Unpaid work - Knowledge

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economies.' They found that in almost every country studied women worked longer hours than men but received fewer economic rewards. The study found that in both the 'developing' and 'industrialized world', men received the "lion's share of income and recognition" for their economic inputs, while women's work remained "unpaid, unrecognized, and undervalued." Moreover, in the case of paid and unpaid work hours, the study concluded that within 'industrial countries' women spent "two-thirds" of their total work burden on unpaid activities and "one-third on paid activities" (shares were reversed for men), while in 'developing' countries women spent "two-thirds" of their total work on unpaid labor but "less than one-quarter of the men's" total work was spent on unpaid labor. Additionally, scholar Ruth Pearson argues that women in developing countries tend to shoulder a majority of the unpaid work due to the fact that men refuse to undertake "women's work" because "women as a gender have obligations of others that men as a gender do not bear." The uneven distribution of unpaid care labor amongst the sexes is thus demonstrated globally, although particularly in developing countries such as Nigeria and Ecuador, where women redistribute increased unpaid care labor to females from extended family instead of procuring male participation.

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because their economic contributions can be easily replaced for men through remarriage or by paying for care services; care work can be bought and sold, but the vast majority of care work is unpaid and is not formally accounted for. The socially constructed gender roles of men being the breadwinners who women depend on and women as members of the domestic sphere have thus been reinforced through economic motives that pose gender relations between men and women as an exchange of support for service. This configuration is based on 'patriarchal control', which is proclaimed to be linked to the "socialization processes where women are raised to be relational" care takers and family structure supports, while men are more 'individualistic' since their role is only tied to providing money. In other words, men provide the money and women are to provide 'unpaid labor'. Consequently, in the field of "unpaid care work" men typically take on far less responsibility than women due to the socially constructed 'gender division of labor' which assigns the obligation of 'caring labor' to women.

326:. For example, as seen in Patricia Grimshaw's research in Hawaii: New England missionaries assumed the roles of imperialists and colonialists by preaching their Christian values to the native Hawaiian population, who, before the missionary women arrived, practiced polygamy (high class-status allowing) and did not trouble themselves with domestic tasks like ironing. The Christian women, in particular, saw it as their responsibility to teach the native women notions of femininity that consisted of remaining inside the home to care for the family and to remain submissive to their husbands. Historically, a woman's position in the home was seen as a prerequisite to being a "good" wife and mother. Since the 1960s, however, the spread of globalization has given rise to new opportunities for women to participate in market work that has challenged the assumption their primary adult role as that of caretaker for the family and home. 946:

it is inherently difficult to obtain data on production output (e.g., number of pants folded) in the home. Furthermore, comparing the value of individual tasks performed to the average market price it would cost to get that same task completed may not be accurate, as multiple tasks can and are often done simultaneously in the home. To counteract this problem, one can construct a valuation based on the total wages of a housekeeper who performs a similar set of tasks. Yet, even then, the model does not take into account that men and women in the labour market often do housework, but hire housekeepers to do specific jobs that may require particular skills or expertise and demand a higher wage as a result.

761: 478:. These surveys attempt to evaluate how much time is spent providing different services, such as time spent in the workforce versus time spent on unpaid domestic work, such as cooking. Sarah Gammage conducted time use surveys in Guatemala to measure time spent doing unpaid domestic work within households and between family members. In this study, Gammage found women completed approximately 70% of all unpaid domestic work within a household. Similarly, Debbie Budlenger conducted time use surveys across six countries and found women in each country conducted the majority of the unpaid domestic work each day. The results of her findings are summarized in the chart below: 200:" typically specifically contains everyday activities, such as self construction, self repairing, home tech shopping, barbacuing, vacations planning, child amusing, cooking, washing, cleaning, shopping for own household, as well as care of children, the elderly, the sick, and the disabled. The term "unpaid care work" is primarily defined as care work for family members, but it is important to note that other types of unpaid SNA work exist that address 'productive activities', which include types of labor such as "growing food for own consumption, and collecting water and fuel". 741:. Because these things are being provided by an unpaid domestic worker, the state does not need to expend resources to provide its citizens with these services. Therefore, unpaid domestic work can decrease the amount of money a state must spend to otherwise provide these services. Note, however, that when a state cuts care services for the young, elderly, sick and disabled, the burden of this care is generally placed on female family members, meaning decreases in a state's spending on care can have a negative effect on female participation in the workforce. 189: 821:

unpaid domestic work, the value of an hour of unpaid domestic work is the hourly rate she could make if she were working as an attorney. The major flaw with this method is that two unpaid domestic workers can do the same job at the same proficiency level, but the value of the work will fluctuate based on the workers' prior education and skill level. It is also a problem for women who never held a job, because it is unclear how much money they would be making if they were participating in the work force, rather than working unpaid at home.

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responsibility of individual men". This construction has resulted in women being domesticated because their primary access to economic support was through marriage to a man. This gender division has made women's needs and rights invisible, which allows men to "continue to dominate women and define them as dependent" and conceals the needed dependency between men and women. This ignored 'dual dependency' highlights the fact that men are dependent on women's "domestic and reproductive labor" just as women are dependent on the income of men.

93: 777:, which is "the skills, knowledge, and experience possessed by an individual or population, viewed in terms of their value or cost to an organization or country;" economists consider "expenditures on education, training, medical care, and so on as investments in human capital" because they foster health and well-being in those who work towards producing financial capital. Human capital, however, is typically valued less than financial capital because the labor done to contribute to human capital is heavily feminized. 942:

from work is not factored into the calculation. Age, level of education, and work experience are good predictors of what one would make in the labour market, but they are simply a subset of the aspects that can be used to calculate what a house worker would make. Therefore, while many studies regarding the valuation of work in the home have attempted to come up with a standard wage and multiply it by the number of hours worked, there is no agreement as to how this standard wage should be determined.

