671:
155:, the Incas forced local Indians in the Kollasuyo to work in the mines or on construction projects or to serve in the armies, compensating them fully for their labor. Despite their goal of extreme centralization, the Incas did not fundamentally change the organization of the Aymara kingdoms, which remained relatively autonomous. Many local chiefs kept many of their former powers and were, in general, reinforced by Inca authority. They were also able to retain their culture, their local religion, and their language. The regional nobility, although forced to send their children to Cuzco for education, continued to hold private property. Moreover, the system of sending colonists to the eastern valleys and the coast was tolerated under Inca rule.
185:
768:. Although Túpac Amaru II insisted that his movement was reformist and did not seek to overthrow Spanish rule, his demands included an autonomous region. The uprising quickly became a full-scale revolt. Approximately 60,000 Indians in the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes rallied to the cause. After scoring some initial victories, including defeating a Spanish army of 1,200 men, Túpac Amaru II was captured and killed in May 1781; nonetheless, the revolt continued, primarily in Upper Peru. There, a supporter of Túpac Amaru II, the Indian chief
235:
58:
257:. Although Atahualpa defeated his brother, he had not yet consolidated his power when the Spaniards arrived in 1532, and he seriously misjudged their strength. Atahualpa did not attempt to defeat Pizarro when he arrived on the coast in 1532 because the Incan ruler was convinced that those who commanded the mountains also controlled the coast. When Pizarro formed alliances with Indians who resented Inca rule, Atahualpa did not modify the
377:
994:
273:
749:. Before the Spanish arrived, the Incas had consumed alcohol only during religious ceremonies. Indian use of the coca leaf also expanded, and, according to one chronicler, at the end of the sixteenth century "in Potosí alone, the trade in coca amounts to over half a million pesos a year, for 95,000 baskets of it are consumed."
705:
Indian reaction to colonial rule and conversion to
Christianity varied. Many Indians adapted to Spanish ways by breaking with their traditions and actively attempting to enter the market economy. They also used the courts to protect their interests, especially against new tribute assessments. Others,
470:
in Potosí indicated the crown's concern with technical improvements in silver production. The attempts to revive the mining sector in Upper Peru were only partially successful, however, and could not halt the economic collapse of Potosí at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Nevertheless, mining
180:
tribes in the eastern
Bolivian lowlands. The remains of Incan fortresses there are evidence of this failure and suggest that the Incas could subdue only those cultures that were primarily based on agriculture. Thus, the Indian groups of the eastern two-thirds of Bolivia preserved their ways of life
461:
in Spain tried to reform the colonial economy in the mid-eighteenth century by reviving mining. The
Spanish crown provided the financial support necessary to develop deeper shafts, and in 1736 it agreed to lower the tax rate from 20 to 10 percent of the total output. The crown also helped create a
89:
was a great center of trade and religion, and the impact of its culture spread far beyond the boundaries of present-day
Bolivia. Apparently, the Tiahuanacan Empire was established through colonization rather than through conquest. Its rapid expansion after 1000 and sudden collapse around 1200 are
438:
with a storage capacity of several million tons provided a steady supply of water for refineries. With the labor and technological problems resolved, silver mining flourished. By the middle of the seventeenth century, silver mining at Potosí had become so important that the city had the largest
627:
had judicial authority as well as administrative and executive powers in the region, but only in routine matters; more important decisions were made in Lima. This situation led to a competitive attitude and the reputation of Upper Peru for assertiveness, a condition reinforced by the economic
561:
The longevity of Spain's empire in South
America can be explained partly by the successful administration of the colonies. Spain was at first primarily interested in controlling the independent-minded conquerors, but its main goal soon became maintaining the flow of revenue to the crown and
97:, the most powerful states located in the densely populated area around Lake Titicaca. The Aymara, a belligerent people who lived in fortified hilltop towns, had an extraordinary ability to adapt to the unique climatic conditions of the region and increased their food supply through
321:
had divided the Incan territory, with the north under the control of
Pizarro and the south under that of Almagro. Fighting broke out in 1537, however, when Almagro seized Cuzco after suppressing the Manco Inca rebellion. Pizarro defeated and executed Almagro in 1538, following the
737:
The conquest and colonial rule were traumatic experiences for the
Indians. Easily susceptible to European diseases, the native population decreased rapidly. The situation of the Indians worsened in the eighteenth century when Spain demanded higher tribute payments and increased
172:
were later founded. By the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Incas had fully established their rule over the
Kollasuyo. In modern times, the legacy of this resettlement policy could still be seen in the predominance of Quechua speakers in many areas of Bolivia.
