomas Edison's own colleagues and engineers were trying to get him to consider AC. Edison's sales force was continually losing bids in municipalities that opted for cheaper AC systems and Edison Electric Illuminating Company president

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With Thomas Edison no longer involved with Edison General Electric, the war of currents came to a close with a financial merger. Edison president Henry Villard, who had engineered the merger that formed Edison General Electric, was continually working on the idea of merging that company with

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rectifier station could convert AC to DC where networks were still used. Parts of Boston, Massachusetts, along Beacon Street and Commonwealth Avenue still used 110 volts DC in the 1960s, causing the destruction of many small appliances (typically hair dryers and phonographs) used by

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claiming the root of the problem was the alternating current (AC) system being used. Brown argued that the AC system was inherently dangerous and "damnable" and asked why the "public must submit to constant danger from sudden death" just so utilities could use a cheaper AC system.

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DC and high-current AC. When the hearing convened for a day at Edison's West Orange lab to witness demonstrations of skin resistance to electricity, Brown almost got in a fight with a Westinghouse representative, accusing him of being in the Edison laboratory to conduct

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used this system to transmit electric power over a distance of 176 km with 75% efficiency. In 1891 he also created a three-phase transformer, the short-circuited (squirrel-cage) induction motor and designed the world's first three-phase hydroelectric power plant.

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1889 saw another round of deaths attributed to alternating current including a lineman in Buffalo, New York, four linemen in New York City, and a New York fruit merchant who was killed when the display he was using came in contact with an overhead line. NYC Mayor

595:. Hasting brought Brown and Edison together and was in continual contact with Brown. Edison Electric seemed to be footing the bill for some of Brown's publications on the dangers of AC. In addition, Thomas Edison himself sent a letter to the city government of 1162:

spent his last years, and where he died in 1943. New York City's Broadway theaters continued to use DC services until 1975, requiring the use of outmoded manual resistance dimmer boards operated by several stagehands. This practice ended when the musical

1103:, a Prussian mathematician who was the first person to fully understand AC power from a solid mathematical standpoint. General Electric hired many talented new engineers to improve its design of transformers, generators, motors and other apparatus. 914:. Newspapers noted the often contradictory testimony was raising public doubts about the electrocution law but after Edison took the stand many accepted assurances from the "wizard of Menlo Park" that 1,000 volts of AC would easily kill any man. 979:

fault of a Westinghouse subsidiary. Newspapers joined into the public outcry following Feeks' death, pointing out men's lives "were cheaper to this monopoly than insulated wires" and calling for the executives of AC companies to be charged with

951:(at the company's expense), Brown requesting that a letter of recommendation from Thomas Edison be sent to Scranton, Pennsylvania, as well as Edison and Arthur Kennelly coaching Brown in his upcoming testimony in the Kemmler appeal trial. 573:

Brown paid local children to collect stray dogs off the street for his experiments with direct and alternating current. After much experimentation killing a series of dogs, Brown held a public demonstration on July 30 in a lecture room at

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later that year (partially splitting the contract with General Electric). DC commercial power distribution systems declined rapidly in numbers throughout the 20th century; the last DC utility in New York City was shut down in 2007.

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In the spring of 1888, a media furor arose over electrical fatalities caused by pole-mounted high-voltage AC lines, attributed to the greed and callousness of the arc lighting companies that operated them. In June of that year

354:. All of the companies had their own electric power systems, arc lighting systems, and even incandescent lamp designs for domestic lighting, leading to constant lawsuits and patent battles between themselves and with Edison. 876:

After William Kemmler was sentenced to death in the electric chair his appeal was financed by Westinghouse, an attempt to prevent Westinghouse AC generators from being used in an execution, by repealing the electrocution

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possible between the Edison Company and The Westinghouse Electric Co., when there ought to be an entirely different condition of affairs". Edison thanked him but said "My laboratory work consumes the whole of my time".

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In 1878 inventor Thomas Edison saw a market for a system that could bring electric lighting directly into a customer's business or home, a niche not served by arc lighting systems. By 1882 the investor-owned utility

1204:, then the heart of the UK's newspaper industry. It was decommissioned later in 1981 when the newspaper industry moved into the developing docklands area further down the river (using modern AC-powered equipment). 1099:. General Electric was awarded contracts to build AC transmission lines and transformers in that project and further bids at Niagara were split with GE who were quickly catching up in the AC field due partly to 220:

Workmen burying Edison DC power lines under the streets in New York City in 1882. This costly practice played to Edison's favor in public perceptions after several deaths were caused by overhead high voltage AC

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shut down most of their lighting until the situation was settled, plunging many New York streets into darkness. The legislation ordering the cutting down of all of the utility lines was finally upheld by the

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In 1897 Edison sold his remaining stock in Edison Electric Illuminating of New York to finance his iron ore refining prototype plant. In 1908, Edison said to George Stanley, son of AC transformer inventor

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After the gathered testimony was submitted and the two sides presented their case, Judge Edwin Day ruled against Kemmler's appeal on October 9 and US Supreme Court denied Kemmler's appeal on May 23, 1890.

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of using Brown and several New York physicians to attack Westinghouse and the other AC companies in retaliation for what Hastings thought were unscrupulous bids by Westinghouse for lighting contracts in

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Patent lawsuits were still hampering both companies and bleeding off cash, so in 1896, J. P. Morgan engineered a patent sharing agreement between the two companies that remained in force for 11 years.

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During this period Westinghouse continued to pour money and engineering resources into the goal of building a completely integrated AC system. To gain control of the Sawyer-Man lamp patents he bought

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between Thomson-Houston and Westinghouse fell apart and in April 1888 a judge rolled back part of Westinghouse's original Gaulard Gibbs patent, stating it only covered transformers linked in series.

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claimed in early 1888 that high voltages used in an alternating current system were hazardous, and that the design was inferior to, and infringed on the patents behind, their direct current system.

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hold for a while. The difficulties of obtaining funding for such a capital intensive business was becoming a serious problem for the company and 1890 saw the first of several attempts by investor

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Through the fall of 1888 a battle of words with Brown specifically attacking Westinghouse continued to escalate. In November George Westinghouse challenged Brown's assertion in the pages of the

3464: 476:) caught the attention of New York State politicians who, following a series of botched hangings, were desperately seeking an alternative. An 1886 commission appointed by New York governor 1158:, constructed in 1929, had a large direct-current power plant and did not convert fully to alternating-current service until well into the 1960s. This was the building in which AC pioneer 347: 468:, electrocuting hundreds of stray dogs, to come up with a method to euthanize animals via electricity. Southwick's 1882 and 1883 articles on how electrocution could be a replacement for 351: 745:

that the Westinghouse AC systems had caused 30 deaths. The magazine investigated the claim and found at most only two of the deaths could be attributed to Westinghouse installations.

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pointed out that if the company stuck with an all DC system it would not be able to do business in small towns and even mid-sized cities. Edison Electric had a patent option on the

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Volts to Hertz—the rise of electricity: from the compass to the radio through the works of sixteen great men of science whose names are used in measuring electricity and magnetism

1210:(HVDC) systems are used for bulk transmission of energy from distant generating stations, for underwater lines, and for interconnection of separate alternating-current systems. 318:

feet, the system used transformers to step 500 AC volts at the street down to 100 volts to power incandescent lamps at each location. By fall of 1886 Westinghouse, Stanley, and

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Very bright arc lighting (such as this one in 1882 New York) could only be used outdoors or in large indoor spaces where they could be mounted high out of people's sight line.

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Brown was not slowed down by this revelation and characterized his efforts to expose Westinghouse as the same as going after a grocer who sells poison and calls it sugar.

216: 798: 846:, describing it as being pushed forward by "pretentious ignoramuses". One of Edison's lawyers wrote to his colleague expressing an opinion that Edison's preference for 266:

that described alternating current systems under development. By that time alternating current had gained a key advantage over direct current with the development of

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Westinghouse criticized these tests as a skewed self-serving demonstration designed to be a direct attack on alternating current. On December 13 in a letter to the

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that allowed the large number of legacy systems to be connected to the AC grid. These stopgaps were slowly replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.

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in December. The AC lines were cut down, keeping many New York City streets in darkness for the rest of the winter, since little had been done by the overpaid

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under the U.S. Constitution. It became obvious to the press and everyone involved that the politically connected (and expensive) lawyer who filed the appeal,

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telephone, telegraph, fire and burglar alarm systems in Manhattan were now mixed with haphazardly strung AC lighting system wires carrying up to 6,000 volts.

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recommending Brown as an expert on the dangers of AC. Some of this collusion was exposed in letters stolen from Brown's office and published in August 1889.

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covered Brown's appearance before the New York Board of Electrical Control and the debate in technical societies over the merits of DC and AC, noting that:

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Harold Brown demonstrating the killing power of AC to the New York Medico-Legal Society by electrocuting a horse at Thomas Edison's West Orange laboratory.

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systems, with arc lighting taking over large area/street lighting, and incandescent lighting replacing gas for business and residential indoor lighting.

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For Shame, Brown! – Disgraceful Facts About the Electric Killing Scheme; Queer Work for a State's Expert; Paid by One Electric Company to Injure Another

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and created a new company that now controlled three quarters of the US electrical business. Westinghouse won the bid to supply electrical power for the

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At the peak of the war of currents, Edison himself joined the public debate for the first time, denounced AC current in a November 1889 article in the

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By the end of 1887 Westinghouse had 68 alternating current power stations to Edison's 121 DC-based stations. To make matters worse for Edison, the

6403: 772: 2659: 2654: 3648: 639:, giving the company a way to calculate how much electricity a customer used. In July 1888 Westinghouse paid a substantial amount to license 2971:

Blalock, Tom (October 2002). "History and reflections on the way things were: Edison's Direct Current Influenced "Broadway" Show Lighting".

4116: 3739: 6078: 6022: 730: 6945: 5749: 2235: 614:'s induction motor patent was acquired by Westinghouse in July 1888 with plans to incorporate it in a completely integrated AC system. 6162: 1126:, "Tell your father I was wrong", likely an admission that he had underestimated the developmental potential of alternating current. 2995: 6518: 6283: 4540: 4091: 900:

hearings held around the state beginning on July 9 in New York City, Cockran used his considerable skills as a cross-examiner and

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company) was sent to government officials, newspapers, and businessmen in towns with populations greater than 5,000 inhabitants.

