208:-age southern highlands and their sparsity on the northern Hesperian plains, circumstantially combined with independent estimates of a multi-order of magnitude decrease in global martian erosion rates at the end of the Noachian, probably indicates that most of the networks were cut during this early interval. However, the channels on Hesperian surfaces unambiguously demonstrate that valley-forming processes did continue at least in some locations at least some of the time after the Noachian. Some crater counting evidence even suggests some highland networks may have formed in the
310:- for instance, amphitheater-like headwalls, constant valley width downstream, flat or U-shaped floors and steep walls. However, without some recharge mechanism for the putative aquifers producing this seepage, i.e., a hydrologic cycle of some kind, it is extremely unlikely that enough water could seep to cut all of the valleys formed in the Noachian. In spite of this, this basic model may remain useful in understanding the more limited valleys formed later in the Hesperian and Amazonian.
105:
20:
1891:
221:
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244:, wind and lava have all been invoked at some point in the formation of some networks, and may play important roles locally in some regions on Mars. Most authors however agree that liquid water must have played a role in the formation of the bulk of the valleys, largely on the basis of both the known widespread distribution of ice on Mars and also the physical properties of liquid water (e.g.,
117:
branching networks, typically less than 200 km long and draining into local topographic lows. The form of the tributary valleys is commonly described as "stubby" or a similar term, implying short lengths away from the trunk streams and amphitheater-like terminations at their heads. Many authors have described the
298:
This scenario seeks to describe the formation of the valley networks without appeal to conditions or processes different from those already known to exist on Mars today. Modeling indicates that seeps of groundwater could occur on the surface even under modern conditions, but will freeze very quickly.
116:
The valleys of the networks are typically narrow (<0.5–4 km) and 50–200 m deep, with neither value changing consistently along their lengths. Their cross-sectional form tends to evolve from V-shaped in the headwaters to U-shaped in the lower reaches. The individual valleys form interconnected
371:
Many of the
Noachian valley networks have features strongly indicative of an origin from distributed precipitation: branched networks, valleys starting at narrow crests, V-shaped cross profiles, diffusional behavior of hillslopes. Conversely, using only geomorphic evidence, it is very challenging to
184:
However, at finer scales than this the distribution of the valleys where present is highly patchy and discontinuous. Within the highlands, it is not unusual to find heavily dissected slopes immediately adjacent to almost entirely unmodified surfaces, both at valley and catchment scales. The valleys
147:
is a rare example where a channel has been identified, though new higher resolution imagery again continues to reveal more such structures with time. This accounts for the preference in the literature for the term "valley network" rather than "channel network", though some work tends to confuse the
416:
O greenhouse, such as episodic heating due to volcanism or impacts. Other possibilities (other than misinterpretation of the geology and geomorphology) are defects in the physics of, or boundary conditions for, the climate models - a stronger Sun than current theory predicts, defective assumptions
359:
A related model suggests that locally generated heat could produce local scale groundwater seepage and recharge, either by intrusive volcanism or impact heating. However, this version struggles to explain the longer, larger valley networks - if water flows hundreds or thousands of kilometers away
275:
Beyond this, there are several different scenarios that have been advanced to account for the form and distribution in both space and time of the valleys. Each has its own set of implications regarding the paleoclimate of Mars at the time of formation of the networks. Some of these are summarized
142:
have deposited wind-blown sediments in the bottoms of the valleys, obscuring the nature of the channel which must have cut them. On Earth, a valley is a depression with a flat floor, across which migrates a channel, which carries the water discharge. Due to the later deposits on Mars, however, in
338:
could be recharged on geological time scales by a sequence of sublimation of the frozen seeps, atmospheric circulation of the vapor to the southern polar ice cap, redeposition of this onto the cap, basal melting under the ice mass, and groundwater circulation on a global scale. This mechanism is
321:
These models expand upon the cold, dry Mars model by envisioning mechanisms whereby subsurface aquifers providing groundwater might be recharged in early Mars history. They thus require a sustained water cycle of some sort on the long term in the
Noachian, but do not explicitly require that this
134:
formation processes. Some valley networks run for over 2000 km across the martian landscape. Some may change width downstream. Some have drainage densities which do match some terrestrial values. Narrower, less deep valley networks are present, but probably are more rare than their larger
256:, which have internally consistent hydraulic geometries corresponding very closely to what would be expected in fluvial channels on Earth. Independent lines of evidence also suggest the existence of liquid water at or very near the surface at various times in martian history, for example,
387:
The chief difficulty with this model is that
Martian climate simulations have difficulty reliably simulating a warm, wet Noachian, largely due to the distance between the Sun and Mars compared to the Earth, and the inferred weaker Sun in the early solar system. Furthermore, a
125:
However, more recent imagery has also emphasized that the term "valley network" incorporates a large variety of different valley forms across a number of different scales in different martian geological settings. Any branched valley system on a scale smaller than an
372:
build a strong argument against origin by precipitation. Precipitation also provides a straightforward recharge mechanism for subsurface aquifers, which doubtlessly do exist and are important in some cases (as on Earth). This precipitation may have occurred as
380:(with subsequent melt on the ground), but either demands a significantly more humid, and thus warmer and thicker, atmosphere than presently exists. A warmer, wetter Noachian is also supported by independent observations of rock weathering rates, Noachian-age
828:
Salese, F., G. Di
Achille, A. Neesemann, G. G. Ori, and E. Hauber (2016), Hydrological and sedimentary analyses of well-preserved paleofluvial-paleolacustrine systems at Moa Valles, Mars, J. Geophys. Res. Planets, 121, 194–232,
121:
of the networks as typically much lower than would be seen on Earth, though the extent to which this may be an artifact of image resolution, landscape degradation or observer bias has also been raised in the literature.