780:
who took the names of the two rebel martyrs by calling himself Túpac Catari (also spelled Katari). He besieged La Paz for more than 100 days. Spain did not succeed in putting down all of the revolts until 1783 and then proceeded to execute thousands of
Indians.
706:
however, clung to their customs as much as possible, and some rebelled against the white rulers. Local, mostly uncoordinated, rebellions occurred throughout colonial rule. More than 100 revolts occurred in the eighteenth century alone in
Bolivia and Peru.
648:
system, giving extensive powers to highly qualified officials who were directly responsible to the king. In 1784 Spain established four intendancy districts in Upper Peru, covering the present-day departments of La Paz, Cochabamba, Potosí, and Chuquisaca.
386:
Despite these conditions, silver production fluctuated dramatically during the colonial period. After an initial fifteen-year surge in production, output began to fall in 1560 as a result of a severe labor shortage caused by the Indian population's
713:
disappeared rapidly, the Indians continued their local worship under the protection of local Indian rulers. But as Christianity influenced the Indians, a new folk-Catholicism developed, incorporating symbols of the indigenous religion. (See
540:
and Indians. But by the late eighteenth century, an increase in the Indian population, the extension of tribute payments to all Indian males (including those who owned land), and a relative decline in income from the mines combined to make
137:
when they adopted the name of their rulers, were the most powerful group in the northern highlands. As the Aymara kingdoms in the south became weaker in the second half of the fifteenth century, the Incas began to conquer them.
855:, but they eventually rejected it as too violent. Although Upper Peru was fundamentally loyal to Spain, the ideas of the Enlightenment and independence from Spain continued to be discussed by scattered groups of radicals.
530:) became an increasingly important source of income for the crown despite Indian migration to avoid payment. An early effort to collect tribute from Indians by moving them into villages or indigenous communities (
145:, a densely populated area with great economic and mineral wealth that constituted one of the four administrative units of the Inca Empire. The highest official of the Kollasuyo was responsible only to the
666:
also imported goods and forced the Indians to buy them, a widely abused practice that proved to be an enormous source of wealth for these officials but caused much resentment among the Indian population.
760:. Born José Gabriel Condorcanqui, this educated, Spanish-speaking Indian took the name of his ancestor, Túpac Amaru. During the 1770s, he became embittered over the harsh treatment of the Indians by the
699:
118:, another major ethnic group in the pre-Columbian southern Andes. Although the Uru might have preceded the Aymara in the region, by the twelfth century they were poor fishermen and landless workers.
298:
in the public square of Cuzco in 1572. Later revolts in the Bolivian highlands were usually organized by the elders of the community and remained local in nature, the exception being the
391:. Around the same time, Potosí's rich surface deposits became depleted, which meant that even more labor would be required to extract silver. The labor shortage was addressed by
388:
726:
and anti-Spanish. The church was tolerant of local Indian religions. In 1582, for example, the bishop of La Plata permitted the Indians to build a sanctuary for the dark
294:
against the new rulers and restored a "neo-Inca" state. This state continued to challenge Spanish authority even after the Spanish suppressed the revolt and beheaded
772:, had led an uprising in Potosí during the early months of 1780. Catari was killed by the Spaniards a month before Túpac Amaru II. Another major revolt was led by
334:. Only with the execution of Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548 did Spain succeed in reasserting its authority; later that year, colonial authorities established the city of
471:
remained critical to the economy of Upper Peru because food supplies sent from the valleys to mining centers on the Altiplano influenced agricultural production.