668: 664:. The double burden negatively affects women because it gives them less time to spend in the workforce, resulting in men dedicating more time to the workforce, and, therefore, likely getting promoted over women. The double burden also negatively affects women's personal wellbeing because it means women have less time for taking care of themselves and sleeping. This can also negatively affect their job performance in the workforce, encouraging male promotion over female. 367:

globalization, women have increasingly been expected to take on jobs in both the paid and unpaid sectors, contributing to family income while still being the main providers of unpaid labor. This inequality emphasizes the gender division of labor and how it has changed with globalization's shifts in employment patterns. Furthermore, it illuminates how socially constructed gender norms have created a system that encourages women to continue to carry the '

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it irreversibly a biological-female's job. Married women, single mothers, or other female family members (such as elder siblings, aunts, etc.) are expected to be the primary actors of this unpaid reproductive labor in their personal lives, on top of the economic necessity of entering the productive, paid labor force. Child-rearing falls under both reproductive and care labor, so, after breastfeeding, any member of the household can take on the job.

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collected through a 24-hour diary and then averaged over seven days across 80 countries. In the top ten are three Scandinavian countries (in order from lowest discrepancy in time-use to highest): Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands and Finland. Out of all the countries included in the data set, Sweden had the smallest discrepancy between female and male time use with a difference of 3.33 hours out of a full day.

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reports that, in 63 countries, 31 percent of women's time is spent doing unpaid work, as compared to men who dedicate only 10 percent of their time to unpaid work. The double-burden is intensified when women are subjected to poverty and live in communities that lack basic infrastructure. In areas that lack easy access to food and water, household duties are even more time consuming.

389:, otherwise known as a double day, is the phenomenon that a woman holds a paying job in the labor market and then must come home and work a full day's worth of unpaid domestic work within the home. Due to societal norms and expectations, the burden of unpaid work primarily falls on the female in the household even if she and her husband work the same hours in the labor market. 976:

countries spend a considerable amount of time collecting water. In their study which look at countries in the Middle East, North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia they found that when access to water increased as a result of infrastructure investment women didn't enter into more paid employment, but their overall time spent on unpaid labor did diminish.

334:, is a constant struggle for women trying to create careers for themselves while raising children or caring for elderly family members. Women have to constantly decide where to allocate time and financial resources, which impacts their ability to develop their own capabilities. In turn, this decision impacts their family's relative standard of living as measured by 371:' of care services. The 'double burden' structure has contributed tremendously to the economic vulnerability of women, as women in financial crises are more likely to be poor, unemployed, ill in health, and uneducated. Women often suffer more during financial crises because they tend to be more generally disadvantaged than men. 615:

laundry”. This is despite a doubling of the female labour force from 1960 to 1999. The report argues that due to the invisibility of unpaid household production in traditional economic measures (like GDP), women are subject to wage and gender discrimination that has significant adverse effects on their economic well-being.

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The market value approach comes with its own set of flaws. One type of approach within this category is the Direct Output Method, which is based on the value of production rather than the hours of labour performed in the household. It solves the problem of having to come up with a standard wage, but

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approach. The former views housework as equivalent to the amount one would make in the labour market. Housework is therefore evaluated at the wage rate that the member would otherwise have received. The market value approach bases the value of work done in the home on the cost of hiring someone to do

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is an alternative to GDP as a measure of economic growth that is generally designed to incorporate environmental and social factors that are not traditionally included. While much of the focus is typically placed on environmental costs, most GPI measurements explicitly include additions for the value

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The replacement cost method measures the value of unpaid domestic work by calculating the monetary cost of purchasing that service instead. For example, to value unpaid child care, look at the cost of hiring a nanny, or to value the cost of cooking a meal, look at the cost of eating a similar meal at

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Examining only male participation in domestic household labor, the latest data available for Malawi shows that the amount of housework that men do per day is approximately 1.25 hours, and that is the same length of time that Cambodian men spent on household labor in 2004. Other nations with poor male

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and expectations, the burden of unpaid work primarily falls on the female member(s) of the household. Even if the male member(s) of the household are available to perform the care labor after they return home from their paid job, it is more often seen that the women are taking on the bulk of the care

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To reduce the amount of time spent collecting fuel for household energy demands, central governments and states should sponsor renewable energy sources for the purpose of reducing the amount of time women spend of fetching fuelwood. In addition, an alternative is investing in biogas production which

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defines unpaid work as, “the production of goods and services by household members that are not sold on the market” . It uses the “third-person” rule to distinguish between work and leisure, claiming that if a third person can be paid to do the activity while benefiting the household, it is work.

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The disproportionate division of household unpaid labor that falls on women negatively impacts their ability to navigate life outside their homes. Their undertaking of unpaid labor is a barrier to entry into the paid employment sector or in the case of those women who enter paid labor they still are

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Socially constructed gender roles are prescribed as ideal or proper behaviors for specific categories of male and female. Societies have socially constructed women's roles because women are primarily financially dependent on men as is defined through a 'sexual contract', thus deeming them a "private

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The spread of globalization has created more opportunities for women to enter paid employment, but has not relieved them of their time spent on unpaid labor. While participating in the labor market, women who secure paid employment undertake what is known as the "double burden" of labor. Finding the

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believes that reproductive labor is "a special kind of labor that should not be treated according to market norms"; it includes childbearing and raising/taking care of children and other family members. Childbearing is an act that only those who possess female reproductive organs can perform, making

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The opportunity cost method is flawed in that it is difficult to pinpoint a comparator group. Not all workers have their choice of job, nor the number of hours they work. Furthermore, wages vary depending on the location of the job and the gender of the employee, and the time it takes to get to and