400:
rocks, which have not been found. Problems also exist with sustaining such an atmosphere for long enough to allow the valleys to form, as the unweathered basalts so prevalent on Mars should form extremely effective
57:
age (approximately four billion years old). The individual valleys are typically less than 5 kilometers wide, though they may extend for up to hundreds or even thousands of kilometers across the martian surface.
881:
Wordsworth, R., Kalugina, Y., Lokshtanov, S., Vigasin, A., Ehlmann, B., Head, J., ... & Wang, H. (2017). Transient reducing greenhouse warming on early Mars. Geophysical
Research Letters, 44(2), 665-671
176:
plains of the northern hemisphere are in general almost entirely undissected. However, there are significant numbers of exceptions to this generalization - in particular, many of the
Hesperian and younger
287:
may have been formed mostly under glaciers, not free-flowing rivers of water, indicating that early Mars was colder than thought and that extensive glaciation likely occurred in its past.
197:
and just south of the equator from 20°E to 180°E. They are also much more prominent on steeper slopes, for example on crater rims, but again may only be present on one side of such a rim.
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Golombek, M.P., and
Bridges, N.T. (2000), Erosion rates on Mars and implications for climate change: constraints from the Pathfinder landing site, J. Geophys. Res., 105(E1), 1841-1853
444:
greenhouse has been subsequently found to be even more effective than originally demonstrated in
Ramirez et al. (2014), with warm solutions possible at hydrogen concentrations and CO
248:) that almost uniquely allow it to flow thousands of kilometers downhill as streams. Channel features on what are interpreted as eroded deltas at the foot of some networks (e.g., in
567:
Brakenridge, G. R., H. E. Newsom, and Baker, V.R. (1985), Ancient hot springs on Mars: Origins and paleoenvironmental significance of small martian valleys, Geology, 13, 859–862
200:
Unfortunately, the generally small size of individual catchments and the relative narrowness of their constituent valleys means that dating the valley networks by conventional
299:
However, under this suggestion ice cover could insulate the water flowing beneath it well enough to allow long-distance transport (and associated erosion), much like a
181:
carry networks, as well as several other areas. These valleys also appear qualitatively "fresher" and less degraded than those in the highlands (e.g., Nanedi Vallis).
240:
Mechanisms and implied environments for the formation of the valleys remain contentious. Processes as diverse as glaciation, mass wasting, faulting, and erosion by CO
276:
below. It is also worth emphasizing that, as on Earth, different formation mechanisms are likely to operate at different times and places on the surface of Mars.
594:
Jaumann, R. (2005), Martian valley networks and associated fluvial features as seen by the Mars
Express High Resolution Camera (HRSC), LPSC XXXVI, Abstract 1815
759:
Lamb, M.P, Howard, A.D., Johnson, J., Whipple, K.X., Dietrich, W.E., and Perron, T. (2006), Can springs cut canyons into rock?, J. Geophys. Res., 111, E07002,
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appealing as it requires little conjecture about radically different past climate, and fits well with independent theories on the origins of the martian
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almost all cases it is unclear whether the valley floors contain individual channel structures or whether they are fully inundated in flow events.
61:
The form, distribution, and implied evolution of the valley networks are of great importance for what they may tell us about the history of liquid
838:
Pollack, J.B., Kasting, J.F., Richardson, S.M., and
Poliakoff, K. (1987), The case for a warm wet climate on early Mars, Icarus, 71, 203-24.
793:
Carr, M.H. (2002), Elevation of water-worn features on Mars: Implications for circulation of groundwater, J. Geophys. Res., 107(E12), 5131,
164:, seen by HiRISE (click to zoom). Field of view is roughly 3.5 km across. Surface the valleys are cut into appears to be eroding back.
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Dohm, J.M., and Scott, D.H. (1993), Relation between ages and elevation of martian channels (abstract), Lunar Planet. Sci., XXIV, 407– 408
1940:
660:
2482:
405:, especially if the surface is wet, and continuing impacts from space in Mars' early history should quickly strip any atmosphere away.
73:
must have been active on ancient Mars, though this remains contentious. Objections chiefly arise from repeated results from models of
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Ramirez, R. M., Kopparapu, R., Zugger, M. E., Robinson, T. D., Freedman, R., & Kasting, J. F. (2014). Warming early Mars with CO
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Baker, V. R., and Partridge, J. (1986), Small martian valleys: Pristine and degraded morphology, J. Geophys. Res., 91, 3561–3572
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810:
Gulick, V.C. (1998), Magmatic intrusions and a hydrothermal origin of fluvial valleys on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 19365-87.
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supplied by this mechanism could not feed the numerous channels at elevations greater than the base of the southern polar cap.
890:
Ramirez, R.M. (2017) A warmer and wetter solution for early Mars and the challenges with transient warming. Icarus, 297, 71-82
576:
Clifford, S. M. (1993), A model for the hydrologic and climatic behavior of water on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 10,973–11,016
77:
suggesting high enough temperatures and pressures to sustain liquid water on the surface have not ever been possible on Mars.
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326:. This means Mars need not be warm (i.e., above freezing) in its early history, in accordance with current climate models.
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Clifford, S.M. (1993), A model for the hydrologic and climatic behavior of water on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 10973-1016
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Hynek, B.M., and Phillips, R.J. (2001), Evidence of extensive denudation of the martian highlands, Geology, 29, 407-10
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Craddock, R.A., and Howard, A.D. (2002), The case for rainfall on a warm, wet early Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 107(E11),
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1443:
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greenhouse would be strong enough to produce the above-freezing temperatures necessary for valley formation. This CO
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4247:
819:
Newsome, H.E. (1980), Hydrothermal alteration of impact melt sheets with implications for Mars, Icarus, 44, 207-16.
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1933:
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85:
252:) are also uniquely associated with formation by flowing water - for example, meandering, sinuous channels with
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96:(MOLA) digital terrain models have drastically improved our understanding of the networks in the last decade.