4208: 3744: 3643: 1240: 1154:, continued to supply direct current to customers who had adopted it early in the twentieth century, mainly for elevators. The 162: 136:

competition between companies, including the merger of Edison Electric with their largest competitor, Thomson-Houston, forming

483:

There were early indications that this new form of execution would become mixed up with the war of currents. As part of their

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The death of Western Union Lineman John Feeks led to laws finally being passed to move AC lines underground in New York City.

203:

1880 saw the installation of large-scale arc lighting systems in several US cities including a central station set up by the

103:'s company. In 1886, the Edison system was faced with new competition: an alternating current system initially introduced by 83:

systems in the late 1880s and early 1890s. It grew out of two lighting systems developed in the late 1870s and early 1880s;

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Technological Competitiveness: Contemporary and Historical Perspectives on Electrical, Electronics, and Computer Industries

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around June 24, 1889, but before the sentence could be carried out an appeal was filed on the grounds that it constituted

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In May 1889 when New York had its first criminal sentenced to be executed in the electric chair, a street merchant named

480:, which including Southwick, recommended in 1888 that executions be carried out by electricity using the electric chair. 893:, had no connection to the case but did have connection to the Westinghouse company, obviously paying for his services. 6699: 6042: 5952: 520:, who at that time seemed to have no connection to the Edison company, sent a June 5, 1888 letter to the editor of the 1350: 6767: 6243: 6203: 6126: 6083: 5937: 5862: 5341: 4096: 4086: 2416: 1245: 1589:

M. Whelan, Steve Rockwell, Steve Normandin, The History of the Transformer, Edison Tech Center, edisontechcenter.org

1578:

M. Whelan, Steve Rockwell, Steve Normandin, The History of the Transformer, Edison Tech Center, edisontechcenter.org

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incandescent bulb patent. Besides Thomson-Houston and Brush there were other competitors at the time, including the

278:

William Stanley developed the first practical AC transformer for Westinghouse and helped build the first AC systems.

6411: 6062: 5892: 5719: 4794: 4789: 4219: 4000: 3960: 1182: 335: 125: 6379: 6132: 6017: 5231: 4817: 4712: 3820: 1091: 412:, and a confidential in-house report recommended that the company go AC, but Thomas Edison was against the idea. 145: 17: 962: 6355: 4722: 4432: 4101: 3764: 3698: 3683: 3673: 2366: 1531: 1393: 2676: 5992: 5877: 4702: 4234: 4172: 3913: 3724: 1008:

AC safe was to limit its voltage and vowed Edison Electric would never adopt AC as long as he was in charge.

311: 113: 3436: 6950: 6900: 6885: 6094: 6052: 5872: 5271: 4202: 4147: 3889: 3862: 3663: 2367:"William E. Sawyer and the Rise and Fall of America's First Incandescent Electric Light Company, 1878–1881" 1170: 1138:

had a DC network until the late 1940s, and Stockholm lost its dwindling DC network as late as the 1970s. A

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In May 1892, Westinghouse Electric managed to underbid General Electric on the contract to electrify the

227: 80: 1189:, primarily for elevators, supplied by close to 200 rectifiers each providing power for 7–10 customers. 366:

The myriad of telephone, telegraph, and power lines over the streets of New York City in a photo of the

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established the first investor-owned electric utility in 1882, basing its infrastructure on DC power.

1062:(dropping Edison's name). Thomas Edison was not aware of the deal until the day before it happened. 1032:

city supervisors who were supposed arrange the building of the underground "subways" to house them.

566:

space and equipment at Edison's West Orange, New Jersey laboratory, as well as laboratory assistant

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Blalock, Tom (23 January 2006). "Powering the New Yorker: A Hotel's Unique Direct Current System".

282:

In 1885 Westinghouse purchased the US patents rights to a transformer developed by French engineer

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Executioner's Current: Thomas Edison, George Westinghouse, and the Invention of the Electric Chair

3107:

Favorites of Fortune: Technology, Growth, and Economic Development Since the Industrial Revolution

557:

shocks from AC at voltages up to 1000 volts and argued that DC was the more dangerous of the two.

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This article is about the battle between electrical distribution methods. For the 2017 film, see

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worse than hanging." George Westinghouse commented: "They would have done better using an axe."

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In February 1888 Edison Electric president Edward Johnson published an 84-page pamphlet titled "

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in 1892. Edison Electric's merger with their chief alternating current rival brought an end to

27:

Introduction of competing electric power transmission systems in the late 1880s and early 1890s

2816: 2810: 1519: 302:. That same year William Stanley used the Gaulard-Gibbs design and designs from the Hungarian 6955: 6606: 6427: 6387: 6299: 6259: 6180: 6174: 5987: 5276: 5176: 5141: 4727: 4626: 4535: 4374: 4264: 4229: 3921: 1003: 831: 686: 5261: 997:

The death of John Feeks marked the first time Edison publicly denounced alternating current.

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A three-phase three-wire transmission system had already been deployed in Europe at the

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entered the electric lighting business when he started to develop a DC system and hired

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The World's Richest Neighborhood: How Pittsburgh's East Enders Forged American Industry

1941: 1612: 758: 295: 6738: 1079:

these technological differences were temporarily being bridged via the development of

370:. An AC line that fell during the storm led to the electrocution of a boy that spring. 6808: 6582: 6542: 6494: 6486: 6371: 6138: 6037: 6012: 5977: 5734: 5724: 5633: 5573: 5493: 5080: 4945: 4920: 4910: 4890: 4616: 4500: 4409: 4244: 3835: 3749: 3531: 3415: 3364: 3341: 3322: 3295: 3276: 3253: 3234: 3215: 3196: 3175: 3154: 3133: 3110: 3091: 3072: 3053: 2976: 2916: 2865: 2820: 2668: 2412: 2302: 2241: 2214: 2136: 1647: 1558: 1144: 1139: 803: 714: 698: 628: 343: 323: 180: 96: 512:

Electrical engineer Harold Pitney Brown emerged in June 1888 as an anti-AC crusader.

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to seek some application for the curious phenomenon. He worked with local physician

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Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World

243:

Westinghouse Electric Company 1888 catalog advertising their "Alternating System".

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Some cities continued to use DC well into the 20th century. For example, central

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After the Medico-Legal Society formed their committee in September 1888 chairman

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Innovation as a Social Process: Elihu Thomson and the Rise of General Electric

990:

York City where he measured how much current was leaking from AC power lines.

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The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America

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The war of the currents grew out of the development of two lighting systems;

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1889 merger that formed Edison General Electric. In 1890, he told president

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The Wizard of Menlo Park: How Thomas Alva Edison Invented the Modern World

2237:

Icons of Invention: The Makers of the Modern World from Gutenberg to Gates

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They ended up using Edison's West Orange laboratory for the animal tests.

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dimmers to Broadway, and New York theaters were finally converted to AC.

1055: 710: 592: 461: 267: 108: 290:). He imported several of these "Gaulard–Gibbs" transformers as well as 6638: 6156: 5867: 5759: 5704: 5684: 5538: 5533: 5518: 5488: 5463: 5403: 5281: 5196: 5156: 4990: 4960: 4294: 4284: 4177: 3703: 3561: 3556: 2862:

Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks, and Organizations

1235: 299: 291: 248: 2929: 1200:

in London until 1981. It exclusively powered DC printing machinery in

818:, there was a great deal of discussion in the editorial column of the 208:

lighting, and, at the high voltages used, was dangerous to work with.

42: 6731: 6590: 6186: 5957: 5433: 5408: 5296: 5075: 5020: 4672: 4472: 4379: 4359: 4334: 4269: 3939: 3571: 3269:

The 100 Most Significant Events in American Business: An Encyclopedia

2912:

The Age of Edison: Electric Light and the Invention of Modern America

1644:

Fleet Fire: Thomas Edison and the Pioneers of the Electric Revolution

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the Edison group of companies also went through a series of mergers:

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Higonnet, Patrice L. R.; Landes, David S.; Rosovsky, Henry (1991).

1420: 1135: 1020: 948: 362: 196: 176: 84: 993: 872: 391:, New Yorkers were annoyed when a large March 1888 snowstorm (the 262:

to work on it. In 1885 he read an article in UK technical journal

4601: 4555: 4214: 1896: 1557:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 89. 1221: 550:

The battle of the currents is being fought this week in New York.

469: 388: 79:

was a series of events surrounding the introduction of competing

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Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930

4152: 4054: 2149: 1196:

in the UK maintained a 200–volt DC generating station at

901: 706: 678: 588: 1147:

students, who ignored warnings about the electricity supply.

68:

introduced a rival AC-based power distribution network in 1886

6225: 4816: 3379:"A new system of alternating current motors and transformers" 822:

as to what to call the then-new form of execution. The term "

2840: 2838: 2836: 2688: 2686: 2549: 2547: 717:

for Edison's lighting experiments, merged. The new company,

322:

had built the first commercial AC power system in the US in

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Garud, Raghu; Kumaraswamy, Arun; Langlois, Richard (2009).

2510: 2508: 2506: 2161: 298:

to begin experimenting with an AC-based lighting system in

3355:

Edquist, Charles; Hommen, Leif; Tsipouri, Lena J. (2000).

2278: 2135:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 285. 1319: 1317: 1315: 1313: 1311: 607: 3454: 3088:

Edison and the Electric Chair: A Story of Light and Death

2833: 2787: 2683: 2544: 1830: 1803: 1730: 6931:

Electric power transmission systems in the United States

4733:

University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid

3050:

Edison to Enron: Energy Markets and Political Strategies

2859: 2765: 2763: 2709: 2707: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2503: 2481: 2479: 2464: 2437: 2109: 2107: 2034: 2032: 2030: 2015: 2005: 2003: 1842: 1759: 1757: 1258:– in popular culture associated with the war of currents 148:

in 1893 and won the major part of the contract to build

3132:. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. 2648: 2646: 2631: 2619: 2454: 2452: 2322: 2320: 2318: 2178: 2176: 1820: 1818: 1799:. Piscataway, New Jersey: IEEE Press. pp. 287–311. 1696: 1694: 1692: 1690: 1677: 1675: 1308: 1279: 1277: 1169:

introduced computerized lighting control and thyristor

749:

Associating AC and Westinghouse with the electric chair

234: 3231:

Intellectual Property Law for Engineers and Scientists

3109:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 3104: 2935: 2890: 2607: 2595: 2583: 2571: 2266: 2092: 1940:

Reynolds, Terry S.; Bernstein, Theodore (March 1989).

