713:
629:
692:
671:
650:
608:
587:
566:
47:
1141:
449:
1170:
778:
century shortly after the invention of the telephone. The cable termination in termination boxes were sealed with molten wax or a resin to prevent the ingress of moisture which would seriously degrade the insulating properties of the paper insulation. However, such seals made future maintenance and changes more difficult. These cables are no longer made but are still occasionally encountered in old buildings and in various external areas, commonly rural villages.
3171:
186:
3181:
3160:
3191:
2104:
385:
257:
377:
308:
162:) makes up part of the specification for a given type of cable. When nearby pairs have equal twist rates, the same conductors of the different pairs may repeatedly lie next to each other, partially undoing the benefits of twisting. For this reason it is commonly specified that, at least for cables containing small numbers of pairs, the twist rates must differ.
1132:, it is intended to help assure configuration consistency during and after installation. One key benefit is that the noise immunity performance of the cable can be protected despite potentially rough handling. The enhanced performance may be unnecessary and bonding reduces the flexibility of the cable and makes it prone to failure where it is flexed.
1267:
and the differential mode. Line differential to common mode conversion produces common-mode currents that can cause external interference and can produce common-mode signals in other pairs. Common mode to differential mode conversion can produce differential mode signals from common-mode interference
201:
were installed in many cities, which induced noise into these circuits. In some countries, the tram companies were held responsible for disruption to existing telegraph lines and had to pay for remedial work. For new installations, however, it was necessary to protect against existing trams from the
1255:
Delay skew: due to different twist rates used to minimize crosstalk between the pairs, different pairs within the cable have different lengths and thus different delays. This can degrade image quality when multiple pairs are used to carry components of a video signal. Low skew cable is available to
492:
Individual shielding with aluminium foil for each twisted pair or quad. Common names: pair in metal foil (PiMF), shielded twisted pair, screened twisted pair, shielded pair. This type of shielding helps prevent EMI from entering or exiting individual pairs and also protects neighbouring pairs from
247:
in 1881. By 1900, the entire
American telephone network was either twisted pair or open wire with transposition to guard against interference. Today, most of the millions of kilometres of twisted pairs in the world are outdoor landlines, owned and maintained by telephone companies, used for voice
150:
starts to fail on untwisted wires when the noise source is close to the signal wires; the closer wire will couple with the noise more strongly and the receiver will be unable to eliminate it. This problem is especially apparent in telecommunication cables where pairs in the same cable lie next to
777:
Prior to the common use of polyethylene and other plastics for insulation, telephone twisted pair cable was insulated with waxed paper or cotton with a wax coating applied to the copper. The overall sheath of this type of cable was usually lead. This style of cable came into use in the late 19th
773:
specified CW1293 and CW1308 cables. CW1308 was a similar specification to the earlier CW1293 but with an improved color code. CW1293 used mostly solid colours on the cores making it difficult to identify the pair it was twisted with without stripping back a large amount of sheath. To solve this
510:
Individual shielding using foils for every twisted pair in a cable, and also an outer foil or braided shielding. Common names: fully shielded twisted pair, screened foiled twisted pair, shielded foiled twisted pair, screened shielded twisted pair, shielded screened twisted pair. This type of
396:
in an attempt to prevent electromagnetic interference. Shielding provides an electrically conductive barrier to attenuate electromagnetic waves external to the shield. The shield also provides a conduction path by which induced currents can be circulated and returned to the source via ground
299:
For urban outdoor telephone cables containing hundreds or thousands of pairs, the cable is divided into small but identical bundles. Each bundle consists of twisted pairs that have different twist rates, as pairs having the same twist rate within the cable can still experience some degree of
323:, the most common data networking standard, can use UTP cables, with increasing data rates requiring higher specification variants of the UTP cable. Twisted-pair cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium-length connections because of its relatively lower costs compared to
1268:
from other pairs or external sources. Imbalance can be caused by asymmetry between the two conductors of the pair from each other and in relationship to other wires and the shield. Some sources of asymmetry may result from differences in the conductor diameter and insulation thickness.