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Statistics show that many children, particularly in poorer countries and households, are forced to contribute to the unpaid domestic work of a household. Because unpaid domestic work is traditionally the role of women in many societies, the burden of unpaid domestic work falls particularly on young

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indicates that while men and women participate (nearly) equally in the labour force, women spend far more hours on unpaid housework, such as child care and domestic work (including house cleaning, cooking, yard work and home maintenance). For example, it was found that men spend an average of 24.4

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In comparison, Algeria, Tunisia, Mexico, Iraq and Guatemala each had female-to-male time-use discrepancies that exceeded 18+ hours of work per day. For both Mexico and Guatemala, the proportion of domestic work that women do exceeded the number of hours in a day by about three hours. Women possibly

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The production boundary is the name given by economists to the imaginary line between unpaid work, which is not counted directly in the gross domestic product, and paid work that the GDP does count. Production boundary includes goods or services that are supplied to units other producers, including

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Since it has become increasingly necessary for more than one individual in a household to join the paid labor force, care labor (especially cooking, cleaning, and child-rearing in the forms of chefs, maids/cleaning staffs, and day-care workers) has become marketized. "Workers in sectors are often

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show that women spend far more time doing unpaid work than men. With women spending more time providing unpaid domestic work than men, women are also spending less time in the workforce and, therefore, bringing in lower incomes to the household. Because women are traditionally believed to bring in

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The traditional view of a family involves a woman in unpaid domestic labor supporting the household; however, under trends of dual earner couples and a gradually aging population, the commercialization of housework and domestic care has become inevitable. Arguments have been made that the value of

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The opportunity cost method measures the value of unpaid domestic work by calculating the amount of money unpaid domestic workers could be making if instead of doing unpaid work they were working in the labor market. For example, if a former female attorney is now a stay-at-home mother conducting

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On the other hand, the minimum number of hours that women spend on average occupied by domestic tasks 8.68 hours per week in Malawi. In the United States, the latest available data from 2014 shows that women undertake 14.58 hours per week on household labor. The trend in the division of household

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The state's role in providing quality affordable care services should not be overlooked. Since free childcare would be ineffective at generating income for workers, the services need to be subsidized to ensure that workers are compensated for their labor and that families can afford to use their

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Some economists argue that unpaid domestic work should be included as economic contributions. The economic value of women's unpaid labor is not included in gross domestic product (GDP) or national income accounting indicators. For this reason, the invisibility of women's work makes analyzing the

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and subjective well-being. As women increase their paid work time, they do not achieve a corresponding reduction in their unpaid work hours. Nor have men increased their share of unpaid work at the same rate that women have increased their share of paid work. The Human Development Report of 2015

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are possible solutions that would facilitate the redistribution of unpaid labor within households. In Nancy Fraser's article, "After the Family Wage: Gender Equity and the Welfare State" from 1994, she suggests that in two partner households a reduced work week is the most efficient vehicle for

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The quality and availability of data at the micro and macro levels is an area in need of improvement for the purpose of studying how policies impact the division of labor within households and for calculating the value unpaid labor. Organizations, such as the United Nations Statistics Division,

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defines a country's Gross Economic Product as comprising both the Gross Market Product (typically defined as GDP) and Gross Household Product. Using one of the same time use surveys as the BEA study referenced above (the American Time Use Survey), Ironmonger estimates the USA's 2011 GHP at 11.6

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production from 40 to 26 hours. The BEA explains this shift by increased women's participation in the work force as well as the steadily decreasing market wages of household workers (such as cleaners and nannies), raising the opportunity costs of self-participation and encouraging outsourcing.

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As noted by Aslanbeigui and Summerfield, when cuts to social expenditures are experienced women and children suffer the most, particularly during financial crises. They argue that cuts to healthcare, education and income disadvantage women in the long-term and push them further into poverty and

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Time-series data collected by the United Nations Statistics Division from 2000 to 2015 directly support the claim that women undertake more than half of household domestic labor all over the world. The largest discrepancy between female and male time-use is in developing countries. The data was

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The declining impact on the adjusted GDP reflects the steadily decreasing number of (nonmarket) hours households spent on home production. While men increased their weekly hours of home production in the time span from 14 to 17, this increase was more than offset by the decline in women's home

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for the period 1965–2010, the BEA found that incorporating “nonmarket household production” raises the GDP measure by 39% in 1965 and 26% in 2010. The surveys used seven categories of time use in American household production (housework, cooking, odd jobs, gardening, shopping, child care, and

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In many societies the socially constructed role of women includes "giving birth, caring for children, the elderly, and disabled, preparing food and clothing and collecting water, and firework, among others". Furthermore, women's gender roles are socially constructed within the economy as well,

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Globally, the expectation of women being the main providers of 'unpaid care' labor has been socially constructed and enforced by gender norms. Even when women are employed full-time outside the house, they may perform a greater share of household chores and childcare activities. As a result of

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has increased debates on establishing the production boundary, which involves measuring 'true' productivity. Millions of volunteer hours of unpaid work contribute to free services that others consume via social media and Knowledge in a new parallel economy. This unpaid work contributes a real

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By contrast, the US Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis found a smaller discrepancy between genders on productive (but nonmarket) housework. According to their May 2012 report, women spend approximately 26 hours per week on home production, as opposed to 17 hours for men. Note,

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According to GPI Atlantic, “ime use surveys reveal that Canadian women spend about twice as much time on total unpaid household work, including child and elder care, as men. They spend three times as long cooking and washing dishes, and nearly seven times as much time cleaning house and doing

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Regardless of the methodology used, a variety of studies have shown that the division of household labor results in a disproportionate burden falling on the wives in married couples' households. While this is the case, it has also been shown that the disparity between men and women in married

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Policies aimed at channeling public funds towards investment projects that create more efficient accessibility to resources are essential for lessening the burden of unpaid labor, particularly in developing countries. As noted by Koolwal and van de Walle (2013), women in rural and developing