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The valleys typically have many features that on Earth are commonly (though not exclusively) associated with
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Solutions to this apparent contradiction may include exotic mechanisms that do not require a sustained CO
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Carr, M.H. (2006), The Surface of Mars. Cambridge Planetary Science Series, Cambridge University Press.
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techniques is extremely difficult (though not impossible). The concentration of the valleys in the
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Malin, M.C., and Carr, M.H. (1999), Groundwater formation of martian valleys, Nature, 397, 589-592
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from the heat source, ground will again be frozen and recharge will not be possible once again.
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Carr, M.H. (1999), Retention of an atmosphere on early Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 21897-909.
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Valley networks are very strongly concentrated in the cratered southern uplands of Mars. The
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Pieri, D. (1976), Distribution of small channels on the martian surface, Icarus, 27, 25– 50
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Sharp, R.P, and Malin, M.C. (1975), Channels on Mars, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 86, 593-609.
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about trace (but powerful) greenhouse gases, or failings in the parameterization of CO
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history. Some authors have argued that the properties of the networks demand that a
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O greenhouse atmosphere to warm the climate should have left extensive deposits of
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Haberle, R.M. (1998), Early Climate Models, J. Geophys. Res., 103(E12),28467-79.
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Video (04:32) - Evidence: Water "Vigorously" Flowed On Mars - September, 2012
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Squyres, S.W., and Kasting, J.F. (1994), Early Mars: How warm and how wet?,
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Grau Galofre, Anna; Jellinek, A. Mark; Osinski, Gordon R. (3 August 2020).
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428:, could have solved this paradox. Ramirez et al.(2014) had shown that a CO
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can be termed a valley network, probably incorporating a large variety of
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However, it is possible that additional trace gases, together with CO
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3202:
1116:
363:
220:
27:, as seen by Viking Orbiter. Field of view is roughly 200 km across.
4730:
2775:
2517:
1868:
1580:
1561:
1433:
205:
185:
are also regionally clustered, with little dissection in Northwest
54:
687:"Valley formation on early Mars by subglacial and fluvial erosion"
156:
80:
The advent of very high resolution images of the surface from the
2765:
2071:
1071:
635:"Early Mars was covered in ice sheets, not flowing rivers: study"
335:
66:
46:
3942:
2462:
279:
In August 2020 scientists reported that valley networks in the
81:
5345:
3697:
39:
2577:
1957:
939:
684:
377:
373:
284:
173:
35:
661:"Ancient valleys on Mars may have been carved by glaciers"
908:
216:
Formation and implications for Martian climate history
5481:
503:
501:
499:
497:
495:
493:
448:
pressures as low as 1% and 0.55 bar, respectively.
112:, seen by THEMIS. Length of image is roughly 50 km.
1948:
490:
329:
264:and pervasive aqueous alteration of rocks in the
5505:
624:Irwin, R.P., and Grant, J., submitted manuscript
602:
600:
354:
522:
520:
232:. Note the meanders with cutoffs, now seen in
1934:
924:
597:
536:
534:
532:
291:1. Business as usual, groundwater under ice:
53:, and are typically - though not always - of
517:
384:, and Noachian geology at the lander sites.
314:2. Groundwater sources, hydrological cycle:
483:
481:
148:two in interpretation of these structures.
1941:
1927:
931:
917:
529:
479:
477:
475:
473:
471:
469:
467:
465:
463:
461:
347:as major aquifer breaches. However, the
219:
155:
103:
38:that superficially resemble terrestrial
18:
458:
151:
92:(CTX) satellite cameras as well as the
5506:
2813:
2260:
1968:
1922:
912:
303:insulates the molten lava inside it.
34:are branching networks of valleys on
16:Branching networks of valleys on Mars
364:3. Full active hydrological cycle:
13:
14:
5535:
2761:Martian meteorites found on Earth
897:
872:. Nature Geoscience, 7(1), 59-63.
658:
160:Finer scale valley networks near
5491:
1901:
1890:
1889:
49:into the terrain of the martian
1969:
884:
875:
850:
841:
832:
822:
813:
804:
787:
778:
769:
753:
740:
678:
652:
627:
618:
609:
588:
189:and southwest and southeast of
138:In most valley networks, later
2814:
579:
570:
561:
552:
543:
334:It has been proposed that the
330:Global groundwater circulation
108:Part of a valley network near
1:
451:
355:Local groundwater circulation
1346:Recurring slope lineae (RSL)