373:. The area was heavily populated and hence could supply workers for the silver mines. In addition, Upper Peru could provide food for the miners on the Altiplano.
105:
valleys on the eastern slopes of the Andes and on the Pacific coast, they were able to produce both tropical and highland crops. Their basic social unit was the
532:
658:
644:
In the late eighteenth century, Spain undertook an administrative reform to increase revenues of the crown and to eliminate a number of abuses. It created an
603:(present-day Sucre) in 1558. Chuquisaca had become particularly important as Potosí's administrative and agricultural supply center. The jurisdiction of the
463:
411:
as well as on a labor system in which relatively free men worked alongside those who were coerced. Toledo also regulated the mining laws, established a
794:
began to assume active roles in the economy, especially in mining and agricultural production, and thus resented the trade barriers established by the
591:
in the jurisdiction and, in the absence of the viceroy, also had administrative and executive powers. The wealth of Upper Peru and its remoteness from
502:
were difficult to control and abused their laborers, however, the crown tried repeatedly to bring Indians under its direct jurisdiction and control.
149:(the emperor) and supervised a group of provincial governors, who in turn controlled members of the Aymara nobility. Under a draft system called the
675:
158:
In 1470, however, several Aymara kingdoms rebelled against Inca rule. The Incas completely defeated two states and pacified the region by sending
637:, who represented the king in the municipal governments that were elected by their citizens. By the early seventeenth century, there were four
265:
and later executed him, even after payment of a ransom equivalent to half a century of European production of gold and silver. One year later,
442:
The end of the seventeenth-century boom, however, was followed by a major decline in the mining industry. The exhaustion of the first rich
353:, the colonial name for the arid Chaco region, remained a violent frontier throughout colonial rule. In the Chaco, the Indians, mostly
562:
collecting the tribute of goods and labor from the Indian population. To this end, Spain soon created an elaborate bureaucracy in the
446:
required deeper and more expensive shafts. The rapid decrease of the Indian population as a result of disease and exploitation by the
652:
The Spanish crown at first controlled the local governments indirectly but centralized procedures as time went on. At first, Viceroy
261:, which included launching attacks by the light of the full moon. On November 16, 1532, Pizarro took Atahualpa prisoner during their
656:
confirmed the rights of local nobles and guaranteed them local autonomy. But the crown eventually came to employ Spanish officials,
164:, Quechua-speaking colonists, to Aymara territory, especially to the southern valleys and to the more central valley regions where
125:, the third major ethnic group. After the collapse of the Tiahuanacan Empire, a Quechua-speaking state emerged in the area around
403:
to extract forced labor for the mines at Potosí from some sixteen districts in the highlands, which were designated as supplying
282:
Despite Pizarro's quick victory, Indian rebellions soon began and continued periodically throughout the colonial period. In 1537
670:
50:. Records are fragmentary but suggest that agriculture started about 3000 B.C. and that the production of metal, especially
815:, with its emphasis on reason, questioning of authority and tradition, and individualistic tendencies, also contributed to
216:
47:
36:
407:. Adult males could be required to spend every sixth year working in the mines. Henceforth, Potosí mining depended on the
220:
331:
399:(the king's personal representative) of Peru, during a visit to Upper Peru in the 1570s. Toledo used the pre-Columbian
718:.) Whereas early Indian rebellions were anti-Christian, the revolts at the end of the sixteenth century were based in
683:
365:
Spain immediately recognized the enormous economic potential of Upper Peru. The highlands were rich in minerals, and
745:
These profound economic and social changes and the breakup of native culture contributed to the Indians' increasing
574:
357:, carried out unrelenting attacks against colonial settlements and remained independent of direct Spanish control.
549:
made no concessions to human misfortune, such as natural disasters. The Indian tribute was increased by 1 million
631:
Spain exercised its control of smaller administrative units in the colonies through royal officials, such as the
566:
in which various institutions served as watchdogs over each other and local officials had considerable autonomy.
509:
to large estates, on which Indians worked in exchange for the use of land. Cochabamba became a major producer of
419:. Adoption of the amalgam process was particularly important in that it eliminated Indian control over refining.