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While paid work outside of the home is readily measurable, housework is much more difficult to calculate. A number of models have been created to determine the value of work in the home, each with different conceptualizations of the process. There is currently no consensus on the appropriate

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One of the most well-known examples is the GPI measure used across Atlantic Canada. In a 1999 report GPI Atlantic describes the household production infrastructure as akin to the access to raw materials, labour and markets required for the business sector. The Atlantic GPI employs time use

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Unpaid work contributes to the economy by producing important goods and services such as meals and cleanliness of the home. This allows other household members, as well as the women who deal with the double burden (considering the fact that they need care labor to survive, too), to enter the

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The UNDP Women and Development Report of 1995 conducted a time-use study that analyzed the amount of time women and men spend on paid and unpaid household and community work in thirty-one countries across the world, including countries classified as 'industrial, 'developing' and 'transition

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Dynamic policy solutions that emphasize the value of unpaid labor contributions at the macro level and redistribute unpaid labor within households are essential for gender equality. The following section outlines potential policy solutions that have been put forth by other academics.

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capture quantitative data on the number of hours women and men spend on paid, unpaid and total work hours. Collecting more qualitative data would be additionally useful for determining how to calculate the value unpaid labor, particularly for the market replacement cost method.

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Even if women do enter the workforce, they are usually still held accountable for the majority of the domestic unpaid work at home. This phenomenon of having to work a full day in the workforce and then come home and complete a full day of unpaid domestic work is known as the

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according to its replacement value in the market. According to their (1999) measurements, “unpaid work contributes $ 325 billion worth of services to the Canadian economy annually” and they argue that GPI analysis should be explicitly incorporated into policy considerations.

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Traditional means of tracking economic activity, such as the gross domestic product (GDP), do not take account of non-exchange, nonmarket household activity. Therefore, various adjustments to GDP calculations and novel measurements have been proposed, such as the GPI or GHP.

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Gross household product (GHP) is a specific estimation of the economic value added by the unpaid work and capital of households. It does not include many of the additional factors typically included in GPI determinations but focuses specifically on the “household economy.”

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Worldbankiudresearchgroup (1995). "WHO special programme for research, development and research training in human reproduction, World Bank: IUD Research Group. The TCu380A IUD and the frameless "FlexiGard", interim three-year data from an international multicenter trial".

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had some days when they performed more housework than usual, which may have skewed the average. Mathematically, the average of spending four hours per day seven days a week on domestic household labor equates to 672 hours per week or 28 hours per week as an approximation.

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Care labor maintains the well-being, and thereby fosters the productivity, of those who are performing paid work. Productivity—along with its ability to be used for personal gain by individuals within the system—is used to produce capital. There are two types of capital:

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the production of goods or services used up in the process of producing such goods or services; and the "own-account production of housing services by owner-occupiers and of domestic and personal services produced by employing paid domestic staff", according to the 2001

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and parental over-engagement in their children's lives. He argues that shifting tasks to consumers takes away from their time and reduces the amount of casual social interaction in people's lives. It also limits the number of opportunities for low-skilled

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The input/output cost method measures the value of unpaid domestic work by calculating the monetary value of the economic goods and services produced by unpaid domestic work and how much these goods and services would sell for in the open market.

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participation in the division of household labor include Pakistan (males:1.81; 18.06 hours discrepancy), Mali (males: 2.50; 17.92 hours discrepancy), Japan (males: 2.92; 12.01 discrepancy) and Palestine (males: 3.06; 16.11 hours discrepancy).

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assuring gender equality. At the same time, it's essential that policy makers are aware of household dynamics that aren't limited to dual income earning households to ensure that single parents aren't left more vulnerable economically.

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less income than men, women are discouraged from investing in education and skills. This further entrenches women into domestic unpaid work, creating a cycle of social norms that is difficult to break and exacerbates gender inequality.

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relationship between households and labor markets difficult. In addition, measures of economic output are largely inaccurate. if unpaid work were incorporated when measuring GDP, it would have raised the GDP by 26 percent in 2010.

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This form of gender inequality feeds into the dynamic of 'gender risks', which explains why it is women and girls that are most disadvantaged, as well as why it is more likely for increased poverty to affect women more than men.

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domestic labor in countries that have more than one year's worth of data show that, for 14 out of the 35 countries and between a range of 0.99 to 12.99 hours, women's proportion of unpaid labor on average diminished.

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households has been shrinking to some degree. For example, during the Great Recession of the 2000s, low income men increased their contributions to their households by completing more hours of unpaid domestic work.

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In a different time use survey, Liangshu Qi and Xiao-yuan Dong found that, in China men complete an average of 58 minutes of unpaid work a day compared to the 139 minutes of unpaid work a day that women complete.

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Balancing paid and unpaid work obligations is taxing on women. Reports of increased stress levels are not uncommon. In fact, women report higher levels of symptoms related to depression and anxiety, including low

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at super markets, and self-service at gas stations. Tasks that are necessary for completing a purchase that have been left to the consumers as a way of rationalising production and distribution.

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hours per week on child care, while women spend 50.1 hours on the same tasks. In the domestic work category, men conduct 8.3 hours of unpaid work, compared with 13.8 hours per week for women.

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that occurs inside households for their consumption. Unpaid labor is visible in many forms and is not limited to activities within a household. Other types of unpaid labor activities include

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and gender norms, which can result in high-stress levels in women attempting to balance unpaid work and paid employment. In poorer countries, this work is sometimes performed by children.

725:. Unpaid domestic work is typically the type of work that a state would provide for its citizens if family members were not already providing for their family. This includes things like 805:(GDP). While the symbolic or subjective benefits of housework are difficult to measure, various attempts have been made to attach value to economically productive household activity. 169:

monetary value to the digital platforms' owners that is included in the GDP, while all the unpaid work is on the wrong side of the production boundary and is therefore not counted.