94:Mars Orbital Laser Altimeter
63:water on the martian surface
7:
5519:Valleys and canyons on Mars
2261:
1780:Inspiration Mars Foundation
322:water be liquid or fall as
268:, both investigated by the
23:Branched valley network in
10:
5540:
2180:Mare Australe (South Pole)
1815:Artificial objects on Mars
4248:Eagle (Acidalia Planitia)
3898:
3687:
3201:
3056:
2824:
2820:
2809:
2553:
2543:Classical albedo features
2498:
2273:
2269:
2256:
2085:
1979:
1975:
1964:
1884:
1832:List of films set on Mars
1807:
1758:
1740:
1684:
1675:
1655:
1647:C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)
1639:
1560:
1512:
1465:
1456:
1444:Classical albedo features
1414:
1202:
1095:
997:
964:
955:
946:
711:10.1038/s41561-020-0618-x
5514:Surface features of Mars
4253:Eagle (Meridiani Planum)
2722:Meteorites found on Mars
2185:Mare Boreum (North Pole)
1750:List of missions to Mars
938:
829:doi:10.1002/2015JE004891
45:. They are found mainly
1908:Solar System portal
270:Mars Exploration Rovers
99:
2310:Concentric crater fill
1522:Solar eclipses on Mars
1381:"Swiss cheese" feature
1237:Concentric crater fill
237:
165:
113:
28:
2453:Swiss cheese features
223:
159:
107:
22:
3885:Angustus Labyrinthus
2483:discovery chronology
2428:Scalloped topography
2382:Lineated valley fill
1722:Permanent settlement
799:10.1029/2002JE001963
765:10.1029/2005JE002663
513:10.1029/2001JE001505
152:Distribution and age
75:martian paleoclimate
25:Thaumasia quadrangle
3840:Deuteronilus Mensae
3163:Syrtis Major Planum
2979:Syrtis Major Planum
2528:Observation history
2388:Lobate debris apron
1864:Timekeeping on Mars
1541:Planetary transits
1526:Satellite transits
1439:Observation history
1287:Lobate debris apron
703:2020NatGe..13..663G
308:groundwater sapping
5266:Teisserenc de Bort
3890:Noctis Labyrinthus
3870:Nilokeras Scopulus
2195:Margaritifer Sinus
281:southern highlands
238:
166:
114:
71:hydrological cycle
65:, and hence Mars'
51:southern highlands
29:
5479:
5478:
5475:
5474:
5471:
5470:
3918:Tithoniae Catenae
3855:Protonilus Mensae
3850:Nilosyrtis Mensae
3740:Hephaestus Fossae
3108:Eridania Planitia
3078:Amazonis Planitia
3068:Acidalia Planitia
2805:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2766:Balsaltic Breccia
2468:Upper plains unit
2458:Terrain softening
2418:Ring mold craters
2393:North Polar Basin
2315:Dark slope streak
2252:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2077:Vastitas Borealis
2017:Hyperboreae Undae
1916:
1915:
1869:Sol (day on Mars)
1837:Martian scientist
1820:Memorials on Mars
1803:
1802:
1774:The Case for Mars
1671:
1670:
1452:
1451:
1386:Terrain softening
1351:Ring mold craters
1319:North Polar Basin
1242:Dark slope streak
1087:Vastitas Borealis
984:Dust devil tracks
691:Nature Geoscience
250:Eberswalde crater
140:aeolian processes
5531:
5496:
5495:
5494:
5487:
3805:Tithonium Fossae
3715:Ceraunius Fossae
3331:Tithonium Chasma
3138:Meridiani Planum
3103:Elysium Planitia
3083:Arcadia Planitia
3041:Ceraunius Tholus
2862:Apollinaris Mons
2822:
2821:
2811:
2810:
2742:Meridiani Planum
2408:Outflow channels
2398:Ocean hypothesis
2271:
2270:
2258:
2257:
1977:
1976:
1966:
1965:
1943:
1936:
1929:
1920:
1919:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1893:
1892:
1767:The Mars Project
1682:
1681:
1630:
1620:
1610:
1588:
1586:
1585:
1463:
1462:
1324:Ocean hypothesis
1174:Outflow channels
962:
961:
933:
926:
919:
910:
909:
891:
888:
882:
879:
873:
871:
870:
869:
854:
848:
845:
839:
836:
830:
826:
820:
817:
811:
808:
802:
791:
785:
782:
776:
773:
767:
757:
751:
744:
738:
737:
735:
733:
682:
676:
675:
673:
671:
656:
650:
649:
647:
645:
631:
625:
622:
616:
613:
607:
604:
595:
592:
586:
583:
577:
574:
568:
565:
559:
556:
550:
547:
541:
538:
527:
524:
515:
505:
488:
485:
349:hydrostatic head
341:outflow channels
262:Meridiani Planum
132:geomorphological
119:drainage density
5539:
5538:
5534:
5533:
5532:
5530:
5529:
5528:
5504:
5503:
5502:
5492:
5490:
5482:
5480:
5467:
3903:
3894:
3795:Tantalus Fossae
3780:Olympica Fossae
3770:Memnonia Fossae
3760:Mareotis Fossae
3750:Labeatis Fossae
3720:Cerberus Fossae
3710:Amenthes Fossae
3696:
3683:
3316:Juventae Chasma
3296:Hydraotes Chaos
3251:Coprates Chasma
3206:
3197:
3168:Utopia Planitia
3148:Planum Australe
3128:Isidis Planitia
3118:Hesperia Planum
3113:Hellas Planitia
3098:Daedalia Planum
3093:Chryse Planitia
3088:Argyre Planitia
3059:
3052:
2989:Tartarus Montes
2984:Tartarus Colles
2964:Nereidum Montes
2897:Charitum Montes
2892:Centauri Montes
2867:Ariadnes Colles
2847:Acidalia Colles
2840:
2833:
2829:
2816:
2797:
2737:Mackinac Island
2556:
2549:
2494:
2473:Valley networks
2367:Inverted relief
2342:Fretted terrain
2276:
2265:
2244:
2220:Phoenicis Lacus
2081:
2047:Sinus Meridiani
2032:Planum Australe
1971:
1960:
1947:
1917:
1912:
1902:
1900:
1880:
1874:Darian calendar
1799:
1754:
1736:
1667:
1651:
1635:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1583:
1582:
1579:
1556:
1508:
1502:Voltaire crater
1480:Stickney crater
1448:
1410:
1252:Fretted terrain
1198:
1098:
1091:
1052:Sinus Meridiani
1037:Planum Australe
1012:Cerberus (Mars)
993:
951:
949:Outline of Mars
942:
937:
900:
895:
894:
889:
885:
880:
876:
868:
865:
864:
863:
861:
859:
855:
851:
846:
842:
837:
833:
827:
823:
818:
814:
809:
805:
792:
788:
783:
779:
774:
770:
758:
754:
745:
741:
731:
729:
697:(10): 663–668.