1666: 1520:"Notes on the Jablochkoff System of Electric Lighting" 1500: 1476: 1464: 1454: 1452: 1298: 1296: 1294: 1292: 957: 6252:

Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes

3412:

The Coming of the Electrical Age to the United States

3354: 2996:"Off Goes the Power Current Started by Thomas Edison" 2775: 2760: 2698: 2559: 2476: 2104: 2080: 2044: 2027: 2000: 1988: 1908: 1866: 1854: 1769: 1754: 1718: 1623: 1337:"Off Goes the Power Current Started by Thomas Edison" 1019:

The crowd that watched Feeks contained many New York

2748: 2736: 2726: 2724: 2722: 2643: 2532: 2520: 2491: 2449: 2425: 2315: 2188: 2173: 2068: 1935: 1933: 1931: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1815: 1742: 1706: 1687: 1672: 1274: 1217: 1488: 1449: 1369: 1289: 3125: 2400: 2254: 2126: 2124: 2122: 1129: 472:, using a restraint similar to a dental chair (an 211: 3192:AC/DC: The Savage Tale of the First Standards War 3069:The Electric Chair: An Unnatural American History 2952:. Vol. 4, no. 1. IEEE. pp. 70–76. 2719: 2365:Wredge, Charles D.; Greenwood, Ronald G. (1984). 1953:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1939: 1920: 1251:Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering 729:with Villard as president. It later included the 709:-holding company and the financial arm backed by 183:running on direct current. Both were supplanting 6872: 4112:List of international animal welfare conventions 2864:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 249. 2855: 2853: 2804: 2802: 421:A Warning from the Edison Electric Light Company 310:to develop the first practical transformer. The 6404:An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory 2660:American Heritage of Invention & Technology 2364: 2119: 5835: 3214:. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. 3015: 721:, was formed in January 1889 with the help of 4027: 3649:Edison Gower-Bell Telephone Company of Europe 3495: 2850: 2799: 1524:Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers 1185:still provides DC power to some locations in 4117:Moral status of animals in the ancient world 3357:Public technology procurement and innovation 2407:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1613:"The Great Barrington Electrification, 1886" 925: 881:William Kemmler was sentenced to die in the 842:hated the word that was eventually adopted, 731:Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company 132:was powered by a Westinghouse AC generator. 6079:Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society 6023:People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals 4055:Topics (overviews, concepts, issues, cases) 3340:. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess Pub. Co. 830:cide" (after death penalty commission head 701:, and other electric lighting devices; and 516:At this point an electrical engineer named 426: 4034: 4020: 3502: 3488: 3395:"Practical electrical problems at Chicago" 2210:Wizard: The Life And Times of Nikola Tesla 1150:New York City's electric utility company, 1108:International Electro-Technical Exhibition 398: 6226:Media (books, films, periodicals, albums) 6163:Human Environment Animal Protection Party 3405:–459, 484–485 & 489–490 May 12, 1893. 1439:"Arc Lamps – How They Work & History" 797:Also in March, Superintendent of Prisons 560: 503: 6284:Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology 4541:Pain and suffering in laboratory animals 3445:(AC vs DC an online video mini-history). 3188: 2908: 2637: 2625: 2380:(13). Business History Conference: 31–48 2233: 1506: 1482: 992: 961: 871: 771: 606: 581: 507: 436: 361: 273: 238: 215: 200:some ran better on alternating current. 166: 87:street lighting running on high-voltage 4132:Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare 3335: 3266: 3247: 3228: 3174:. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. 3090:. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. 3071:. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co. 3066: 3047: 3021: 2970: 2947: 2896: 2652: 2613: 2601: 2589: 2577: 2485: 2296: 2284: 2272: 2155: 2130: 2098: 1902: 1872: 1860: 1848: 1787: 1629: 1552: 1470: 1458: 1323: 1283: 1035: 14: 6873: 4209:Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness 3644:Edison and Swan Electric Light Company 3409: 3316: 3289: 3146: 3123: 2936:Higonnet, Landes & Rosovsky (1991) 2844: 2793: 2781: 2769: 2713: 2692: 2398: 2260: 2206: 2113: 2086: 2050: 2038: 2009: 1994: 1982:10.1038/scientificamerican12271902-463 1914: 1836: 1809: 1775: 1763: 1736: 1724: 1667:Higonnet, Landes & Rosovsky (1991) 1375: 1241:History of electric power transmission 736: 602: 387:out the other lines. Besides being an 314:was formed at the beginning of 1886. 163:History of electric power transmission 6420:Political Animals and Animal Politics 6224: 6008:Massachusetts Animal Rights Coalition 5933:Centre for Animals and Social Justice 5834: 4815: 4345:Concentrated animal feeding operation 4122:Timeline of animal welfare and rights 4077:Animal rights by country or territory 4053: 4015: 3483: 3209: 3167: 3085: 2808: 2754: 2742: 2730: 2565: 2553: 2538: 2526: 2514: 2497: 2470: 2458: 2443: 2431: 2326: 2194: 2182: 2167: 2074: 2021: 1824: 1748: 1712: 1700: 1681: 1641: 1555:Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age 1494: 1431: 1302: 1050:began developing AC-based equipment. 867: 807:more efficient generators was false. 6151:Animalist Party with the Environment 4438:Animal testing on non-human primates 3760:General Electric Research Laboratory 3469:University of California at Berkeley 3321:. New York: Kodansha International. 2234:Klooster, John W. (1 January 2009). 1194:Central Electricity Generating Board 1046:their systems, and in October 1890, 1012:subsequent response, printed in the 983:. The October 13, 1889, New Orleans 652:to take over Westinghouse Electric. 235:Westinghouse and alternating current 6575:Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home 4785:World Day for the End of Speciesism 3195:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 3052:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 3022:Fairley, Peter (15 November 2012). 2994:Lee, Jennifer (November 16, 2007). 2993: 2975:. Vol. 22, no. 10. IEEE. 1600:Great Barrington Historical Society 1381: 494: 329: 179:running on alternating current and 150:Niagara Falls hydroelectric project 64:American entrepreneur and engineer 24: 6700:Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism 6043:United Activists for Animal Rights 5953:Doctors Against Animal Experiments 4092:Animal cruelty–Holocaust analogies 3310: 3250:George Westinghouse: Gentle Genius 2065:, Volume 21, July 21, 1888, p.415. 1890:American National Biography Online 1602:, Great Barrington, Massachusetts. 643:'s US patents for a poly-phase AC 357: 348:United States Illuminating Company 91:(AC), and large-scale low-voltage 48:American inventor and businessman 25: 6977: 6946:History of electrical engineering 6244:On Abstinence from Eating Animals 6204:Animal Rights National Conference 6127:Animal Protection Party of Canada 6084:Canadian Anti-Vivisection Society 5938:Chinese Animal Protection Network 5863:American Anti-Vivisection Society 5342:Johann Friedrich Ludwig Volckmann 4097:Animal rights in Indian religions 4087:Animal rights and punk subculture 4041: 3509: 3462: 3429: 1646:. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. 1246:History of electronic engineering 352:Waterhouse Electric Light Company 6851: 6850: 6412:Animal Rights Without Liberation 6063:Voice for Animals Humane Society 4795:World Day for the End of Fishing 4790:World Day for Laboratory Animals 4220:Equal consideration of interests 4001:Thomas Alva Edison silver dollar 3961:Thomas Edison in popular culture 3755:Storage Battery Company Building 3024:"San Francisco's Secret DC Grid" 2987: 2964: 2941: 2902: 1220: 1183:Pacific Gas and Electric Company 858:were not good terms but thought 336:Thomson-Houston Electric Company 126:Thomson-Houston Electric Company 57: 41: 6133:Animal Justice Party of Finland 6018:Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics 5232:Karl Christian Friedrich Krause 4820:(academics, writers, activists) 4713:Monkey selfie copyright dispute 3821:The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace 3401:. London, UK: Biggs & Co.: 3385:. London, UK: Biggs & Co.: 3319:Niagara: A History of the Falls 3252:. New York: Algora Publishing. 3048:Bradley, Robert L. Jr. (2011). 2915:. New York: The Penguin Press. 2878: 2815:. New York: Macmillan. p. 2392: 2358: 2332: 2301:. New York: Algora Publishing. 2290: 2227: 2200: 2056: 1959: 1878: 1781: 1635: 1605: 1593: 1582: 1571: 1546: 1512: 1130:Remnant and existent DC systems 826:d" was put forward as well as " 719:Edison General Electric Company 659:With the help of the financier 212:Edison's direct current company 190: 6356:Animals, Property, and the Law 4433:Alternatives to animal testing 4102:Christianity and animal rights 3699:Motion Picture Patents Company 3684:Edison Storage Battery Company 3674:Edison Portland Cement Company 3294:. New York: Crown Publishers. 