480:. The crown granted a small number of conquistadors the right to the labor and produce of Indians living on the
242:
Because the rapidly expanding Inca Empire was internally weak, the conquest was remarkably easy. After the Inca
753:
299:
345:
Indian resistance delayed the conquest and settlement of the Bolivian lowlands. The Spanish established
238:
Contemporary engraving of the Battle of Cajamarca, showing Emperor Atahualpa surrounded on his palanquin
77:
and included urban centers around the lake, as well as enclaves in different ecological zones from the
988:
326:, but was himself assassinated three years later by former supporters of Almagro. Pizarro's brother
309:
During the first two decades of Spanish rule, the settlement of the Bolivian highlands—now known as
545:
the second largest source of income in Upper Peru. Tribute payments also increased because Spanish
78:
346:
824:
764:. In November 1780, Túpac Amaru II and his followers seized and executed a particularly cruel
494:
tended to monopolize agricultural production, control the cheap Indian labor, and collect the
466:, in 1751 and subsidized the price of mercury to local mines. The foundation of an academy of
836:
633:
323:
93:
The collapse of Tiahuanacan influence resulted in the rise of seven regional kingdoms of the
619:) around Chuquisaca, but it soon included Santa Cruz and territory belonging to present-day
812:
784:
In the late eighteenth century, a growing discontent with Spanish rule developed among the
746:
727:
608:
32:
184:
8:
985:
731:
715:
653:
570:
392:
380:
262:
317:—was delayed by a civil war between the forces of Pizarro and those of Almagro. The two
682:
With the first settlers in Upper Peru came the secular and regular clergy to begin the
111:, a kinship group or clan that organized work and distributed land among its members.
852:
828:
546:
450:
also contributed to the reduction in silver output. After 1700 only small amounts of
212:
204:
188:
66:
17:
757:
303:
435:
431:
208:
505:
In the second half of the sixteenth century, agricultural production shifted from
777:
588:
458:
427:
327:
773:
769:
802:
were incensed that Spain reserved all upper-level administrative positions for
723:
710:
550:
443:
291:
287:
254:
295:
101:
and the process of freezing and drying crops. By maintaining colonists in the
998:
612:
416:
339:
318:
234:
74:
43:
700:
Royal and Pontifical Higher University of San Francisco Xavier of Chuquisaca
967:
Maria Luise Wagner. "State, church, and society". In Hudson & Hanratty.
891:
Maria Luise Wagner. "Pre-Columbian Civilization". In Hudson & Hanratty.
832:
804:
795:
578:
490:
243:
102:
981:
933:
Maria Luise Wagner. "The economy of Upper Peru". In Hudson & Hanratty.
847:, especially those educated at the university in Chuquisaca. At first the
843:, and others out of Spanish America; their ideas were often discussed by
820:
623:
and, until 1568, also the entire district of Cuzco. The president of the
518:
476:
439:
population in the Western Hemisphere, approximately 160,000 inhabitants.
412:
276:
151:
909:
Maria Luise Wagner. "Conquest and settlement". In Hudson & Hanratty.
133:). In the early fifteenth century, the Quechua, who became known as the
57:
840:
719:
645:
600:
467:
354:
350:
310:
283:
165:
98:
86:
376:
583:
563:
258:
251:
146:
142:
70:
69:, had emerged on the high plateau between the mountains known as the
694:; in 1605 La Paz and Santa Cruz also became bishoprics. In 1623 the
366:
786:
691:
620:
616:
526:
524:
In addition to mining and agricultural production, Indian tribute (
122:
121:
The Aymara, however, were not able to contain the expansion of the
430:
took on increased importance because of the construction of large
997:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
695:
687:
495:
451:
396:
314:
272:
247:
177:
160:
82:
422:
The second problem, the exhaustion of the high-content surface
370:
335:
224:
223:. They first sailed south in 1524 along the Pacific coast from
94:
51:
40:
514:
510:
330:
assumed control of Upper Peru but soon became embroiled in a
266:
169:
134:
126:
107:
752:
Increasing Indian discontent with colonial rule sparked the
734:
has been a traditional Aymara religious center ever since).