683:
679:
669:
667:
657:
653:
643:
641:
633:
632:
628:
623:
619:
614:
610:
605:
598:
593:
589:
584:
580:
575:
571:
566:
562:
557:
553:
548:
544:
539:
530:
525:
518:
506:
491:
486:
459:
454:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
420:
415:
411:
395:
391:
369:
357:
332:
319:
296:
254:meander cutoffs
243:
234:inverted relief
228:delta, seen by
218:
202:crater counting
154:
128:outflow channel
102:
43:drainage basins
32:Valley networks
17:
12:
11:
5:
5537:
5527:
5526:
5521:
5516:
5501:
5500:
5477:
5476:
5473:
5472:
5469:
5468:
5466:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5430:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5173:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5148:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4596:Jarry-Desloges
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4467:
4466:
4461:
4460:
4459:
4454:
4447:Columbia Hills
4444:
4443:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4425:Apollo 1 Hills
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4286:
4285:
4283:Matijevic Hill
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3923:Tractus Catena
3920:
3915:
3913:Artynia Catena
3909:
3907:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3865:Claritas Rupes
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3835:Cydonia Mensae
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3815:Ulysses Fossae
3812:
3810:Tractus Fossae
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3790:Sirenum Fossae
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3765:Medusae Fossae
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3735:Elysium Fossae
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3706:
3704:
3685:
3684:
3682:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3663:
3662:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3516:
3515:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3338:List of valles
3334:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3291:Hydaspis Chaos
3288:
3283:
3281:Gorgonum Chaos
3278:
3273:
3271:Galaxias Chaos
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3246:Chasma Boreale
3243:
3238:
3233:
3231:Atlantis Chaos
3228:
3226:Aromatum Chaos
3223:
3221:Arsia Chasmata
3218:
3212:
3210:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3195:
3190:
3188:Pityusa Patera
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3064:
3062:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3048:
3046:Uranius Tholus
3043:
3038:
3028:
3026:Ulysses Tholus
3023:
3021:Tyrrhenus Mons
3018:
3016:Tharsis Tholus
3013:
3012:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2994:Tharsis Montes
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2974:Phlegra Montes
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2939:Hadriacus Mons
2936:
2931:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2922:Hecates Tholus
2919:
2914:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2882:Avernus Colles
2879:
2877:Ausonia Montes
2874:
2872:Astapus Colles
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2843:
2841:
2837:list by height
2834:
2818:
2817:
2807:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2757:
2756:
2755:
2754:
2752:Shelter Island
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2718:
2717:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2702:
2701:
2700:
2692:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2655:
2642:
2641:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2617:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2593:Jake Matijevic
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2573:Bathurst Inlet
2561:
2559:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2504:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2492:
2487:
2486:
2485:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2433:Seasonal flows
2430:
2425:
2423:Rootless cones
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2338:
2337:
2332:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2281:
2279:
2267:
2266:
2254:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2190:Mare Tyrrhenum
2187:
2182:
2177:
2175:Mare Acidalium
2172:
2167:
2165:Ismenius Lacus
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2091:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2062:Terra Cimmeria
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1992:Aspledon Undae
1989:
1983:
1981:
1973:
1972:
1962:
1961:
1946:
1945:
1938:
1931:
1923:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1897:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1877:
1876:
1871:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
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1839:
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1824:
1823:
1822:
1811:
1809:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1785:Mars Institute
1782:
1777:
1770:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1755:
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1746:
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1572:
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1547:
1539:
1538:
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1532:
1524:
1518:
1516:
1510:
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1507:
1506:
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1504:
1499:
1489:
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1471:
1469:
1460:
1454:
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1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1420:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1361:Seasonal flows
1358:
1356:Rootless cones
1353:
1348:
1343:
1342:
1341:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1304:
1294:
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1274:
1269:
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1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1208:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1184:Valley network
1181:
1176:
1171:
1169:Observed rocks
1166:
1165:
1164:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1103:
1101:
1093:
1092:
1090:
1089:
1084:
1082:Ultimi Scopuli
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1062:Terra Cimmeria
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1003:
1001:
995:
994:
992:
991:
986:
981:
976:
970:
968:
959:
953:
952:
947:
944:
943:
936:
935:
928:
921:
913:
907:
906:
899:
898:External links
896:
893:
892:
883:
874:
866:
857:
849:
840:
831:
821:
812:
803:
786:
777:
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739:
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651:
626:
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528:
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489:
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453:
450:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
418:
413:
409:
393:
389:
368:
366:Warm, wet Mars
362:
356:
353:
345:chaos terrains
331:
328:
318:
316:Cold, wet Mars
312:
295:
293:Cold, dry Mars
289:
266:Columbia Hills
241:
217:
214:
195:Terra Cimmeria
193:, but much in
153:
150:
110:Warrego Valles
101:
98:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5536:
5525:
5524:Water on Mars
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5511:
5509:
5499:
5489:
5488:
5485:
5464:
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5309:
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5119:
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4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4465:
4464:Sleepy Hollow
4462:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4449:
4448:
4445:
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4438:
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4433:
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4318:
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4313:
4311:
4308:
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4280:
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4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
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4079:
4076:
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4036:
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4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
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3926:
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3910:
3908:
3906:
3901:
3897:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3875:Olympus Rupes
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3825:Ausonia Mensa
3823:
3821:
3820:Aeolis Mensae
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3755:Mangala Fossa
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3745:Icaria Fossae
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
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3707:
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3703:
3699:
3694:
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3678:
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3670:
3668:
3665:
3661:
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3648:
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3641:
3638:
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3628:
3626:
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3618:
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3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
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3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
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3541:
3538:
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3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3340:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3276:Ganges Chasma
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3241:Candor Chasma
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3213:
3211:
3209:
3204:
3200:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3183:Peneus Patera
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3153:Planum Boreum
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3123:Icaria Planum
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3061:
3055:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3031:Uranius group
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2944:Hellas Montes
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2934:Galaxius Mons
2932:
2930:
2929:Erebus Montes
2927:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2909:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2887:Biblis Tholus
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2838:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2808:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2747:Oileán Ruaidh
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2653:Barnacle Bill
2651:
2650:
2649:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2552:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2491:
2488:
2484:
2481:
2480:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2403:Ore resources
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
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2225:Sinus Sabaeus
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2037:Planum Boreum
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2027:Olympia Undae
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2012:Eridania Lake
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
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1718:
1717:Human mission
1715:
1713:
1712:Sample return
1710:
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1575:Mars-crossers
1573:
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1407:
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1399:
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1394:
1392:
1391:Tharsis bulge
1389:
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1379:
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1330:
1329:Ore resources
1327:
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1300:
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1223:
1222:Chaos terrain
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1212:Brain terrain
1210:
1209:
1207:
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1201:
1195:
1192:
1190:
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1128:
1127:Chaos terrain
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
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1108:
1105:
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1100:
1094:
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1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1042:Planum Boreum
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1032:Olympia Undae
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1022:Eridania Lake
1020:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1002:
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996:
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987:
985:
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766:
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756:
750:, 265, 744-8.