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unpaid domestic labor must always be considered to prevent the exploitation of unpaid workers, and thus should be seen as legitimate employment. There are also arguments that a "

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a restaurant. The flaw with this method is that it cannot account for the added sentimental value of having a mother stay at home with her children rather than a stranger.

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Marphatia, Akanksha; Moussie´, Rachel (2013). "A question of gender justice: Exploring the linkages between women'sunpaid care work, education, and gender equality".

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Ciscel, David H; Heath, Julia; Sharp, David (Fall 1998). "Back To Becker: valuing women's economic contribution from housework with household production functions".

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comprises attempts to attach value to non-exchange domestic tasks. Housework may include a variety of activities, particularly those traditionally associated with

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done for self subsistence or to give to others, encompassing all tasks individuals do without compensation, such as building a house, writing and publishing

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Heilman, Madeline E.; Chen, Julie J. (2005). "Same Behavior, Different Consequences: Reactions to Men's and Women's Altruistic Citizenship Behavior".

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workforce and contribute to the overall economy via paying jobs. For this reason, Indira Hirway argues that unpaid domestic work should be considered

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MacDonald, Martha; Phipps, Shelley; Lethbridge, Lynn (March 2005). "Takings Its Toll: The Influence of Paid and Unpaid Work on Women's Well-Being".

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Olmsted, Jennifer C. "Development and Reproductive Rights: Placing Social Sustainability at the Center of the Agenda." 2016, pp. 1-21.

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Overall, while these methods have attempted to create ways to determine the value of household labour, there is no accepted approach.

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Liangshu, Qi; Dong, Xiao-yuan (May 8, 2015). "Unpaid Care Work's Interference with Paid Work and the Gender Earnings Gap in China".

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also advocates for the provision of public service, infrastructure, and social protection policies in recognition of unpaid work.

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Khitarishvili, Tamar; Kim, Kijong (2015). "The Great Recession and Unpaid Work Time in the United States - Does Poverty Matter?".

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Olmsted, Jennifer (2016). "Development and Reproductive Rights: Placing Social Sustainability at the Center of the UN's Agenda".

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Olmsted, Jennifer C. (2005). "Is paid work the (only) answer? Neoliberalism, Arab women's well-being, and the social contract".

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Sayer, Liana C. (2005). "Gender, time and inequality: Trends in women's and men's paid work, unpaid work and free time".

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is a better alternative to standard forms of household fuel given that it is pollution-free leading to a reduction in

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which can fall into one of two categories: (1) unpaid work that is placed within the production boundary of the

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of the economy because fewer women are entering into the workforce due to their domestic unpaid work duties.

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wrote about the new trend towards unpaid "shadow work" in 2011 and followed up his research in a book called

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in 2015. In it, he itemizes many of the unpaid tasks ordinary people do now that others used to do, such as

17: 860:(BEA) created an adjusted measure of GDP to account for productive household activity. By using detailed 2192:"Human development report 1999". New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Online. Internet. 13 Oct. 2016. 857: 760: 120: 2669:"Women's Contribution to Household Food and Economic Security: A Study in the Garhwal Himalayas, India" 2019: 878: 335: 1840:

Gammage, Sarah (September 9, 2010). "Time Pressed and Time Poor: Unpaid Household Work in Guatemala".

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as a form of charity work and interning as a form of unpaid employment. In a lot of countries, unpaid

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Luxton, Meg (June 1997). "The UN, women, and household labour: Measuring and valuing unpaid work".

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Aslanbeigui, Nahid; Summerfield, Gale (2001). "Risk, gender, and development in the 21st century".

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girls who are forced to drop out of school to assist with the unpaid work within their households.

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allowance" should be provided to unpaid domestic workers to protect the labor value of their work.

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domestic travel) and the BEA assigned a low-end market wage to the hours spent on each activity.

699: 127:(GDP); and (2) unpaid work that falls outside of the production boundary (non-SNA work), such as 72: 2230: 757:'s Cake Model, reproductive labor and care labor are "key to the functioning of all economies." 1381: 1082: 802: 695: 474:

The most commonly used method for measuring unpaid domestic labor is through the collection of

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Benjamin Bridgman; Andrew Dugan; Mikhael Lal; Matthew Osborne & Shaunda Villones (2012),

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Do-It-Yourself Digital: The Production Boundary, the Productivity Puzzle and Economic Welfare

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Goldschmidt-Clermont, L. (1983). "Unpaid work in the household". International Labor Office.

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Pearson, Ruth (2000). "All change? Men, women and reproductive work in the global economy".

753:

Unpaid care labor is necessary to maintain order in our global market economy. According to

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Folbre, Nancy. "Caring Labor." Transcription by Oliver Ressler. 2003, UMass Amherst. Video.

1955:

Statistics, Commodity Trade, and Statistics Branch. "United Nations Statistics Division."

8: 2770: 2331: 2113: 2066: 427: 1293:

Folbre, Nancy (July 2006). "Measuring Care: Gender, Empowerment, and the Care Economy".

208:

While unpaid care work is not completely biological, reproductive labor (partially) is.

96:

A woman participating in unpaid domestic work by cooking a meal for her family, USA 1906

2731: 2607: 2477: 2360: 2228: 1995: 1931: 1857: 1817: 1777: 1655: 1592: 1552: 1506: 1449: 1310: 1175: 1057: 999: 161: 2361:"Output-Based Estimates of the Gross Household Product of the United States 2003-2010" 2312: 1733: 781:

among the most exploited, receiving low pay and working under precarious conditions."

188: 2735: 2685: 2668: 2436: 1999: 1935: 1861: 1821: 1781: 1737: 1659: 1596: 1556: 1399: 1337: 1254: 1229: 1179: 901: 770: 607: 399: 331: 165: 140: 31: 2714:

Fraser, Nancy (1994). "After the Family Wage: Gender Equity and the Welfare State".