2812:1929: America Before the Crash 1976:(26): 463. December 27, 1902. 1532:Society of Telegraph Engineers 1413: 1394:Hebrew University of Jerusalem 1343: 1329: 456:led Buffalo, New York dentist 286:(financed by British engineer 13: 1: 5993:Korea Animal Rights Advocates 4703:Cambridge University primates 4235:Ethics of uncertain sentience 3271:. Santa Barbara, California: 3124:Hughes, Thomas Parke (1993). 2374:Business and Economic History 2344:A Brief History of Con Edison 1262: 703:Edison Electric Light Company 693:, a manufacturer of electric 447:illustration of what the new 312:Westinghouse Electric Company 156: 114:Edison Electric Light Company 6053:UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics 4203:Argument from marginal cases 3890:The Execution of Mary Stuart 3664:Edison Manufacturing Company 3336:Bordeau, Sanford P. (1982). 3267:Skrabec, Quentin R. (2012). 3248:Skrabec, Quentin R. (2007). 2973:Power and Engineering Review 2297:Skrabec, Quentin R. (2010). 2131:Carlson, W. Bernard (2003). 1788:Carlson, W. Bernard (1993). 1553:Carlson, W. Bernard (2013). 1092:World's Columbian Exposition 1069: 887:cruel and unusual punishment 146:World's Columbian Exposition 7: 6340:Morals, Reason, and Animals 5968:Farm Animal Rights Movement 5918:Anonymous for the Voiceless 4607:International primate trade 4082:Anarchism and animal rights 3871:Tales from the Bully Pulpit 3654:Edison Illuminating Company 3410:Foster, Abram John (1979). 3290:Stross, Randall E. (2007). 3229:Rockman, Howard B. (2004). 2403:Edison: A Life of Invention 2207:Seifer, Marc (1 May 1998). 1951:. Vol. 8, no. 1. 1213: 1208:High-voltage direct current 620:Consolidated Electric Light 228:Edison Illuminating Company 81:electric power transmission 10: 6982: 6906:1890s in the United States 6891:1880s in the United States 6460:Making a Stand for Animals 6332:The Case for Animal Rights 5983:Hunt Saboteurs Association 5943:Cruelty Free International 5913:Anti-Vivisection Coalition 4443:Animal testing regulations 3709:Oriental Telephone Company 3669:Edison Ore-Milling Company 3437:"Thomas Edison Hates Cats" 3153:. New York: Random House. 2885:The General Electric Story 2653:Penrose, James F. (1994). 1905:, pp. 54 & 57–58. 1886:"Southwick, Alfred Porter" 1112:Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky 430: 160: 29: 6846: 6819: 6766: 6716: 6656: 6649: 6615:The Ghosts in Our Machine 6470: 6452:Animal Ethics in the Wild 6235: 6231: 6220: 6196: 6107: 6071: 5888:Animal Legal Defense Fund 5855: 5848: 5844: 5830: 5667: 5391: 5384: 5187:William Hamilton Drummond 5129: 4838: 4829: 4825: 4811: 4772: 4751: 4690: 4640: 4582: 4554: 4546:Welfare of farmed insects 4491: 4423: 4315: 4308: 4173:Animal–industrial complex 4140: 4064: 4060: 4049: 3953: 3932: 3881: 3863:Edison's Conquest of Mars 3846: 3796: 3773: 3740:Memorial Tower and Museum 3717: 3631: 3580: 3517: 2958:10.1109/MPAE.2006.1578536 2909:Freeberg, Ernest (2013). 2655:"Inventing Electrocution" 2250:– via Google Books. 2223:– via Google Books. 1101:Charles Proteus Steinmetz 958:The "Electric Wire Panic" 926:Brown's collusion exposed 667:, a lamp manufacturer in 128:, to make sure the first 6693:Journal of Animal Ethics 6559:Your Mommy Kills Animals 5948:Direct Action Everywhere 5357:Johann Heinrich Winckler 5302:Nathaniel Peabody Rogers 4759:Direct Action Everywhere 4463:Huntingdon Life Sciences 4448:Labcorp Drug Development 4405:Feedback (pork industry) 4370:Intensive animal farming 4107:History of animal rights 3745:National Historical Park 3537:Edison's Phonograph Doll 3414:. New York: Arno Press. 2158:, pp. 70 & 261. 1942:"Edison and "The Chair"" 723:Drexel, Morgan & Co. 427:Execution by electricity 249:Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 6828:Holocaust on your Plate 6599:An Apology to Elephants 6380:Do Animals Have Rights? 6316:Animals, Men and Morals 6292:Better-World Philosophy 6169:Italian Animalist Party 6048:United Poultry Concerns 6003:Last Chance for Animals 5898:Animal Liberation Front 5785:Maud Ingersoll Probasco 4275:Replaceability argument 4193:Animal-free agriculture 3996:Statue of Thomas Edison 3603:Incandescent light bulb 3399:The Electrical Engineer 3383:The Electrical Engineer 3317:Berton, Pierre (1997). 3210:Moran, Richard (2007). 3067:Brandon, Craig (1999). 1389:"Charles Francis Brush" 1351:"Charles Francis Brush" 934:ran a story headlined: 930:On August 25, 1889 the 769:, was not determined. 633:rotating magnetic field 625:Oliver B. Shallenberger 399:Edison's anti-AC stance 320:Oliver B. Shallenberger 142:the war of the currents 6801:Salvation of Innocents 6348:Zoos and Animal Rights 5923:Beauty Without Cruelty 5883:Animal Justice Project 5222:John Zephaniah Holwell 4876:Stephen St. C. Bostock 4453:Great ape research ban 4072:Animal rights movement 3787:Theodore Miller Edison 3704:Mine Safety Appliances 3639:Thomas A. Edison, Inc. 3527:List of Edison patents 3189:McNichol, Tom (2006). 2887:, The Hall of History. 2809:Sloat, Warren (1979). 2063:The Electrical Journal 1966:"Thomas Alva Edison". 1949:Technology and Society 1198:Bankside Power Station 1177:with on-site AC to DC 1026:New York Supreme Court 998: 967: 944: 891:William Bourke Cockran 878: 862:d was the best choice. 777: 691:Bergmann & Company 615: 597:Scranton, Pennsylvania 561:Brown's demonstrations 554: 541:The Electrical Journal 513: 504:Harold Brown's crusade 452: 406:Edward Hibberd Johnson 393:Great Blizzard of 1888 371: 368:Great Blizzard of 1888 279: 244: 222: 205:Brush Electric Company 172: 6820:Fairs and exhibitions 6707:The Animals' Defender 6679:Cahiers antispécistes 6607:Speciesism: The Movie 6428:Animal (De)liberation 6388:Striking at the Roots 6300:The Universal Kinship 6260:The Rights of Animals 6181:People Animals Nature 6175:Party for the Animals 5988:In Defense of Animals 5750:Nina Douglas-Hamilton 5142:David Renaud Boullier 4728:Silver Spring monkeys 4627:Wild animal suffering 4536:Pain in invertebrates 4375:Intensive pig farming 4265:Opposition to hunting 4230:Ethics of eating meat 3465:"War of the Currents" 3450:"War of the Currents" 3168:Klein, Maury (2010). 3147:Jonnes, Jill (2003). 2679:on February 25, 2015. 2399:Israel, Paul (1998). 1642:Davis, L. J. (2012). 1534:: 143. March 24, 1880 1357:on September 16, 2018 1014:North American Review 1004:North American Review 996: 965: 936: 875: 775: 687:Schenectady, New York 610: 582:Collusion with Edison 546: 511: 440: 431:Further information: 365: 277: 242: 219: 181:incandescent lighting 170: 161:Further information: 107:'s company that used 97:incandescent lighting 6436:Sentientist Politics 6364:The Lives of Animals 6115:Animal Justice Party 5928:Born Free Foundation 5765:Lizzy Lind af Hageby 5639:Wendy Turner-Webster 5352:Adam Gottlieb Weigen 4574:Recreational fishing 4415:Ventilation shutdown 4183:Animal protectionism 4163:Animal consciousness 3971:Pearl Street Station 3659:Edison Machine Works 3567:Quadruplex telegraph 3233:. Wiley-IEEE Press. 3086:Essig, Mark (2009). 2556:, pp. xxi–xxii. 1401:on February 24, 2009 1124:William Stanley, Jr. 1048:Edison Machine Works 1036:The current war ends 912:industrial espionage 677:, a manufacturer of 674:Edison Machine Works 260:William Stanley, Jr. 6951:Ideological rivalry 6901:1890s in technology 6886:1880s in technology 6860:( 139 ) 6686:Etica & Animali 6672:Between the Species 6396:An American Trilogy 6089:Humanitarian League 5700:Frances Power Cobbe 5317:Arthur Schopenhauer 5312:Henry Stephens Salt 5192:Edward Payson Evans 4886:Stephen R. L. Clark 4743:War of the currents 4632:Wildlife management 4526:Pain in crustaceans 4521:Pain in cephalopods 3981:Thomas Edison House 3966:War of the currents 3618:Thermionic emission 3613:Nickel–iron battery 3593:Edison–Lalande cell 3588:Consolidated Edison 3443:. January 17, 2007. 2847:, pp. 120–121. 2796:, pp. 125–126. 2695:, pp. 191–198. 2517:, pp. 190–195. 2473:, pp. 152–155. 2446:, pp. 102–104. 2287:, pp. 128–130. 2024:, pp. 139–140. 1969:Scientific American 1839:, pp. 171–173. 1812:, pp. 171–174. 1739:, pp. 144–145. 1425:Electric Museum.com 1339:. 14 November 2007. 1152:Consolidated Edison 767:alternating current 743:Electrical Engineer 737:The peak of the war 665:Edison Lamp Company 637:alternating current 603:Patents and mergers 458:Alfred P. Southwick 444:Scientific American 340:Lynn, Massachusetts 256:George Westinghouse 195:By the late 1870s, 105:George Westinghouse 89:alternating current 77:war of the currents 66:George Westinghouse 6966:Scientific rivalry 6941:Energy development 6921:Cruelty to animals 6916:Business rivalries 6623:Unlocking the Cage 6444:Wild Animal Ethics 6268:The Ethics of Diet 6145:Animalist Movement 6121:Animal Politics EU 6033:Sentience Politics 5659:That Vegan Teacher 5277:Siobhan O'Sullivan 5262:José Ferrater Mora 5071:Steve F. Sapontzis 4564:Commercial fishing 4516:Pain in amphibians 4506:Cruelty to animals 4478:Operation Backfire 4317:Animal agriculture 4225:Emotion in animals 3945:Edisonian approach 3389:–572 May 18, 1888. 