749:
743:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
681:
666:
665:New Scientist
662:
659:Crane, Leah.
655:
640:
636:
630:
621:
612:
603:
601:
591:
582:
573:
564:
555:
546:
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457:
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422:
406:
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399:
385:
383:
379:
375:
367:
361:
352:
350:
346:
342:
337:
327:
325:
324:precipitation
317:
311:
309:
304:
302:
294:
288:
286:
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277:
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263:
259:
255:
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222:
213:
211:
207:
203:
198:
196:
192:
188:
182:
180:
175:
171:
163:
162:Candor Chasma
158:
149:
146:
145:Nanedi Valles
141:
136:
135:equivalents.
133:
129:
123:
120:
111:
106:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
78:
76:
72:
68:
64:
59:
56:
52:
48:
44:
41:
37:
33:
26:
21:
5498:Solar System
5161:Schiaparelli
5106:Robert Sharp
4946:Orson Welles
4243:Du Martheray
4133:Chryse Alien
4128:Chincoteague
3968:Arkhangelsky
3880:Rupes Tenuis
3845:Ganges Mensa
3800:Tempe Fossae
3730:Cyane Fossae
3725:Coloe Fossae
3403:Green Valley
3326:Ophir Chasma
3321:Melas Chasma
3286:Hebes Chasma
3256:Echus Chasma
3236:Aureum Chaos
3193:Siloe Patera
3178:Orcus Patera
3158:Syria Planum
3133:Lunae Planum
3073:Aeolis Palus
3036:Uranius Mons
2969:Olympus Mons
2954:Libya Montes
2949:Jovis Tholus
2917:Albor Tholus
2912:Elysium Mons
2902:Echus Montes
2857:Anseris Mons
2781:Shergottites
2771:Chassignites
2727:Block Island
2665:
2645:
2620:
2565:
2472:
2230:Syrtis Major
2067:Terra Sabaea
2022:Ogygis Undae
1997:Arabia Terra
1987:Abalos Undae
1854:Life on Mars
1849:Flag of Mars
1790:Mars Society
1772:
1765:
1732:Terraforming
1727:Colonization
1497:Swift crater
1339:polar wander
1183:
1067:Terra Sabaea
1007:Arabia Terra
886:
877:
852:
843:
834:
824:
815:
806:
789:
780:
771:
755:
747:
742:
730:. Retrieved
694:
690:
680:
668:. Retrieved
664:
654:
642:. Retrieved
638:
629:
620:
611:
590:
581:
572:
563:
554:
545:
423:
407:
403:carbon sinks
386:
382:crater lakes
370:
365:
358:
333:
320:
315:
305:
297:
292:
278:
274:
239:
199:
183:
167:
137:
124:
115:
79:
60:
31:
30:
5378:Vinogradsky
5336:Tycho Brahe
5286:Tikhonravov
5221:Spallanzani
5151:Santa Maria
5111:Roddenberry
4330:Flaugergues
3860:Sacra Mensa
3830:Capri Mensa
3775:Nili Fossae
3306:Ister Chaos
3173:Eden Patera
3143:Oxia Planum
2959:Mount Sharp
2732:Heat Shield
2688:Pot of Gold
2638:Last Chance
2621:Opportunity
2523:Volcanology
2357:Groundwater
2335:Nili Patera
2325:Dune fields
2305:Composition
2215:Phaethontis
2170:Lunae Palus
2087:Quadrangles
2057:Tempe Terra
2052:Siton Undae
2042:Quadrangles
1970:Cartography
1677:Exploration
1599:5261 Eureka
1267:Groundwater
1232:Composition
1057:Tempe Terra
1047:Quadrangles
974:Circulation
732:6 September
670:6 September
644:6 September
5508:Categories
5443:Wislicenus
5398:Von Kármán
5373:Vinogradov
5366:Cape Verde
5201:Sklodowska
5156:Schaeberle
5136:Rutherford
5096:Richardson
5041:Ptolemaeus
4976:Perepelkin
4891:Montevallo
4886:Molesworth
4856:Milankovic
4831:McLaughlin
4781:Magelhaens
4706:Le Verrier
4531:Hipparchus
4325:Flammarion
4258:Eberswalde
4153:Copernicus
4068:Bonneville
4048:Boeddicker
4008:Barabashov
3785:Oti Fossae
3702:labyrinthi
3615:Shalbatana
3418:Her Desher
3311:Ius Chasma
3301:Iani Chaos
3266:Eos Chasma
3216:Aram Chaos
2815:Topography
2678:Home Plate
2673:Adirondack
2633:El Capitan
2608:Rocknest 3
2578:Coronation
2413:Polar caps
2377:Lava tubes
2290:Carbonates
2210:Oxia Palus
1334:Polar caps
1314:Mud cracks
1297:Meteorites