2611: 1314: 2765: 2723: 2680: 2597: 2589: 2473: 2415: 2308: 2215: 2211: 1987: 1923: 1849: 1809: 1769: 1729: 1690: 1682: 1647: 1584: 1544: 1391: 1302: 1167: 1159: 930: 809: 703: 443: 293: 272: 68: 1927: 1853: 1072: 1052: 1042: 861: 754: 648: 475: 92: 52: 2727: 1813: 1144: 1991: 1686: 1395: 702:. Hirway also notes that unpaid domestic work has the attributes of a standard 128: 2506: 2504: 2502: 1773: 1588: 1499:

New England missionary wives, Hawaiian women, and "The Cult of True Womanhood"

1306: 1163: 2749: 1635: 1067: 1047: 774: 710: 661: 386: 380: 368: 297: 289: 243: 136: 62: 2420: 2407: 1651: 1610: 667: 2499: 2464:

Ferber, M.A.; Birnbaum, B.G. (1980). "Housework: Priceless or Valueless?".

2172:"Accounting for Household Production in the National Accounts, 1965 - 2010" 1403: 1341: 1223: 934: 794: 730: 722: 319: 250: 235: 132: 112: 1741: 1548: 1894:"The Statistical Evidence on Care and Non-Care Work across Six Countries" 1019: 734: 640: 342: 323: 315: 302: 265: 231: 223: 157: 1695: 1171: 748: 1037: 1011: 808:

There are three ways to measure the value of unpaid domestic work: the

798: 726: 361: 209: 2602: 314:

The role of women and men within their households is deeply rooted in

1255:"OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Production boundary Definition" 1077: 1062: 1032: 738: 619:

however, that the tasks included vary significantly between studies.

351: 258: 239: 197: 183: 58: 2489: 2487: 908: 812:

method, the replacement cost method, and the input/out cost method.

2593: 1198:"Why did it take a pandemic to show how much unpaid work women do?" 1015: 254: 671:

Older child caring for younger child as a form of unpaid care work

2484: 2366:. The International Association for Research in Income and Wealth 684: 2408:"Cooking, Caring and Volunteering: Unpaid Work Around the World" 716: 285: 268:, in his 1980 article and in his 1981 book of the same title. 2557: 1145:"Unpaid Work and the Economy: Linkages and Their Implications" 919:

Cooking, Caring and Volunteering: Unpaid Work Around the World

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Satz, Debra (1992). "Markets in Women's Reproductive Labor".

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These methods are generally divided into two main camps: the

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Accounting for Household Production in the National Accounts

635: 318:

and cultural values that have been reinforced over time by

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trillion dollars (as compared to a GDP of 13.3 trillion).

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Requiring data collection at the national and state level

139:

in the household is typically performed by women, due to

1901:

United Nations Research Institute for Social Development

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International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society

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Shadow Work: The Unpaid, Unseen Jobs That Fill Your Day

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Salem, New Hampshire and London: Marion Boyars, 1981.

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Time spent on unpaid work, per day, men vs women, OWID

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Koolwal, van de Walle, Gayatri and Dominique (2013).

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US Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis

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Relationship to the economy and the paid labor market

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OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers

2575:"Access to Water, Women's Work, and Child Outcomes" 938:the same job. Neither method is without criticism. 192:

Infographic of statistics on unpaid care in England

27:

Labor that does not receive any direct remuneration

1228:. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network. 886:variables and assigns explicit monetary values to 2644:"Sustainable Development Goal 5: Gender equality" 2201: 2060: 2058: 909:Approaches to the Economic Valuation of Housework 824: 483:Minutes Per Day Spent Doing Unpaid Household Work 2747: 2359:Ironmonger, Duncan; Faye Soupourmas (Aug 2012). 2204:International Journal of Educational Development 1672: 1191: 1189: 721:Unpaid domestic work has a positive effect on a 2332:"Gender Equality in the Genuine Progress Index" 2326: 2324: 2322: 2114:"Gender Equality in the Genuine Progress Index" 2067:"Gender Equality in the Genuine Progress Index" 994:Subsidized energy (non-reliant on fossil fuels) 2510: 2493: 2463: 2451: 2055: 1633: 1002:that will benefit all members of a household. 685:Effects of unpaid domestic work on the economy 2553: 2551: 2354: 2352: 2013: 2011: 2009: 1472:"Book Review: 'Shadow Work' by Craig Lambert" 1442: 1186: 872: 330:optimal balance of paid and unpaid labor, or 2699:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2319: 2111: 2064: 1913: 1577:The European Journal of Development Research 717:Effects of unpaid domestic work on the state 442:. There might be a discussion about this on 434:Talk:Unpaid_work#Data_section_needs_a_rework 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2155: 1612:UNIFEM: Progress for the World's Women 2005 1371: 833: 676:Effects of unpaid domestic work on children 594:Gender and unpaid work: the gender division 2666: 2548: 2349: 2006: 1675:International Journal of Time Use Research 1634:Sirianni, Carmen; Negrey, Cynthia (2000). 894: 815: 706:because it is neither free nor unlimited. 362:The "feminine quality" of unpaid care work 146: 2684: 2601: 2419: 2264:Becker, Gary S. (2008). "Human Capital". 1891: 1694: 1469: 1385: 981:Subsidized child, elder and care services 851: 462:Learn how and when to remove this message 111:or work that does not receive any direct 2582:Economic Development and Cultural Change 2152: 1496: 759: 666: 639: 636:Effects of unpaid domestic work on women 187: 91: 2627: 2405: 2399: 2251:The origin of capitalism: a longer view 1977: 1839: 1574: 14: 2748: 2713: 2623: 2621: 2457: 2298: 2263: 1980:Journal of Middle East Women's Studies 1755: 1753: 1751: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1629: 1627: 1625: 1570: 1568: 1566: 1292: 1142: 628:left with a "double-burden" of labor. 2667:Sidh, Basu, Shiv, Sharmistha (2011). 2294: 2292: 2290: 2288: 2286: 2284: 2266:The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics 2017: 1973: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1835: 1833: 1831: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1534: 1530: 1528: 1367: 1365: 1221: 1195: 1138: 1136: 1134: 1132: 1130: 1128: 1126: 1124: 1122: 1120: 1118: 972:Investment into public infrastructure 745:therefore more reliant on the state. 264:The term 'shadow work' was coined by 222:These paragraphs are an excerpt from 203: 30:For work served as a punishment, see 2434: 2428: 2248: 2169: 1355: 1353: 1351: 1327: 1288: 1286: 1284: 1282: 1280: 1278: 1276: 1274: 1272: 1116: 1114: 1112: 1110: 1108: 1106: 1104: 1102: 1100: 1098: 842: 410: 36: 2618: 2301:Women's Studies International Forum 2268:. Library of Economics and Liberty. 2174:. Bureau of Economic Analysis Repor 1892:Budlender, Debbie (December 2008). 1748: 1703: 1622: 1563: 1420:Philosophica 26,1980 (2), Pp. 7-46. 1247: 952: 177: 24: 2478:10.1111/j.1475-4991.1980.tb00174.x 2281: 2195: 1962: 1942: 1828: 1788: 1525: 1478:. Boston Globe Media Partners, LLC 1443:Craig Lambert (October 29, 2011). 1362: 1152:Indian Journal of Labour Economics 1007:Family-friendly workplace policies 392: 270:Craig Lambert, a former editor of 25: 2782: 2673:Mountain Research and Development 2438:Economics of Household Production 2018:Milan, Anne; et al. (2011). 1348: 1269: 1095: 882:of household work and parenting. 2686:10.1659/mrd-journal-d-10-00010.1 2170:Bridgman, Benjamin; et al. 1470:Liebetrau, Eric (May 21, 2015). 1222:Coyle, Diane (October 1, 2019). 791:valuation of nonmarket housework 415: 374: 41: 2707: 2660: 2636: 2566: 2516: 2272: 2257: 2242: 2222: 2186: 2105: 1907: 1885: 1876:"Human Development Report 2015" 1868: 1666: 1636:"Working Time as Gendered Time" 1603: 1490: 1463: 1445:"Our Unpaid, Extra Shadow Work" 1436: 1423: 1330:Philosophy & Public Affairs 1010:Shortened work weeks, flexible 294:checking in baggage at airports 2216:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2013.05.005 1410: 1321: 1215: 1196:Coyle, Diane (June 28, 2020). 987:Sustainable Development Goal 5 825:Market replacement cost method 346:labor after they return home. 216: 13: 1: 2560:Journal of Forensic Economics 2513:, pp. 387–388 & 391. 2313:10.1016/s0277-5395(97)00026-5 2249:Wood, Ellen Meiksins (2002). 2112:GPI Atlantic (October 1999). 2065:GPI Atlantic (October 1999). 1928:10.1080/13545701.2015.1025803 1734:10.1016/s0010-7824(95)00140-9 1374:Journal of Applied Psychology 1143:Hirway, Indira (March 2015). 1088: 985:services. The United Nations 709:Unpaid work also affects the 238:. It includes assembling of 2337:. GPI Atlantic. October 1999 1854:10.1080/13545701.2010.498571 1295:Journal of Human Development 784: 7: 2728:10.1177/0090591794022004003 2466:Review of Income and Wealth 1814:10.1080/1354570042000332597 1497:Grimshaw, Patricia (1989). 1026: 305:work (such as pumping gas). 240:goods that come "in pieces" 121:System of National Accounts 55:the scope of other articles 10: 2787: 2511:Ferber & Birnbaum 1980 2494:Ferber & Birnbaum 1980 2452:Ferber & Birnbaum 1980 1992:10.1215/15525864-2005-2005 1687:10.13085/eIJTUR.12.1.19-48 1396:10.1037/0021-9010.90.3.431 873:Genuine progress indicator 622: 378: 336:national income accounting 309: 290:making travel arrangements 221: 181: 29: 1589:10.1080/09578810008426773 1307:10.1080/14649880600768512 1164:10.1007/s41027-015-0010-3 834:Input/output cost method 172: 2435:Reid, Margaret (1934). 