1206:
Connectors are designed differently for solid core than for stranded. Use of a connector with the wrong cable type can lead to unreliable cabling. Plugs designed for solid and stranded core are readily available, and some vendors even offer plugs designed for use with both types. The
151:
each other for many miles. Twisting the pairs counters this effect as on each half twist the wire nearest to the noise-source is exchanged. Provided the interfering source remains uniform, or nearly so, over the distance of a single twist, the induced noise will remain common-mode.
1156:
in which adjacent pairs of conductors are bonded and twisted together. The twisted pairs are then lightly bonded to each other in a ribbon format. Periodically along the ribbon, there are short sections with no twisting where connectors may be attached using the usual ribbon cable
135:
can greatly reduce the effect of noise currents induced on the line by coupling of electric or magnetic fields. The idea is that the currents induced in each of the two wires are very nearly equal. The twisting ensures that the two wires are on average the same distance from the
1247:
Deformation: twisted pair's susceptibility to electromagnetic interference greatly depends on the pair twisting schemes staying intact during the installation. As a result, twisted pair cables usually have stringent requirements for maximum pulling tension as well as minimum
501:
Overall foil, braided shield or braiding with foil across all of the pairs within the 100 ohm twisted pair cable. Common names: foiled twisted pair, shielded twisted pair, screened twisted pair. This type of shielding helps prevent EMI from entering or exiting the
1215:, whereby the device pierces the sides of the insulation and "bites" into the copper conductor to form a connection. Punchdown blocks are used as patch panels or as break-out boxes, for twisted pair cable.
1452:
774:
problem. CW1308 has narrow rings of the paired color printed over the base colour. Both cables are a similar standard to category 3 cable. Cables with categories 3 through 7 have 4 twisted pairs.
1184:
uses multiple wires wrapped around each other in each conductor and in a four-pair with seven strands per conductor cable, there would be a total of 56 wires (2 per pair × 4 pairs × 7 strands).
1120:
frequencies but increase it on higher frequencies. Load coils reduce distortion in voiceband on very long lines. In this context a line without load coils is referred to as an unloaded line.
769:
Before digital communication and
Ethernet became widespread there was no international standard for telephone cable. Standards were set at a national level. For instance, in the UK the
418::2002 (Annex E) attempts to internationally standardize the various shielding designations for twisted pair (TP) cables using an explicit two-part abbreviation in the form of
515:
An early example of shielded twisted-pair was IBM STP-A, which is a two-pair 150 ohm S/FTP cable defined in 1985 by the IBM Cabling System specifications, and used with
482:
which makes electrical contact with the shield. The purpose of the drain wire is for easy connection to terminals which are usually designed for connection of round wires.
478:
Because the shielding is conductive, it may also serve as a path to ground. A foil-shielded, twisted pair cable may have an integrally incorporated grounding wire called a
1340:
In Cape Town for instance, a balancing conductor was installed from the telegraph office through the streets and six miles out to sea to fix interference to the
2435:
729:
The code before the slash designates the shielding for the cable itself, while the code after the slash determines the shielding for the individual pairs:
400:
When shielding is applied to a collection of pairs, it is usually referred to as screening, but usage among vendors and authors in applying such words as
276:. A typical subset of these colours (white/blue, blue/white, white/orange, orange/white) shows up in most UTP cables. The cables are typically made with
1128:
A bonded twisted pair is a construction variant in which the two wires of each pair are bonded together for the length of the cable. Pioneered by
990:
Improved standards, tested to 500 MHz. Full 100 m distance at 10GBASE-T ISO/IEC 11801 2nd Ed. Am. 2. (2008), ANSI/TIA-568-C.1 (2009)
3227:
397:
reference connection. Such shielding can be applied to individual pairs or to a collection of pairs. Shielding may be foil or braided wire.
213:
As electrical power distribution became more commonplace, this measure proved inadequate. Two wires, strung on either side of cross bars on
3143:
3115:
3110:
2135:
940:
Enhanced Cat 5. Common for current LANs. Same construction as Cat 5, but with better testing standards. Limited to 100m between equipment.
1953:
1498:
268:
networks and telephone systems. For indoor telephone applications, UTP is often grouped into sets of 25 pairs according to a standard
915:
Common for current LANs. Superseded by Cat 5e, but most Cat 5 cables meet Cat 5e standards. Limited to 100 m between equipment.