1282:Lava tubes
1217:Carbonates
1152:Labyrinthi
1027:Iani Chaos
966:Atmosphere
452:References
258:evaporites
226:Eberswalde
5311:Trouvelot
5051:Quenisset
5031:Priestley
5001:Pickering
4971:Penticton
4961:Pangboche
4926:Nicholson
4861:Millochau
4751:Lomonosov
4581:Ibragimov
4516:Helmholtz
4501:Heaviside
4491:Hargraves
4415:Grindavik
4300:Escalante
4290:Endurance
4278:Endeavour
4273:Emma Dean
4268:Ejriksson
4193:Danielson
4173:Crommelin
4083:Burroughs
4063:Bonestell
4043:Bianchini
4023:Becquerel
3988:Bakhuysen
3973:Arrhenius
3953:Antoniadi
3610:Scamander
3508:Marineris
3428:Huo Hsing
3408:Harmakhis
3363:Athabasca
3261:Eos Chaos
2852:Alba Mons
2831:volcanoes
2826:Mountains
2776:Nakhlites
2646:Sojourner
2566:Curiosity
2513:Hesperian
2508:Amazonian
2443:Spherules
2320:Dichotomy
2240:Thaumasia
1950:Geography
1859:Sub-Earth
1842:Mythology
1795:Mars race
1562:Asteroids
1458:Astronomy
1429:Hesperian
1424:Amazonian
1396:Volcanism
1371:Spherules
1292:Marsquake
1247:Dichotomy
1162:by height
1157:Mountains
957:Geography
727:220939044
719:1752-0908
398:carbonate
301:lava tube
246:viscosity
210:Amazonian
179:volcanoes
170:Hesperian
5428:Williams
5418:Weinbaum
5388:Vishniac
5361:Victoria
5326:Trumpler
5301:Tombaugh
5296:Timbuktu
5181:Sharonov
5176:Semeykin
5091:Reynolds
5081:Renaudot
5071:Rayleigh
5006:Playfair
4996:Phillips
4981:Peridier
4951:Oudemans
4871:Miyamoto
4821:Masursky
4731:Llanesco
4726:Liu Hsin
4691:Lampland
4676:Kunowsky
4526:Herschel
4511:Heinlein
4395:Gledhill
4360:Galdakao
4345:Fournier
4315:Fesenkov
4233:Douglass
4228:Dinorwic
4188:Da Vinci
4148:Columbus
4143:Coblentz
4093:Campbell
4073:Brashear
3570:Patapsco
3398:Granicus
3060:plateaus
2999:Ascraeus
2713:Monolith
2603:Rocknest
2583:Goulburn
2557:observed
2518:Noachian
2490:Yardangs
2352:Glaciers
2277:features
2200:Memnonia
2150:Eridania
2135:Coprates
2130:Cebrenia
2105:Amenthes
2100:Amazonis
2002:Cerberus
1895:Category
1759:Advocacy
1742:Missions
1685:Concepts
1514:Transits
1485:Monolith
1434:Noachian
1406:Yardangs
1302:on Earth
1262:Glaciers
1107:"Canals"
1099:features
1097:Physical
639:phys.org
421:clouds.
336:aquifers
206:Noachian
55:Noachian
5433:Winslow
5413:Wegener
5408:Wallace
5341:Tyndall
5331:Tugaske
5306:Tooting
5206:Slipher
5166:Schmidt
5131:Russell
5101:Ritchey
5036:Proctor
5011:Pollack
4966:Pasteur
4936:Nipigon
4931:Niesten
4866:Mitchel
4841:Mellish
4836:McMurdo
4826:Maunder
4806:Mariner
4801:Maraldi
4796:Mandora
4786:Maggini
4736:Lockyer
4696:Lassell
4681:Lambert
4661:Korolev
4641:Kinkora
4591:Janssen
4571:Huygens
4551:Huggins
4506:Heimdal
4496:Hartwig
4476:Haldane
4452:Husband
4435:Grissom
4430:Chaffee
4385:Gilbert
4355:Freedom
4340:Fontana
4320:Firsoff
4305:Eudoxus
4238:Dromore
4218:Denning
4168:Crivitz
4123:Chapais
4113:Cerulli
4103:Cassini
4078:Briault
4038:Bernard
4013:Barnard
4003:Bamberg
3998:Baltisk
3983:Bacolor
3958:Arandas
3933:Agassiz
3905:craters
3900:Catenae
3677:Warrego
3600:Sabrina
3540:Naktong
3503:Mangala
3483:Maʼadim
3433:Hypanis
3388:Enipeus
3378:Buvinda
3368:Auqakuh
3208:valleys
3203:Canyons
3058:Plains,
3004:Pavonis
2907:Elysium
2698:Big Joe
2694:Viking
2613:Tintina
2500:History
2448:Surface
2362:Gullies
2347:Geysers
2275:Surface
2263:Geology
2235:Tharsis
2205:Noachis
2160:Iapygia
2145:Elysium
2140:Diacria
2115:Arcadia
2072:Tharsis
2007:Cydonia
1980:Regions
1954:geology
1827:Fiction
1808:Related
1702:Landing
1697:Orbiter
1656:General
1625:2007 NS
1615:1999 UJ
1605:1998 VF
1594:Trojans
1581:2007 WD
1570:Impacts
1550:Mercury
1416:History
1376:Surface
1307:on Mars
1272:Gullies
1257:Geysers
1204:Geology
1194:Gravity
1189:Valleys
1142:Gullies
1132:Craters
1122:Catenae
1117:Canyons