3001:The New York Times 1617:Edison Tech Center 1443:Edison Tech Center 999: 968: 879: 868:The Kemmler appeal 778: 759:Frederick Peterson 616: 538:A July edition of 514: 453: 372: 308:Z.B.D. transformer 280: 245: 223: 173: 99:being marketed by 6936:Electrical safety 6868: 6867: 6861: 6842: 6841: 6838: 6837: 6809:Onward to Freedom 6777:Animal Liberation 6762: 6761: 6583:Forks Over Knives 6535:Peaceable Kingdom 6495:Shores of Silence 6487:A Cow at My Table 6372:Eternal Treblinka 6324:Animal Liberation 6216: 6215: 6212: 6211: 6103: 6102: 6038:Uncaged Campaigns 6013:Mercy for Animals 5978:Great Ape Project 5893:Animal Liberation 5839:(groups, parties) 5826: 5825: 5822: 5821: 5818: 5817: 5725:Elizabeth Farians 5634:Christine Townend 5574:Heather Nicholson 5504:Brigitte Gothière 5494:Antoine Goetschel 5380: 5379: 5041:Charles Patterson 4946:Gary L. Francione 4921:Josephine Donovan 4911:Daniel Dombrowski 4891:Alasdair Cochrane 4807: 4806: 4803: 4802: 4686: 4685: 4617:Predation problem 4501:Animal euthanasia 4410:Foam depopulation 4245:Insects in ethics 4009: 4008: 3914:A Night of Terror 3532:Carbon microphone 3475:on July 26, 2011. 3421:978-0-40511-983-5 3370:978-0-79238-685-8 3347:978-0-80874-908-0 3328:978-1-56836-154-3 3301:978-1-40004-762-8 3282:978-0-31339-863-6 3259:978-0-87586-404-4 3240:978-0-471-44998-0 3221:978-0-37572-446-6 3202:978-0-7879-8267-6 3181:978-1-59691-834-4 3160:978-0-37550-739-7 3139:978-0-80182-873-7 3116:978-0-67429-520-9 3097:978-0-80271-928-7 3078:978-0-58538-476-4 3059:978-0-47091-736-7 2922:978-1-59420-426-5 2871:978-1-40514-194-9 2826:978-0-02611-800-2 2308:978-0-87586-795-3 2247:978-0-313-34743-6 2220:978-0-8065-3556-2 2142:978-0-52153-312-6 1851:, pp. 12–14. 1653:978-1-61145-659-2 1564:978-0-69116-561-5 1421:"Brush Arc Lamps" 1326:, pp. 28–29. 1145:Boston University 1140:mercury-arc valve 1081:rotary converters 715:Vanderbilt family 695:lighting fixtures 324:Buffalo, New York 16:(Redirected from 6973: 6896:1890s in science 6881:1880s in science 6859: 6854: 6853: 6665:Animal Sentience 6654: 6653: 6519:Legally Blonde 2 6479:The Animals Film 6233: 6232: 6222: 6221: 6028:Rise for Animals 5853: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5832: 5831: 5695:Edith Carrington 5599:Craig Rosebraugh 5564:Virginia McKenna 5554:Jo-Anne McArthur 5484:Juliet Gellatley 5389: 5388: 5347:Mary Anne Warren 5287:Humphrey Primatt 5272:Edward Nicholson 5242:Charles R. Magel 5207:Thomas G. Gentry 5066:Richard D. Ryder 5006:Thomas Lepeltier 4836: 4835: 4827: 4826: 4813: 4812: 4780:World Animal Day 4738:Unnecessary Fuss 4698:Brown Dog affair 4668:Animals in sport 4658:Animal slaughter 4653:Animal sacrifice 4592:Culling wildlife 4395:Wildlife farming 4313: 4312: 4158:Animal cognition 4127:Total liberation 4062: 4061: 4051: 4050: 4036: 4029: 4022: 4013: 4012: 3805:Young Tom Edison 3694:General Electric 3504: 3497: 3490: 3481: 3480: 3476: 3471:. Archived from 3459: 3444: 3425: 3406: 3390: 3374: 3351: 3332: 3305: 3286: 3263: 3244: 3225: 3206: 3185: 3164: 3143: 3131: 3120: 3101: 3082: 3063: 3034: 3033: 3019: 3013: 3012: 3010: 3008: 2991: 2985: 2984: 2968: 2962: 2961: 2950:Power and Energy 2945: 2939: 2933: 2927: 2926: 2906: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2882: 2876: 2875: 2857: 2848: 2842: 2831: 2830: 2806: 2797: 2791: 2785: 2779: 2773: 2767: 2758: 2752: 2746: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2717: 2711: 2696: 2690: 2681: 2680: 2675:. 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Archived from 1385: 1379: 1373: 1367: 1366: 1364: 1362: 1353:. Archived from 1347: 1341: 1340: 1333: 1327: 1321: 1306: 1300: 1287: 1281: 1256:Topsy (elephant) 1230: 1225: 1224: 1156:New Yorker Hotel 1085:motor–generators 1077:universal system 1060:General Electric 727:Grosvenor Lowrey 576:Columbia College 495:Anti-AC backlash 464:and the Buffalo 451:might look like. 441:A June 30, 1888 330:The spread of AC 288:John Dixon Gibbs 138:General Electric 61: 45: 21: 6981: 6980: 6976: 6975: 6974: 6972: 6971: 6970: 6871: 6870: 6869: 6864: 6834: 6815: 6758: 6739:Muutoksen kevät 6712: 6645: 6551:Behind the Mask 6466: 6276:Animals' Rights 6227: 6208: 6192: 6099: 6067: 5840: 5814: 5675:Cleveland Amory 5663: 5629:Darren Thurston 5624:Marianne Thieme 5479:Bruce Friedrich 5444:Joey Carbstrong 5429:Brigitte Bardot 5376: 5367:Jon Wynne-Tyson 5257:J. Howard Moore 5202:John Galsworthy 5182:Wilhelm Dietler 5125: 5121:Corey Lee Wrenn 5031:Martha Nussbaum 4941:Lawrence Finsen 4881:Paola Cavalieri 4856:Kristin Andrews 4831: 4821: 4799: 4768: 4747: 4682: 4636: 4578: 4550: 4511:Pain in animals 4487: 4419: 4385:Poultry farming 4304: 4136: 4056: 4045: 4040: 4010: 4005: 3949: 3928: 3877: 3842: 3828:The Current War 3813:Edison, the Man 3792: 3769: 3713: 3627: 3576: 3519: 3513: 3508: 3448: 3435: 3432: 3422: 3393: 3377: 3371: 3361:Kluwer Academic 3348: 3329: 3313: 3311:Further reading 3308: 3302: 3283: 3260: 3241: 3222: 3203: 3182: 3161: 3140: 3117: 3098: 3079: 3060: 3038: 3037: 3020: 3016: 3006: 3004: 2992: 2988: 2969: 2965: 2946: 2942: 2934: 2930: 2923: 2907: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2883: 2879: 2872: 2858: 2851: 2843: 2834: 2827: 2807: 2800: 2792: 2788: 2780: 2776: 2768: 2761: 2753: 2749: 2745:, pp. 217. 2741: 2737: 2729: 2720: 2712: 2699: 2691: 2684: 2651: 2644: 2638:McNichol (2006) 2636: 2632: 2626:McNichol (2006) 2624: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2600: 2596: 2588: 2584: 2576: 2572: 2568:, p. xxii. 2564: 2560: 2552: 2545: 2537: 2533: 2529:, pp. 193. 2525: 2521: 2513: 2504: 2496: 2492: 2484: 2477: 2469: 2465: 2457: 2450: 2442: 2438: 2430: 2426: 2419: 2397: 2393: 2383: 2381: 2369: 2363: 2359: 2349: 2347: 2338: 2337: 2333: 2325: 2316: 2309: 2295: 2291: 2283: 2279: 2271: 2267: 2259: 2255: 2248: 2232: 2228: 2221: 2205: 2201: 2193: 2189: 2181: 2174: 2166: 2162: 2154: 2150: 2143: 2129: 2120: 2112: 2105: 2097: 2093: 2085: 2081: 2073: 2069: 2061: 2057: 2049: 2045: 2037: 2028: 2020: 2016: 2008: 2001: 1997:, pp. 172. 1993: 1989: 1965: 1964: 1960: 1944: 1938: 1921: 1913: 1909: 1901: 1897: 1884: 1883: 1879: 1871: 1867: 1859: 1855: 1847: 1843: 1835: 1831: 1823: 1816: 1808: 1804: 1792: 1786: 1782: 1774: 1770: 1762: 1755: 1747: 1743: 1735: 1731: 1723: 1719: 1711: 1707: 1699: 1688: 1680: 1673: 1665: 1661: 1654: 1640: 1636: 1628: 1624: 1611: 1610: 1606: 1598: 1594: 1587: 1583: 1576: 1572: 1565: 1551: 1547: 1537: 1535: 1518: 1517: 1513: 1507:McNichol (2006) 1505: 1501: 1493: 1489: 1483:McNichol (2006) 1481: 1477: 1469: 1465: 1457: 1450: 1437: 1436: 1432: 1419: 1418: 1414: 1404: 1402: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1374: 1370: 1360: 1358: 1349: 1348: 1344: 1335: 1334: 1330: 1322: 1309: 1301: 1290: 1282: 1275: 1265: 1226: 1219: 1216: 1132: 1110:of 1891, where 1072: 1038: 960: 928: 870: 816:William Kemmler 751: 739: 683:electric motors 645:induction motor 629:induction meter 605: 584: 568:Arthur Kennelly 563: 552: 518:Harold P. Brown 506: 497: 489:tongue-in-cheek 435: 429: 410:ZBD transformer 401: 360: 358:Safety concerns 332: 237: 214: 193: 165: 159: 122:Harold P. Brown 73: 72: 71: 70: 69: 62: 54: 53: 46: 35: 32:The Current War 28: 23: 22: 18:War of currents 15: 12: 11: 5: 6979: 6969: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6926:Electric power 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6866: 6865: 6863: 6862: 6847: 6844: 6843: 6840: 6839: 6836: 6835: 6833: 6832: 6823: 6821: 6817: 6816: 6814: 6813: 6805: 6797: 6789: 6781: 6772: 6770: 6764: 6763: 6760: 6759: 6757: 6756: 6749: 6742: 6735: 6728: 6720: 6718: 6714: 6713: 6711: 6710: 6703: 6696: 6689: 6682: 6675: 6668: 6660: 6658: 6651: 6647: 6646: 6644: 6643: 6635: 6627: 6619: 6611: 6603: 6595: 6587: 6579: 6571: 6563: 6555: 6547: 6539: 6531: 6523: 6515: 6511:Meet Your Meat 6507: 6499: 6491: 6483: 6474: 6472: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6464: 6456: 6448: 6440: 6432: 6424: 6416: 6408: 6400: 6392: 6384: 6376: 6368: 6360: 6352: 6344: 6336: 6328: 6320: 6312: 6308:The New Ethics 6304: 6296: 6288: 6280: 6272: 6264: 6256: 6248: 6239: 6237: 6229: 6228: 6218: 6217: 6214: 6213: 6210: 6209: 6207: 6206: 6200: 6198: 6194: 6193: 6191: 6190: 6184: 6178: 6172: 6166: 6160: 6154: 6148: 6142: 6139:Animals' Party 6136: 6130: 6124: 6118: 6111: 6109: 6105: 6104: 6101: 6100: 6098: 6097: 6092: 6086: 6081: 6075: 6073: 6069: 6068: 6066: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5908:AnimaNaturalis 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5885: 5880: 5878:Animal Justice 5875: 5870: 5865: 5859: 5857: 5850: 5842: 5841: 5828: 5827: 5824: 5823: 5820: 5819: 5816: 5815: 5813: 5812: 5810:Gretchen Wyler 5807: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5740:Lewis Gompertz 5737: 5732: 5730:Emarel Freshel 5727: 5722: 5720:Muriel Dowding 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5671: 5669: 5665: 5664: 5662: 5661: 5656: 5654:Gary