581:) when it was created in 1776. The viceroy was aided by the
227:
to confirm the legendary existence of a land of gold called
592:
423:
228:
130:
115:
790:(persons of pure Spanish descent born in the New World).
73:. This empire was centered near the southeastern side of
742:
obligations in an attempt to improve the mining output.
194:
39:
for at least 21,000 years, were part of the culture of
181:
to a great extent, even after the Spanish conquest.
536:) was unsuccessful because of resistance from both
61:
Extent of the Tihuanacan Empire (indicated in blue)
808:(Spanish-born persons residing in the New World).
498:that the Indians had to pay to the crown. Because
662:, to collect tribute and taxes from the Indians.
369:had the Western world's largest concentration of
676:University of San Francisco Xavier of Chuquisaca
587:(council), which was simultaneously the highest
338:, which soon became an important commercial and
65:By 600 B.C., the first great Andean empire, the
595:convinced the authorities in Lima to create an
484:, and by the 1650s there were some eighty-two
556:
798:policies of the Spanish crown. In addition,
521:in increasing amounts during colonial rule.
360:
141:The Bolivian highlands became known as the
199:
176:The Incas failed, however, to conquer the
684:conversion of the Indians to Christianity
669:
375:
286:, whom the Spanish had established as a
271:
233:
183:
56:
26:
454:from Upper Peru were shipped to Spain.
14:
980:Rex A. Hudson and Dennis M. Hanratty.
963:
961:
959:
426:, required technological innovations.
957:
955:
953:
951:
949:
947:
945:
943:
941:
939:
929:
927:
925:
923:
921:
919:
917:
915:
905:
903:
901:
899:
897:
887:
885:
883:
881:
879:
877:
875:
873:
851:of Upper Peru were influenced by the
611:, initially covered a radius of 100 "
389:inability to resist European diseases
195:Conquest and colonial rule, 1532-1809
114:The Aymara completely dominated the
569:Upper Peru, at first a part of the
332:rebellion against the Spanish crown
259:Inca ceremonial approach to warfare
23:
936:
912:
894:
870:
678:was Upper Peru's first university.
24:
1011:
702:, Upper Peru's first university.
690:in Upper Peru was established in
992:
730:on the shores of Lake Titicaca (
474:Farming at first took place on
974:
575:Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata
462:minerals purchasing bank, the
415:at Potosí, and introduced the
13:
1:
858:
823:had not kept the writings of
722:Christian symbolism that was
7:
517:, and the valleys produced
306:in the eighteenth century.
221:conquest of the Inca Empire
54:, began 1,500 years later.
10:
1016:
628:importance of the region.
557:State, church, and society
255:fought over the succession
989:Federal Research Division
361:The economy of Upper Peru
90:still poorly understood.
982:Bolivia: a country study
863:
48:arrival of the Spaniards
417:mercury amalgam process
347:Santa Cruz de la Sierra
246:died in 1527, his sons
200:Conquest and settlement
762:corregidores de indios
709:Although the official
679:
664:Corregidores de indios
659:corregidores de indios
434:. By 1621 a system of
383:
279:
239:
191:
62:
837:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
673:
533:comunidades indígenas
379:
324:Battle of Las Salinas
275:
237:
187:
60:
27:Pre-Columbian Bolivia
766:corregidor de indios
747:addiction to alcohol
728:Virgen de Copacabana
686:. In 1552 the first
986:Library of Congress
825:Niccolò Machiavelli
716:Religion in Bolivia
654:Francisco de Toledo
577:(whose capital was
571:Viceroyalty of Peru
464:Banco de San Carlos
393:Francisco de Toledo
381:Francisco de Toledo
680:
384:
280:
240:
192:
63:
33:Bolivian highlands
991:(December 1989).