1072:Tharsis
1017:Cydonia
999:Regions
989:Methane
979:Climate
748:Science
699:Bibcode
90:Context
67:climate
47:incised
5484:Portal
5448:Wright
5403:Vostok
5383:Virrat
5351:Vernal
5291:Tikhov
5261:Taytay
5256:Tarsus
5241:Stoney
5236:Stokes
5226:Srīpur
5191:Sinton
5171:Secchi
5146:Saheki
5126:Rudaux
5121:Rossby
5021:Porter
4991:Pettit
4986:Persbo
4956:Palana
4916:Newton
4911:Nereus
4906:Nansen
4901:Müller
4896:Moreux
4881:Mojave
4876:Mohawk
4846:Mendel
4776:Mädler
4761:Lowell
4711:Li Fan
4686:Lamont
4671:Kuiper
4651:Knobel
4646:Kipini
4636:Kepler
4631:Keeler
4626:Kaiser
4606:Jezero
4586:Inuvik
4566:Huxley
4561:Hutton
4556:Hussey
4541:Holmes
4536:Holden
4486:Halley
4471:Hadley
4457:McCool
4310:Fenagh
4295:Erebus
4213:Dejnev
4203:Davies
4198:Darwin
4108:Caxias
4088:Burton
4018:Beagle
3993:Baldet
3978:Asimov
3943:Airy-0
3693:mensae
3689:Fossae
3640:Tinjar
3605:Samara
3580:Rahway
3565:Paraná
3555:Nirgal
3545:Nanedi
3530:Mawrth
3525:Maumee
3498:Mamers
3478:Louros
3438:Iberus
3413:Hebrus
3393:Frento
3373:Bahram
3358:Asopus
2704:Other
2666:Spirit
2628:Bounce
2588:Hottah
2533:Canals
2463:Tholus
2155:Hellas
2125:Casius
2120:Argyre
2110:Arabia
2095:Aeolis
1899:
1888:
1640:Comets
1535:Deimos
1530:Phobos
1492:Deimos
1475:Phobos
1179:Plains
1147:Mensae
1137:Fossae
725:
717:
191:Hellas
187:Arabia
86:THEMIS
82:HiRISE
5463:Zunil
5458:Zumba
5438:Wirtz
5423:Wells
5393:Vogel
5346:Udzha
5281:Thira
5276:Thila
5271:Terby
5251:Suzhi
5246:Suess
5231:Steno
5216:South
5211:Smith
5196:Sitka
5141:Sagan
5086:Reuyl
5061:Radau
5046:Puńsk
5026:Porth
5016:Poona
4921:Nhill
4816:Martz
4811:Marth
4766:Lyell
4756:Louth
4746:Lohse
4721:Lipik
4716:Liais
4666:Kufra
4621:Jones
4611:Jezža
4601:Jeans
4546:Hooke
4521:Henry
4440:White
4420:Gusev
4410:Green
4405:Graff
4375:Garni
4370:Galle
4335:Focas
4263:Eddie
4223:Dilly
4208:Dawes
4183:Curie
4178:Cruls
4163:Crewe
4158:Corby
4138:Clark
4118:Chafe
4098:Canso
3948:Aniak
3928:Adams
3698:rupes
3672:Verde
3667:Vedra
3655:Uzboi
3650:Tyras
3635:Tinia
3630:Tader
3625:Stura
3620:Simud
3595:Sabis
3590:Reull
3575:Peace
3560:Padus
3550:Niger
3535:Minio
3520:Marte
3513:Labes
3473:Licus
3468:Lethe
3463:Ladon
3458:Labou
3453:Kasei
3448:Ituxi
3443:Indus
3353:Arnus
3343:Apsus
3009:Arsia
2786:Other
2668:rover
2648:rover
2623:rover
2568:rover
2555:Rocks
2478:Water
2384:(LVF)
2372:Lakes
2330:Hagal
2300:Color
1707:Rover
1692:Flyby
1663:Orbit
1545:Earth
1467:Moons
1401:Water
1277:Lakes
1227:Color
1077:Undae
723:S2CID
172:-age
40:river
5453:Yuty
5356:Very
5321:Trud
5316:Troy
5186:Sibu
5116:Ross
5076:Redi
5066:Rahe
5056:Rabe
4941:Onon
4791:Main
4771:Lyot
4656:Koga
4616:Joly
4576:Iazu
4481:Hale
4400:Gold
4390:Gill
4380:Gasa
4365:Gale
4350:Fram
4058:Bond
4033:Belz
4028:Beer
3963:Argo
3938:Airy
3585:Ravi
3493:Maja
3423:Hrad
3348:Ares
2791:List
2708:Face
2683:Mimi
2658:Yogi
2598:Link
2537:list
2438:Soil
1958:Mars
1952:and
1366:Soil
1111:list
940:Mars
860:and
734:2020
715:ISSN
672:2020
646:2020
378:snow
374:rain
285:Mars
224:The
174:lava
100:Form
88:and
36:Mars
4851:Mie
4741:Lod
4701:Lau
4053:Bok
3660:ULM
3645:Tiu
3488:Mad
3383:Dao
1956:of
795:doi
761:doi
707:doi
509:doi
376:or
343:at
283:of
260:at
230:MGS
5510::
3700:,
3691:,
1607:31
721:.
713:.
705:.
695:13
693:.
689:.
663:.
637:.
599:^
531:^
519:^
492:^
460:^
440:-H
432:-H
412:-H
392:-H
388:CO
272:.
212:.
84:,
5486::
3902:,
3695:,
3205:,
2839:)
2835:(
2828:,
2539:)
2535:(
1942:e
1935:t
1928:v
1627:2
1617:7
1584:5
1113:)
1109:(
932:e
925:t
918:v
867:2
862:H
858:2
801:.
797::
763::
736:.
709::
701::
674:.
648:.
511::
446:2
442:2
438:2
434:2
430:2
426:2
419:2
414:2
410:2
394:2
390:2
242:2
236:.
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