Yourofsky 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5569:Ingrid Newkirk 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5514:Charlotte Laws 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5439:Yves Bonnardel 5436: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5414:Martin Balluch 5411: 5406: 5401: 5395: 5393: 5386: 5382: 5381: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5362:Steven M. Wise 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5307:Bernard Rollin 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5267:Leonard Nelson 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5172:Herman Daggett 5169: 5164: 5162:Priscilla Cohn 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5137:Jeremy Bentham 5133: 5131: 5127: 5126: 5124: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5051:Jessica Pierce 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4981:Kyle Johannsen 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4906:David DeGrazia 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4846:Carol J. Adams 4842: 4840: 4833: 4823: 4822: 4809: 4808: 4805: 4804: 4801: 4800: 4798: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4776: 4774: 4770: 4769: 4767: 4766: 4761: 4755: 4753: 4749: 4748: 4746: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4718:Pit of despair 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4694: 4692: 4688: 4687: 4684: 4683: 4681: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4648:Abandoned pets 4644: 4642: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4594: 4588: 4586: 4580: 4579: 4577: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4560: 4558: 4552: 4551: 4549: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4497: 4495: 4493:Animal welfare 4489: 4488: 4486: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4468:Model organism 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4429: 4427: 4425:Animal testing 4421: 4420: 4418: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4400:Working animal 4397: 4392: 4390:Slaughterhouse 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4365:Insect farming 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4325:Animal product 4321: 4319: 4310: 4306: 4305: 4303: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4280:Sentiocentrism 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4188:Animal welfare 4185: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4144: 4142: 4138: 4137: 4135: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4068: 4066: 4058: 4057: 4047: 4046: 4039: 4038: 4031: 4024: 4016: 4007: 4006: 4004: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3991:Telephonoscope 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3957: 3955: 3951: 3950: 3948: 3947: 3942: 3936: 3934: 3930: 3929: 3927: 3926: 3918: 3910: 3902: 3894: 3885: 3883: 3879: 3878: 3876: 3875: 3867: 3859: 3855:The Future Eve 3850: 3848: 3844: 3843: 3841: 3840: 3832: 3824: 3817: 3809: 3800: 3798: 3794: 3793: 3791: 3790: 3784: 3781:Charles Edison 3777: 3775: 3771: 3770: 3768: 3767: 3765:Winter Estates 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3721: 3719: 3715: 3714: 3712: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3689:Edison Studios 3686: 3681: 3679:Edison Records 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3635: 3633: 3629: 3628: 3626: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3577: 3575: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3523: 3521: 3520:and inventions 3515: 3514: 3507: 3506: 3499: 3492: 3484: 3478: 3477: 3463:Chang, Maria. 3460: 3446: 3431: 3430:External links 3428: 3427: 3426: 3420: 3407: 3391: 3375: 3369: 3352: 3346: 3333: 3327: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3306: 3300: 3287: 3281: 3264: 3258: 3245: 3239: 3226: 3220: 3207: 3201: 3186: 3180: 3165: 3159: 3144: 3138: 3121: 3115: 3102: 3096: 3083: 3077: 3064: 3058: 3044: 3043: 3042: 3036: 3035: 3014: 2986: 2963: 2940: 2938:, p. 113. 2928: 2921: 2901: 2899:, p. 190. 2897:Skrabec (2007) 2889: 2877: 2870: 2849: 2832: 2825: 2798: 2786: 2784:, p. 178. 2774: 2772:, p. 200. 2759: 2757:, p. 218. 2747: 2735: 2718: 2716:, p. 179. 2697: 2682: 2642: 2640:, p. 125. 2630: 2628:, p. 120. 2618: 2616:, p. 125. 2614:Brandon (1999) 2606: 2604:, p. 115. 2602:Brandon (1999) 2594: 2592:, p. 119. 2590:Brandon (1999) 2582: 2580:, p. 101. 2578:Brandon (1999) 2570: 2558: 2543: 2541:, p. 106. 2531: 2519: 2502: 2500:, p. 225. 2490: 2486:Brandon (1999) 2475: 2463: 2461:, p. 102. 2448: 2436: 2434:, p. 118. 2424: 2417: 2391: 2357: 2331: 2329:, p. 292. 2314: 2307: 2289: 2285:Skrabec (2007) 2277: 2275:, p. 127. 2273:Skrabec (2007) 2265: 2253: 2246: 2226: 2219: 2199: 2197:, p. 281. 2187: 2185:, p. 157. 2172: 2160: 2156:Brandon (1999) 2148: 2141: 2118: 2116:, p. 174. 2103: 2101:, p. 469. 2099:Rockman (2004) 2091: 2089:, p. 173. 2079: 2077:, p. 141. 2067: 2055: 2053:, p. 167. 2043: 2041:, p. 166. 2026: 2014: 2012:, p. 143. 1999: 1987: 1958: 1919: 1917:, p. 420. 1907: 1903:Brandon (1999) 1895: 1877: 1873:Brandon (1999) 1865: 1861:Brandon (1999) 1853: 1849:Brandon (1999) 1841: 1829: 1827:, p. 135. 1814: 1802: 1780: 1778:, p. 174. 1768: 1766:, p. 146. 1753: 1751:, p. 257. 1741: 1729: 1727:, p. 171. 1717: 1715:, p. 139. 1705: 1703:, p. 263. 1686: 1684:, p. 137. 1671: 1659: 1652: 1634: 1630:Skrabec (2007) 1622: 1604: 1592: 1581: 1570: 1563: 1545: 1511: 1499: 1487: 1475: 1473:, p. 131. 1471:Rockman (2004) 1463: 1459:Bradley (2011) 1448: 1430: 1412: 1380: 1368: 1342: 1328: 1324:Bradley (2011) 1307: 1305:, p. 268. 1288: 1284:Skrabec (2012) 1272: 1271: 1270: 1269: 1264: 1261: 1260: 1259: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1232: 1231: 1215: 1212: 1131: 1128: 1071: 1068: 1037: 1034: 986:Times-Picayune 959: 956: 927: 924: 883:electric chair 869: 866: 832:Elbridge Gerry 820:New York Times 804:Charles Coffin 799:Austin Lathrop 787:New York Times 763:direct current 750: 747: 738: 735: 671:, New Jersey; 635:for measuring 604: 601: 583: 580: 562: 559: 548: 505: 502: 496: 493: 474:electric chair 462:George E. Fell 449:electric chair 433:Electric chair 428: 425: 400: 397: 359: 356: 331: 328: 284:Lucien Gaulard 236: 233: 213: 210: 192: 189: 158: 155: 130:electric chair 93:direct current 63: 56: 55: 47: 40: 39: 38: 37: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6978: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6961:Thomas Edison 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6911:Animal rights 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6878: 6876: 6857: 6849: 6848: 6845: 6830: 6829: 6825: 6824: 6822: 6818: 6811: 6810: 6806: 6803: 6802: 6798: 6795: 6794: 6790: 6787: 6786: 6785:Tame Yourself 6782: 6779: 6778: 6774: 6773: 6771: 6769: 6765: 6755: 6754: 6750: 6748: 6747: 6746:No Compromise 6743: 6741: 6740: 6736: 6734: 6733: 6729: 6727: 6726: 6722: 6721: 6719: 6715: 6709: 6708: 6704: 6702: 6701: 6697: 6695: 6694: 6690: 6688: 6687: 6683: 6681: 6680: 6676: 6674: 6673: 6669: 6667: 6666: 6662: 6661: 6659: 6655: 6652: 6648: 6641: 6640: 6636: 6633: 6632: 6628: 6625: 6624: 6620: 6617: 6616: 6612: 6609: 6608: 6604: 6601: 6600: 6596: 6593: 6592: 6588: 6585: 6584: 6580: 6577: 6576: 6572: 6569: 6568: 6564: 6561: 6560: 6556: 6553: 6552: 6548: 6545: 6544: 6540: 6537: 6536: 6532: 6529: 6528: 6524: 6521: 6520: 6516: 6513: 6512: 6508: 6505: 6504: 6500: 6497: 6496: 6492: 6489: 6488: 6484: 6481: 6480: 6476: 6475: 6473: 6469: 6462: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6449: 6446: 6445: 6441: 6438: 6437: 6433: 6430: 6429: 6425: 6422: 6421: 6417: 6414: 6413: 6409: 6406: 6405: 6401: 6398: 6397: 6393: 6390: 6389: 6385: 6382: 6381: 6377: 6374: 6373: 6369: 6366: 6365: 6361: 6358: 6357: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6345: 6342: 6341: 6337: 6334: 6333: 6329: 6326: 6325: 6321: 6318: 6317: 6313: 6310: 6309: 6305: 6302: 6301: 6297: 6294: 6293: 6289: 6286: 6285: 6281: 6278: 6277: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6265: 6262: 6261: 6257: 6254: 6253: 6249: 6247:(3rd century) 6246: 6245: 6241: 6240: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6223: 6219: 6205: 6202: 6201: 6199: 6195: 6188: 6185: 6182: 6179: 6177:(Netherlands) 6176: 6173: 6170: 6167: 6164: 6161: 6158: 6155: 6152: 6149: 6146: 6143: 6140: 6137: 6134: 6131: 6128: 6125: 6122: 6119: 6116: 6113: 6112: 6110: 6106: 6096: 6093: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6076: 6074: 6070: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5903:Animal Rising 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5873:Animal Ethics 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5860: 5858: 5854: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5829: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5770:Jessie Mackay 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5745:James Granger 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5680:Henry B. Amos 5678: 5676: 5673: 5672: 5670: 5666: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5649:Louise