221:. Within a few years, the growing use of electricity again brought an increase of interference, so engineers devised a method called
1514:
1561:
1775:
1589:
712:
628:
1022:
1854:
691:
670:
649:
607:
586:
565:
202:
outset. Interference on telephone lines is even more disruptive than it is on telegraph lines. Telephone companies converted to
3367:
3137:
1252:. This fragility of twisted-pair cables makes the installation practices an important part of ensuring the cable's performance.
228:
In wire transposition, the wires exchange position once every several poles. In this way, the two wires would receive similar
3132:
3122:
3102:
2904:
1864:
1672:
1481:
2108:
1662:
1180:
A solid-core cable uses one solid wire per conductor and in a four-pair cable there would be a total of eight solid wires.
2269:
1880:
1430:
3194:
3127:
2973:
2899:
1047:
ISO/IEC 11801 2nd Ed. Am. 2. (2008). Only with GG45 or TERA connectors. It is not recognized by the EIA/TIA.
17:
3220:
2993:
2084:
1397:
1212:
1158:
144:
which can be cancelled at the receiver by detecting the difference signal only, the latter being the wanted signal.
3357:
2778:
2326:
2128:
520:
511:
shielding helps prevent EMI from entering or exiting the cable and also protects neighbouring pairs from crosstalk.
232:
from power lines. This represented an early implementation of twisting, with a twist rate of about four twists per
3362:
2889:
38:
2884:
1647:
1623:
1018:
289:
2909:
335:
69:
3213:
3184:
2945:
2842:
2385:
2180:
2152:
1129:
229:
137:
89:
3205:
3174:
2681:
2121:
3309:
3302:
3033:
2955:
2894:
2601:
1929:
1414:"Crosstalk dependence on number of turns/inch for twisted pair versions of the end-cap umbilical cable"
1293:
868:
Described in EIA/TIA-568. Unsuitable for speeds above 16 Mbit/s. Now mainly for telephone cables.
284:(AWG) (0.644 or 0.511 mm²), with the coloured insulation typically made from an insulator such as
1413:
1188:
240:. Such open-wire balanced lines with periodic transpositions still survive today in some rural areas.
2805:
2766:
2611:
2511:
2440:
2373:
2200:
1538:
1447:
1341:
371:
81:
1191:). It is less flexible than stranded cable and is more prone to failure if repeatedly flexed due to
3164:
2406:
2341:
2294:
2254:
1905:"Contractor Field-Testing Survey Reveals Performance-Related Cost Savings Using Bonded-Pair Cables"
1211:
on patch-panel and wall-port jacks are designed for use with solid core cable. These work via the
3377:
3003:
2988:
2832:
2783:
2706:
2606:
2284:
2170:
2165:
1303:
1471:
3372:
2925:
2711:
2526:
2471:
2466:
2279:
2244:
1525:
194:
73:
2076:
1458:
1112:
and was formerly common practice on telecommunication lines. The added inductors are known as
2827:
2631:
2596:
2516:
2496:
2418:
2306:
2227:
1387:
1288:
965:
ISO/IEC 11801 2nd Ed. (2002), ANSI/TIA 568-B.2-1. Limited to 55 m distance at 10GBASE-T
244:
147:
93:
2160:
1800:
2741:
2701:
2671:
2428:
2363:
2185:
61:
8:
3352:
2751:
2691:
2450:
2412:
2210:
2195:
1722:
770:
316:
281:
273:
174:
31:
3285:
3280:
1978:
3236:
2978:
2935:
2866:
2736:
2666:
2641:
2576:
2423:
2144:
1593:
1264:
269:
222:
141:
65:
50:
2069:
1779:
3316:
3018:
2940:
2854:
2837:
2800:
2646:
2476:
2445:
2311:
2205:
2080:
1860:
1703:
1668:
1643:
1619:
1477:
1393:
2686:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3023:
2983:
2963:
2930:
2859:
2817:
2731:
2586:
2571:
2546:
2521:
2481:
2331:
2190:
2175:
2042:
2017:
1208:
1174:
873:
848:
827:
809:
469:
461:
203:
132:
169:), UTP cable is not surrounded by any shielding. UTP is the primary wire type for
2651:
2506:
2274:
2249:
2237:
1315:
1309:
351:
2849:
2721:
2696:
2656:
2626:
2501:
2336:
2289:
2264:
2222:
1192:
393:
100:
1263:): differences between the two wires in a pair can cause coupling between the
3346:
2998:
2771:
2761:
2676:
2566:
2561:
2551:
2536:
2358:
2217:
1992:
1904:
1283:
1260:
1181:
1145:
759:
535:
415:
359:
328:
324:
128:
77:
1140:
2876:
2716:
2661:
2591:
2556:
2491:
2390:
2380:
2232:
1321:
1278:
1153:
293:
285:
214:
46:
37:"Copper line" redirects here. For the proposed San Diego Trolley line, see
3235:
3323:
3076:
2726:
2636:
2621:
2581:
2541:
2400:
1707:
1249:
1196:
1169:
1030:
843:
Not described in EIA/TIA recommendations. Unsuitable for modern systems.