2421:10.1787/5kghrjm8s142-en 1774:10.1023/a:1011184220863 1652:10.1080/135457000337679 895:Gross household product 816:Opportunity cost method 406: 147:The production boundary 2536:Cite journal requires 2387:Cite journal requires 2140:Cite journal requires 2093:Cite journal requires 2043:Cite journal requires 1618:, 2005, pp. 58–73 1083:Universal basic income 852:Gross domestic product 803:gross domestic product 765: 672: 645: 644:UN Women - Unpaid-work 255:free computer programs 193: 125:gross domestic product 97: 1549:10.1353/sof.2005.0126 763: 670: 643: 234:is a special kind of 191: 95: 71:and help introduce a 2406:Miranda, V. (2011). 1257:. September 25, 2001 1000:indoor air pollution 428:confusing or unclear 249:This contrasts with 115:. This is a form of 2496:, pp. 387–389. 2022:. Statistics Canada 696:economic production 485: 440:clarify the section 2630:Feminist Economics 1916:Feminist Economics 1842:Feminist Economics 1802:Feminist Economics 1640:Feminist Economics 1450:The New York Times 1058:Feminist economics 766: 673: 646: 528:Republic of Korea 481: 204:Reproductive labor 194: 162:digital revolution 160:described how the 98: 69:discuss this issue 1501:. pp. 19–44. 933:approach and the 902:Duncan Ironmonger 843:Tracking measures 771:financial capital 608:Statistics Canada 571: 570: 472: 471: 464: 400:life satisfaction 332:work-life balance 286:bagging groceries 166:COVID-19 pandemic 141:gender inequality 90: 89: 32:community service 16:(Redirected from 2778: 2740: 2739: 2716:Political Theory 2711: 2705: 2704: 2698: 2690: 2688: 2664: 2658: 2657: 2655: 2654: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2625: 2616: 2615: 2605: 2579: 2570: 2564: 2563: 2555: 2546: 2545: 2539: 2534: 2532: 2524: 2520: 2514: 2508: 2497: 2491: 2482: 2481: 2461: 2455: 2449: 2443: 2442: 2432: 2426: 2425: 2423: 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1149: 1140: 953:Policy solutions 931:opportunity cost 862:time use surveys 810:opportunity cost 649:Time use surveys 606:A 2011 study by 486: 480: 476:time-use surveys 467: 460: 456: 453: 447: 419: 418: 411: 282:pumping gasoline 273:Harvard Magazine 178:Unpaid care work 85: 82: 76: 45: 44: 37: 21: 2786: 2785: 2781: 2780: 2779: 2777: 2776: 2775: 2746: 2745: 2744: 2743: 2712: 2708: 2692: 2691: 2665: 2661: 2652: 2650: 2642: 2641: 2637: 2626: 2619: 2577: 2571: 2567: 2556: 2549: 2537: 2535: 2526: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2509: 2500: 2492: 2485: 2462: 2458: 2450: 2446: 2433: 2429: 2404: 2400: 2388: 2386: 2377: 2376: 2369: 2367: 2363: 2357: 2350: 2340: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2329: 2320: 2297: 2282: 2277: 2273: 2262: 2258: 2247: 2243: 2235: 2227: 2223: 2200: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2177: 2175: 2168: 2153: 2141: 2139: 2130: 2129: 2122: 2120: 2116: 2110: 2106: 2094: 2092: 2083: 2082: 2075: 2073: 2069: 2063: 2056: 2044: 2042: 2033: 2032: 2025: 2023: 2016: 2007: 1976: 1963: 1954: 1943: 1912: 1908: 1896: 1890: 1886: 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2538:|journal= 2515: 2498: 2483: 2456: 2454:, p. 388. 2444: 2427: 2398: 2389:|journal= 2348: 2318: 2307:(3): 431–439. 2280: 2271: 2256: 2241: 2221: 2210:(6): 585–594. 2194: 2185: 2151: 2142:|journal= 2104: 2095:|journal= 2054: 2045:|journal= 2005: 1986:(2): 112–139. 1961: 1941: 1922:(2): 143–167. 1906: 1884: 1867: 1827: 1787: 1747: 1702: 1665: 1621: 1602: 1583:(2): 219–237. 1562: 1543:(1): 285–303. 1524: 1489: 1462: 1435: 1429:Illich, Ivan. 1422: 1416:Illich, Ivan. 1409: 1380:(3): 431–441. 1361: 1347: 1320: 1301:(2): 183–199. 1268: 1246: 1214: 1202:New York Times 1185: 1093: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1028: 1025: 954: 951: 910: 907: 896: 893: 874: 871: 853: 850: 844: 841: 835: 832: 826: 823: 817: 814: 786: 783: 750: 747: 723:state's budget 718: 715: 686: 683: 677: 674: 637: 634: 624: 621: 595: 592: 569: 568: 565: 562: 558: 557: 554: 551: 547: 546: 543: 540: 536: 535: 532: 529: 525: 524: 521: 518: 514: 513: 510: 507: 503: 502: 497: 492: 470: 469: 423: 421: 414: 408: 405: 394: 391: 379:Main article: 376: 373: 363: 360: 311: 308: 230:In economics, 228: 220: 218: 215: 205: 202: 182:Main article: 179: 176: 174: 171: 148: 145: 129:domestic labor 107:is defined as 88: 87: 49: 47: 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2783: 2772: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2753: 2751: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2710: 2702: 2696: 2687: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2663: 2649: 2645: 2639: 2631: 2624: 2622: 2613: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2576: 2569: 2561: 2554: 2552: 2543: 2530: 2519: 2512: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2495: 2490: 2488: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2460: 2453: 2448: 2440: 2439: 2431: 2422: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2402: 2394: 2381: 2362: 2355: 2353: 2333: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2275: 2267: 2260: 2252: 2245: 2234: 2233: 2225: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2198: 2189: 2173: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2147: 2134: 2115: 2108: 2100: 2087: 2068: 2061: 2059: 2050: 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1275: 1273: 1256: 1250: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1226: 1218: 1203: 1199: 1192: 1190: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1146: 1139: 1137: 1135: 1133: 1131: 1129: 1127: 1125: 1123: 1121: 1119: 1117: 1115: 1113: 1111: 1109: 1107: 1105: 1103: 1101: 1099: 1094: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1069: 1068:Human capital 1066: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1048:Double burden 1046: 1044: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1030: 1024: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1008: 1003: 1001: 996: 995: 990: 988: 983: 982: 977: 974: 973: 968: 965: 964: 959: 950: 947: 943: 939: 936: 932: 927: 923: 920: 916: 906: 903: 892: 889: 883: 880: 870: 866: 863: 859: 856:In 2012, the 849: 840: 831: 822: 813: 811: 806: 804: 800: 796: 792: 782: 778: 776: 775:human capital 772: 762: 758: 756: 746: 742: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 714: 712: 707: 705: 704:economic good 701: 697: 691: 682: 669: 665: 663: 662:double burden 657: 653: 650: 642: 633: 629: 620: 616: 612: 609: 604: 600: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 566: 563: 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