Wallis 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5614:Kim Stallwood 5612: 5610: 5609:Jasmin Singer 5607: 5605: 5604:Nathan Runkle 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5589:David Olivier 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5474:John Feldmann 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5449:Aymeric Caron 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5419:Carole Baskin 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5396: 5394: 5390: 5387: 5383: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5322:Laurids Smith 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5292:James Rachels 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5237:John Lawrence 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5147:Brigid Brophy 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5132: 5128: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5111:Tatjana Višak 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5101:David Sztybel 5099: 5097: 5096:Cass Sunstein 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5061:Mark Rowlands 5059: 5057: 5056:Evelyn Pluhar 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5011:Andrew Linzey 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4996:Will Kymlicka 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4976:Dale Jamieson 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4956:Valéry Giroux 4954: 4952: 4951:Robert Garner 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4916:Sue Donaldson 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4896:J. M. Coetzee 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4861:Tom Beauchamp 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4843: 4841: 4837: 4834: 4828: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4810: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4777: 4775: 4771: 4765: 4764:Hunt sabotage 4762: 4760: 4757: 4756: 4754: 4752:Methodologies 4750: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4711: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4695: 4693: 4689: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4645: 4643: 4639: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4597:Hare coursing 4595: 4593: 4590: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4581: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4553: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4498: 4496: 4494: 4490: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4430: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4340:Chick culling 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4322: 4320: 4318: 4314: 4311: 4307: 4301: 4300:Vegetarianism 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4210: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4198:Anthrozoology 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4168:Animal ethics 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4145: 4143: 4139: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4069: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4043:Animal rights 4037: 4032: 4030: 4025: 4023: 4018: 4017: 4014: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3976:Edison Museum 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3958: 3956: 3952: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3937: 3935: 3931: 3924: 3923: 3919: 3916: 3915: 3911: 3908: 3907: 3903: 3900: 3899: 3895: 3892: 3891: 3887: 3886: 3884: 3880: 3873: 3872: 3868: 3865: 3864: 3860: 3857: 3856: 3852: 3851: 3849: 3845: 3838: 3837: 3833: 3830: 3829: 3825: 3822: 3818: 3815: 3814: 3810: 3807: 3806: 3802: 3801: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3785: 3782: 3779: 3778: 3776: 3772: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3722: 3720: 3716: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3640: 3637: 3636: 3634: 3630: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3585: 3583: 3579: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3547:Etheric force 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3524: 3522: 3516: 3512: 3511:Thomas Edison 3505: 3500: 3498: 3493: 3491: 3486: 3485: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3456: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3433: 3423: 3417: 3413: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3353: 3349: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3330: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3314: 3303: 3297: 3293: 3288: 3284: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3261: 3255: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3217: 3213: 3208: 3204: 3198: 3194: 3193: 3187: 3183: 3177: 3173: 3172: 3166: 3162: 3156: 3152: 3151: 3145: 3141: 3135: 3130: 3129: 3122: 3118: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3099: 3093: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3061: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3045: 3040: 3039: 3031: 3030: 3029:IEEE Spectrum 3025: 3018: 3003: 3002: 2997: 2990: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2967: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2944: 2937: 2932: 2924: 2918: 2914: 2913: 2905: 2898: 2893: 2886: 2881: 2873: 2867: 2863: 2856: 2854: 2846: 2845:Hughes (1993) 2841: 2839: 2837: 2828: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2813: 2805: 2803: 2795: 2794:Hughes (1993) 2790: 2783: 2782:Stross (2007) 2778: 2771: 2770:Jonnes (2003) 2766: 2764: 2756: 2751: 2744: 2739: 2732: 2727: 2725: 2723: 2715: 2714:Stross (2007) 2710: 2708: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2694: 2693:Jonnes (2003) 2689: 2687: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2661: 2656: 2649: 2647: 2639: 2634: 2627: 2622: 2615: 2610: 2603: 2598: 2591: 2586: 2579: 2574: 2567: 2562: 2555: 2550: 2548: 2540: 2535: 2528: 2523: 2516: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2499: 2494: 2488:, p. 82. 2487: 2482: 2480: 2472: 2467: 2460: 2455: 2453: 2445: 2440: 2433: 2428: 2420: 2418:0-471-52942-7 2414: 2410: 2405: 2404: 2395: 2379: 2375: 2368: 2361: 2345: 2341: 2340:"Electricity" 2335: 2328: 2323: 2321: 2319: 2310: 2304: 2300: 2293: 2286: 2281: 2274: 2269: 2262: 2261:Jonnes (2003) 2257: 2249: 2243: 2239: 2238: 2230: 2222: 2216: 2212: 2211: 2203: 2196: 2191: 2184: 2179: 2177: 2170:, Chapter 13. 2169: 2164: 2157: 2152: 2144: 2138: 2134: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2115: 2114:Jonnes (2003) 2110: 2108: 2100: 2095: 2088: 2087:Jonnes (2003) 2083: 2076: 2071: 2064: 2059: 2052: 2051:Jonnes (2003) 2047: 2040: 2039:Jonnes (2003) 2035: 2033: 2031: 2023: 2018: 2011: 2010:Jonnes (2003) 2006: 2004: 1996: 1995:Stross (2007) 1991: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1970: 1962: 1954: 1950: 1943: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1916: 1915:Jonnes (2003) 1911: 1904: 1899: 1891: 1887: 1881: 1875:, p. 24. 1874: 1869: 1863:, p. 21. 1862: 1857: 1850: 1845: 1838: 1837:Stross (2007) 1833: 1826: 1821: 1819: 1811: 1810:Stross (2007) 1806: 1798: 1791: 1784: 1777: 1776:Stross (2007) 1772: 1765: 1764:Jonnes (2003) 1760: 1758: 1750: 1745: 1738: 1737:Jonnes (2003) 1733: 1726: 1725:Stross (2007) 1721: 1714: 1709: 1702: 1697: 1695: 1693: 1691: 1683: 1678: 1676: 1669:, p. 89. 1668: 1663: 1655: 1649: 1645: 1638: 1632:, p. 97. 1631: 1626: 1618: 1614: 1608: 1601: 1596: 1590: 1585: 1579: 1574: 1566: 1560: 1556: 1549: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1515: 1509:, p. 81. 1508: 1503: 1497:, p. 42. 1496: 1491: 1485:, p. 80. 1484: 1479: 1472: 1467: 1460: 1455: 1453: 1444: 1440: 1434: 1426: 1422: 1416: 1400: 1396: 1395: 1390: 1384: 1378:, p. 47. 1377: 1376:Jonnes (2003) 1372: 1356: 1352: 1346: 1338: 1332: 1325: 1320: 1318: 1316: 1314: 1312: 1304: 1299: 1297: 1295: 1293: 1286:, p. 86. 