853:French Revolution
829:Benjamin Franklin
573:, joined the new
349:in 1561, but the
311:Upper (Alto) Peru
217:Spanish discovery
213:Hernando de Luque
205:Francisco Pizarro
189:Francisco Pizarro
67:Tihuanacan Empire
18:User:Calliopejen1
1007:
996:
995:
968:
965:
934:
931:
910:
907:
892:
889:
819:discontent. The
698:established the
436:artificial lakes
432:refining centers
395:, the energetic
209:Diego de Almagro
129:(in present-day
1015:
1014:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1006:
1005:
1004:
993:
977:
972:
971:
966:
937:
932:
913:
908:
895:
890:
871:
866:
861:
754:great rebellion
641:in Upper Peru.
599:in the city of
589:court of appeal
559:
488:in Upper Peru.
459:Bourbon Dynasty
457:Kings from the
428:Hydraulic power
363:
300:great rebellion
263:first encounter
202:
197:
79:eastern valleys
29:
22:
21:
20:
12:
11:
5:
1013:
1003:
1002:
976:
973:
970:
969:
935:
911:
893:
868:
867:
865:
862:
860:
857:
758:Túpac Amaru II
724:Roman Catholic
711:Incan religion
558:
555:
362:
359:
304:Túpac Amaru II
288:puppet emperor
201:
198:
196:
193:
35:, permanently
28:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1012:
1000:
999:public domain
990:
987:
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979:
978:
964:
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869:
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822:
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813:Enlightenment
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340:transshipment
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319:conquistadors
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75:Lake Titicaca
72:
68:
59:
55:
53:
49:
45:
44:South America
42:
38:
34:
19:
848:
844:
833:Thomas Paine
816:
810:
805:peninsulares
803:
799:
796:mercantilist
791:
785:
783:
774:Julián Apaza
770:Tomás Catari
765:
761:
751:
744:
739:
736:
708:
704:
681:
663:
657:
651:
643:
639:corregidores
638:
632:
630:
624:
604:
596:
582:
579:Buenos Aires
568:
560:
542:
538:encomenderos
537:
531:
525:
523:
506:
504:
500:encomenderos
499:
491:Encomenderos
489:
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308:
281:
244:Huayna Capac
241:
203:
175:
159:
157:
150:
140:
120:
113:
106:
103:semitropical
92:
64:
30:
975:Works cited
821:Inquisition
615:" (179,600
607:, known as
519:coca leaves
507:encomiendas
486:encomiendas
477:encomiendas
296:Túpac Amaru
277:Tupac Amaru
46:before the
859:References
841:John Locke
732:Copacabana
646:intendancy
634:corregidor
601:Chuquisaca
553:annually.
547:absolutism
482:encomienda
468:metallurgy
355:Chiriguano
351:Gran Chaco
284:Manco Inca
166:Cochabamba
99:irrigation
87:Tiahuanaco
720:messianic
688:bishopric
625:audiencia
605:audiencia
597:audiencia
584:audiencia
564:New World
252:Atahualpa
143:Kollasuyo
71:Altiplano
849:criollos
845:criollos
800:criollos
792:Criollos
787:criollos
692:La Plata
621:Paraguay
617:hectares
543:alcabala
527:alcabala
342:center.
292:rebelled
215:led the
817:criollo
696:Jesuits
613:leagues
609:Charcas
496:tribute
452:bullion
397:viceroy
328:Gonzalo
315:Charcas
248:Huascar
178:nomadic
161:mitimas
123:Quechua
85:coast.
83:Pacific
81:to the
37:settled
778:sexton
371:silver
367:Potosí
336:La Paz
269:fell.
225:Panama
211:, and
95:Aymara
52:copper
41:Andean
864:Notes
551:pesos
515:wheat
444:veins
267:Cuzco
170:Sucre
135:Incas
127:Cuzco
108:ayllu
16:<
811:The
776:, a
740:mita
674:The
593:Lima
513:and
511:corn
448:mita
424:ores
413:mint
409:mita
405:mita
401:mita
250:and
229:Biru
219:and
168:and
152:mita
147:Inca
131:Peru
31:The
756:of
313:or
302:of
116:Uru
984:.
938:^
914:^
896:^
872:^
839:,
835:,
831:,
827:,
290:,
231:.
207:,
1001:.
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