822:
Not described in EIA/TIA recommendations. Unsuitable for modern systems.
207:
165:
In contrast to shielded or foiled twisted pair (typically S/FTP or F/UTP
448:
3081:
2788:
2486:
2395:
2351:
2321:
2299:
1824:
1200:
1109:
995:
935:
931:
910:
906:
885:
863:
516:
465:
343:
218:
1450:, Bell, Alexander Graham, "Telephone-circuit", issued 1881
1227:
Electrical noise going into or coming from the cable can be prevented.
3066:
2531:
2346:
2113:
1298:
1230:
1117:
1113:
1092:
1088:
1067:
1063:
985:
960:
301:
233:
185:
170:
85:
358:
is needed to connect to unbalanced equipment, for example any using
3061:
3051:
2968:
2793:
2616:
981:
956:
859:
838:
339:
320:
265:
430:
indicates the shielding for individual pairs or quads, where each
3056:
3041:
2259:
1077:
1052:
304:. The bundles are in turn twisted together to make up the cable.
3086:
3046:
2368:
2103:
1345:
970:
920:
744:
TQ – twisted pair, individual shielding in quads
457:
277:
384:
88:
between neighbouring pairs and improves rejection of external
3071:
3008:
2316:
2071:
Subscriber Loop
Signaling and Transmission Handbook - Digital
1570:
1431:"Disturbance of submarine cable working by electric tramways"
1187:
Solid core cable is intended for permanently installed runs (
945:
895:
426:
indicates the shielding for the overall cable and the second
376:
355:
347:
159:
1526:
Grounding for
Screened and Shielded Network Cabling - Siemon
307:
256:
30:
This article is about the type of wiring. For the film, see
3013:
1014:
1010:
237:
198:
99:
For additional noise immunity, twisted-pair cabling may be
1993:"The Impact of Installation Stresses On Cable Performance"
1690:, vol. 153, p. 118, Telephone Publishing Corporation 1957.
1203:
or drop cable), as it resists cracking of the conductors.
527:
Common industry nomenclature for cable construction types
1306:, used for connecting twisted pairs in telephone networks
1236:
Cheapest form of cable available for networking purposes.
468:
cables typically have F/UTP construction, while shielded
260:
Cross-section of cable with four unshielded twisted pairs
1801:"Using UTP Cat5e vs. STP Cat5e Cable - SewellDirect.com"
738:
S – screened shielding (outer layer only)
507:
Individual and overall shield (F/FTP, S/FTP, and SF/FTP)
311:
Unshielded twisted pair cable with different twist rates
193:
The earliest telephones used telegraph lines which were
264:
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables are found in many
3237:
Unshielded and shielded twisted pair cabling standards
441:
S for braided shielding (in outer layer only), and/or
1199:
and for connections from wall-ports to end devices (
140:
and are affected equally. The noise thus produces a
1776:"Comparison between CAT5, CAT5e, CAT6, CAT7 Cables"
68:are twisted together for the purposes of improving
2068:
1640:Designing a Structured Cabling System to ISO 11801
1435:Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers
1392:(3rd ed.). San Francisco: SYBEX. p. 11.