1285: 1280: 1278: 1273: 1267: 1266: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1233: 1229: 1228:Energy portal 1223: 1218: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1188: 1187:San Francisco 1184: 1180: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1167: 1166:A Chorus Line 1161: 1157: 1153: 1148: 1146: 1141: 1137: 1127: 1125: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1109: 1104: 1102: 1098: 1097:Niagara Falls 1093: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1067: 1063: 1061: 1057: 1051: 1049: 1044: 1043:Henry Villard 1033: 1031: 1027: 1022: 1017: 1015: 1009: 1006: 1005: 995: 991: 988: 987: 982: 976: 974: 973:Hugh J. Grant 964: 955: 952: 950: 943: 941: 935: 933: 923: 919: 915: 913: 908: 903: 899: 894: 892: 888: 884: 874: 865: 864: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 844:electrocution 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 812: 808: 805: 800: 795: 791: 789: 788: 782: 774: 770: 768: 764: 760: 755: 746: 744: 734: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 675: 670: 666: 662: 661:Henry Villard 657: 653: 651: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 627:developed an 626: 621: 613: 609: 600: 598: 594: 590: 579: 577: 571: 569: 558: 553: 551: 545: 543: 542: 536: 532: 528: 525: 524: 523:New York Post 519: 510: 501: 492: 490: 486: 481: 479: 478:David B. Hill 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 450: 446: 445: 439: 434: 424: 422: 417: 413: 411: 407: 396: 394: 390: 385: 379: 376: 375:Elihu Thomson 369: 364: 355: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 327: 325: 321: 315: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 276: 272: 269: 265: 261: 257: 254: 251:inventor and 250: 241: 232: 229: 218: 209: 206: 201: 198: 188: 186: 182: 178: 169: 164: 154: 151: 147: 143: 139: 133: 131: 127: 123: 117: 115: 110: 106: 102: 101:Thomas Edison 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 67: 60: 51: 50:Thomas Edison 44: 33: 19: 6956:Nikola Tesla 6826: 6807: 6799: 6791: 6783: 6775: 6751: 6744: 6737: 6730: 6723: 6705: 6698: 6691: 6684: 6677: 6670: 6663: 6637: 6629: 6621: 6613: 6605: 6597: 6589: 6581: 6573: 6565: 6557: 6549: 6541: 6533: 6525: 6517: 6509: 6501: 6493: 6485: 6477: 6458: 6450: 6442: 6434: 6426: 6418: 6410: 6402: 6394: 6386: 6378: 6370: 6362: 6354: 6346: 6338: 6330: 6322: 6314: 6306: 6298: 6290: 6282: 6274: 6266: 6258: 6250: 6242: 6095:Oxford Group 5963:Every Animal 5856:Contemporary 5805:Andrew Tyler 5795:Nell Shipman 5735:André Géraud 5644:Jerry Vlasak 5619:Lynda Stoner 5594:Alex Pacheco 5529:Evanna Lynch 5524:Howard Lyman 5509:Wayne Hsiung 5469:Chris DeRose 5459:Rod Coronado 5392:Contemporary 5332:Thomas Tryon 5252:Mary Midgley 5247:Jean Meslier 5227:Soame Jenyns 5217:John Hildrop 5212:Arthur Helps 5177:Richard Dean 5152:Peter Buchan 5091:Gary Steiner 5086:Peter Singer 5081:Jérôme Segal 5046:David Pearce 5036:Clare Palmer 5026:David Nibert 5016:Clair Linzey 4926:Joan Dunayer 4851:Aysha Akhtar 4839:Contemporary 4742: 4708:McLibel case 4663:Animal trial 4622:Seal hunting 4584:Wild animals 4569:Fishing bait 4531:Pain in fish 4350:Fish farming 4330:Battery cage 4250:Meat paradox 4207: 4148:Abolitionism 3986:Edison Hotel 3965: 3920: 3912: 3906:Frankenstein 3904: 3896: 3888: 3869: 3861: 3853: 3834: 3826: 3811: 3803: 3735:Depot Museum 3608:Movie camera 3581:Advancements 3542:Edison screw 3473:the original 3468: 3453: 3440: 3411: 3398: 3382: 3356: 3337: 3318: 3291: 3268: 3249: 3230: 3211: 3191: 3170: 3149: 3127: 3106: 3087: 3068: 3049: 3041:Bibliography 3027: 3017: 3007:November 16, 3005:. Retrieved 2999: 2989: 2972: 2966: 2949: 2943: 2931: 2911: 2904: 2892: 2884: 2880: 2861: 2811: 2789: 2777: 2755:Essig (2009) 2750: 2743:Essig (2009) 2738: 2731:Klein (2010) 2677:the original 2667:(4): 34–44. 2664: 2658: 2633: 2621: 2609: 2597: 2585: 2573: 2566:Moran (2007) 2561: 2554:Moran (2007) 2539:Moran (2007) 2534: 2527:Essig (2009) 2522: 2515:Essig (2009) 2498:Essig (2009) 2493: 2471:Essig (2009) 2466: 2459:Moran (2007) 2444:Moran (2007) 2439: 2432:Moran (2007) 2427: 2409:173–174, 178 2402: 2394: 2384:December 27, 2382:. Retrieved 2377: 2373: 2360: 2348:. Retrieved 2346:. Con Edison 2343: 2334: 2327:Klein (2010) 2298: 2292: 2280: 2268: 2256: 2240:. 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Morgan 641:Nikola Tesla 631:that used a 617: 612:Nikola Tesla 585: 572: 564: 555: 549: 547: 539: 537: 533: 529: 521: 515: 498: 485:fact-finding 482: 454: 442: 420: 418: 414: 402: 380: 373: 333: 316: 304:Ganz company 281: 268:transformers 263: 253:entrepreneur 246: 224: 202: 194: 191:Arc lighting 185:gas lighting 177:arc lighting 174: 141: 134: 118: 109:transformers 95:(DC) indoor 76: 74: 6650:Periodicals 6527:The Meatrix 6503:The Witness 6117:(Australia) 6091:(1891–1919) 5973:Faunalytics 5800:Henry Spira 5790:Hans Ruesch 5780:Jill Phipps 5775:Norm Phelps 5755:Barry Horne 5715:Royal Dixon 5710:Karen Davis 5690:Ernest Bell 5584:Ric O'Barry 5579:Jack Norris 5549:Dan Mathews 5454:Jake Conroy 5424:Barbi Twins 5399:James Aspey 5337:Gary Varner 5327:John Styles 5167:Henry Crowe 5116:Paul Waldau 5106:Michael Tye 5001:Renan Larue 4986:Melanie Joy 4971:Oscar Horta 4966:John Hadley 4936:Catia Faria 4931:Mylan Engel 4901:Alice Crary 4871:Steven Best 4866:Marc Bekoff 4832:and writers 4773:Observances 4678:Live export 4612:Ivory trade 4483:Vivisection 4458:Green Scare 4355:Fur farming 4260:Open rescue 4255:Nonviolence 3882:Productions 3730:Black Maria 3623:Ticker tape 3598:Fluoroscopy 3552:Kinetoscope 3518:Discoveries 2213:. Citadel. 1361:December 5, 1056:J.P. Morgan 856:electromort 711:J.P. Morgan 669:East Newark 593:Minneapolis 264:Engineering 6875:Categories 6639:Seaspiracy 6543:Earthlings 6183:(Portugal) 6157:DierAnimal 6072:Historical 5868:Animal Aid 5760:Marie Huot 5705:Joan Court 5685:Bob Barker 5668:Historical 5559:Luísa Mell 5539:Keith Mann 5534:Bill Maher 5519:Ronnie Lee 5489:Tal Gilboa 5464:Karen Dawn 5404:Greg Avery 5282:Rod Preece 5197:T. Forster 5157:Mona Caird 5130:Historical 4991:Hilda Kean 4961:Lori Gruen 4295:Vegaphobia 4285:Speciesism 4178:Animal law 3847:Literature 3750:State Park 3725:Birthplace 3562:Phonomotor 3557:Phonograph 3441:Pinky Show 2350:3 February 1538:January 7, 1405:January 4, 1263:References 1236:Format war 1179:rectifiers 681:and large 384:Insulation 344:Sawyer-Man 300:Pittsburgh 296:generators 157:Background 6793:Manifesto 6732:Bite Back 6717:Magazines 6591:Vegucated 6189:(Germany) 6187:V-Partei³ 6165:(Germany) 6159:(Belgium) 6135:(Finland) 5958:Equanimal 5544:Jim Mason 5499:Mark Gold 5434:Gene Baur 5409:Matt Ball 5385:Activists 5297:Tom Regan 5076:Jeff Sebo 5021:Dan Lyons 4830:Academics 4818:Advocates 4673:Live food 4473:Nafovanny 4380:Livestock 4360:Fur trade 4335:Bile bear 4270:Personism 4065:Overviews 3940:Edisonade 3922:Kidnapped 3718:Monuments 3572:Tasimeter 2981:0272-1724 1268:Citations 1070:Aftermath 852:ampermort 840:The Times 6856:Category 6725:Arkangel 6657:Journals 6631:Dominion 6567:The Cove 6197:Activism 6141:(Sweden) 6129:(Canada) 6123:(Europe) 5837:Movement 5372:Voltaire 4290:Veganism 4240:Ethology 4141:Concepts 3898:The Kiss 3823:" (1998) 3632:Ventures 3273:ABC-CLIO 2673:11613165 1214:See also 1136:Helsinki 1021:aldermen 949:Missouri 848:dynamort 834:), and " 713:and the 491:answer. 350:and the 247:In 1884 197:arc lamp 85:arc lamp 6171:(Italy) 6153:(Spain) 6147:(Italy) 6108:Parties 4602:Hunting 4556:Fishing 4215:Carnism 3954:Related 1619:. 2014. 1445:. 2015. 907:current 896:During 699:sockets 679:dynamos 470:hanging 389:eyesore 292:Siemens 6858: 6831:(2003) 6812:(2014) 6804:(2014) 6796:(2008) 6788:(1991) 6780:(1987) 6768:Albums 6642:(2021) 6634:(2018) 6626:(2016) 6618:(2013) 6610:(2013) 6602:(2013) 6594:(2011) 6586:(2011) 6578:(2009) 6570:(2009) 6562:(2007) 6554:(2006) 6546:(2005) 6538:(2004) 6530:(2003) 6522:(2003) 6514:(2002) 6506:(2000) 6498:(2000) 6490:(1998) 6482:(1981) 6463:(2022) 6455:(2022) 6447:(2020) 6439:(2018) 6431:(2016) 6423:(2014) 6415:(2012) 6407:(2010) 6399:(2009) 6391:(2008) 6383:(2005) 6375:(2001) 6367:(1999) 6359:(1995) 6351:(1993) 6343:(1987) 6335:(1983) 6327:(1975) 6319:(1971) 6311:(1907) 6303:(1906) 6295:(1899) 6287:(1897) 6279:(1892) 6271:(1883) 6263:(1838) 6255:(1824) 5849:Groups 4309:Issues 4153:Ahimsa 3925:(1917) 3917:(1911) 3909:(1910) 3901:(1896) 3893:(1895) 3874:(2004) 3866:(1898) 3858:(1886) 3839:(2020) 3831:(2017) 3816:(1940) 3808:(1940) 3774:Family 3418: 3367: 3344: 3325: 3298: 3279: 3256: 3237: 3218: 3199: 3178: 3157: 3136: 3113: 3094: 3075: 3056: 2979: 2919: 2868: 2823: 2671: 2415: 2305: 2244: 2217: 2139: 1650: 1561: 1530:(32). 902:orator 707:patent 705:, the 589:Denver 221:lines. 6753:Satya 6471:Films 6236:Books 6058:Viva! 4691:Cases 4641:Other 3933:Terms 3836:Tesla 3797:Films 3789:(son) 3783:(son) 2370:(PDF) 1945:(PDF) 1793:(PDF) 1171:(SCR) 838:ed". 836:Brown 828:Gerry 466:ASPCA 5998:L214 4723:SHAC 3416:ISBN 3365:ISBN 3342:ISBN 3323:ISBN 3296:ISBN 3277:ISBN 3254:ISBN 3235:ISBN 3216:ISBN 3197:ISBN 3176:ISBN 3155:ISBN 3134:ISBN 3111:ISBN 3092:ISBN 3073:ISBN 3054:ISBN 3009:2007 2977:ISSN 2917:ISBN 2866:ISBN 2821:ISBN 2669:PMID 2413:ISBN 2386:2011 2352:2013 2303:ISBN 2242:ISBN 2215:ISBN 2137:ISBN 1648:ISBN 1559:ISBN 1540:2009 1407:2009 1363:2018 1192:The 1083:and 877:law. 854:and 725:and 591:and 75:The 3455:PBS 3403:458 3387:568 2954:doi 2817:316 1978:doi 765:or 685:in 338:of 306:'s 294:AC 6877:: 3467:. 3452:. 3439:. 3397:. 3381:. 3363:. 3275:. 3026:. 2998:. 2852:^ 2835:^ 2819:. 2801:^ 2762:^ 2721:^ 2700:^ 2685:^ 2663:. 2657:. 2645:^ 2546:^ 2505:^ 2478:^ 2451:^ 2411:. 2376:. 2372:. 2342:. 2317:^ 2175:^ 2121:^ 2106:^ 2029:^ 2002:^ 1974:87 1972:. 1947:. 1922:^ 1888:. 1817:^ 1795:. 1756:^ 1689:^ 1674:^ 1615:. 1528:IX 1526:. 1522:. 1451:^ 1441:. 1423:. 1391:. 1310:^ 1291:^ 1276:^ 1181:. 850:, 733:. 697:, 689:; 570:. 326:. 4035:e 4028:t 4021:v 3819:" 3503:e 3496:t 3489:v 3458:. 3424:. 3373:. 3350:. 3331:. 3304:. 3285:. 3262:. 3243:. 3224:. 3205:. 3184:. 3163:. 3142:. 3119:. 3100:. 3081:. 3062:. 3032:. 3011:. 2983:. 2960:. 2956:: 2925:. 2874:. 2829:. 2733:. 2665:9 2421:. 2388:. 2378:2 2354:. 2311:. 2263:. 2145:. 1984:. 1980:: 1955:. 1892:. 1656:. 1567:. 1542:. 1461:. 1427:. 1409:. 1365:. 942:" 938:" 34:. 20:)

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