1223:Twisted pair has the following useful attributes:
1590:"TechFest - IBM Cabling System Technical Summary"
1437:, vol. 26, iss. 130, pp. 501–514, July 1897.
1386:Barnett, David; Groth, David; McBee, Jim (2004).
1385:
3344:
1469:
1164:
1152:A twisted ribbon cable is a variant of standard
452:U/FTP, F/UTP and F/FTP are used in Cat 6A cables
1637:
1613:
1496:
1357:In telephone jargon, the common mode is called
206:, which had the incidental benefit of reducing
1108:A loaded twisted pair has intentionally added
3221:
2129:
1389:Cabling: The Complete Guide to Network Wiring
1859:. John Wiley & Sons. 28 September 2021.
1243:Twisted pair has the following limitations:
723:
354:. As UTP is a balanced transmission line, a
158:of the twist, usually defined in twists per
3144:Global telecommunications regulation bodies
1856:CompTIA Network+ Review Guide: Exam N10-008
1700:Paper Maker and British Paper Trade Journal
1312:, often used as connectors for twisted pair
475:and Cat 8.2 cables use S/FTP construction.
3228:
3214:
3180:
2136:
2122:
1849:
1847:
1845:
781:
485:Common shield construction types include:
315:UTP is also the most common cable used in
251:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1510:
1508:
1072:ANSI/TIA-568-C.2-1, ISO/IEC 11801-1:2017
498:Overall shield (F/UTP, S/UTP, and SF/UTP)
1750:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1717:
1715:
1539:"Size of the Category 7A Installed Base"
1168:
1139:
1017:connectors. It is not recognized by the
1009:ISO/IEC 11801 2nd Ed. (2002). Only with
447:
383:
375:
306:
255:
184:
45:
1842:
1702:, vol. 83-84, p. 294, November 1, 1932
1536:
1530:
1135:
787:Standard types of twisted pair cabling
14:
3345:
2143:
1971:
1825:"CAT3 vs. CAT5 vs. CAT6 - CustomCable"
1664:Newnes Data Communications Pocket Book
1519:
1505:
1318:increases cancellation of interference
27:Type of wiring used for communications
3209:
2117:
2075:(1st ed.). IEEE Press. pp.
2066:
2060:
2043:"7989R Technical Data Sheet (Metric)"
2018:"7987R Technical Data Sheet (Metric)"
1729:
1712:
243:Twisted-pair cabling was invented by
3190:
1446:
1406:
1361:and the differential mode is called
392:Twisted pair cables may incorporate
166:
64:in which two conductors of a single
1476:. Orchard Publications. p. 6.
764:
292:and the total package covered in a
217:, shared the route with electrical
103:. Cable with shielding is known as
24:
1499:"Troubleshooting UTP CCTV Systems"
365:
225:, to cancel out the interference.
25:
3389:
2097:
1457:. See also TIFF format scans for
735:F – foil shielding
346:signals, UTP is now used in some
189:Wire transposition on top of pole
3189:
3179:
3170:
3169:
3158:
2779:Free-space optical communication
2102:
1881:"Understanding Line Impairments"
1563:Cables and Transceivers Overview
741:TP – twisted pair
711:
690:
669:
648:
627:
606:
585:
564:
362:and designed for coaxial cable.
197:circuits. In the 1880s electric
127:A twisted pair can be used as a
2035:
2010:
1985:
1946:
1922:
1897:
1873:
1817:
1793:
1693:
1681:
1655:
1631:
1616:Telephone Installation Handbook
1607:
1582:
1554:
1537:Valerie, Maguire (2015-07-12).
1473:Networks: Design and Management
1351:
412:can be subject to variability.
39:Copper Line (San Diego Trolley)
1515:Anitech Systems MP 4000 Manual
1497:Christine Baeta (2008-10-27).
1490:
1463:
1440:
1423:
1379:
1334:
1213:insulation-displacement method
1144:Twisted ribbon cable used for
122:
13:
1:
3368:Electromagnetic compatibility
1372:
1218:
1165:Solid-core vs. stranded cable
837:Older terminal systems, e.g.
732:U – unshielded
173:usage and is very common for
70:electromagnetic compatibility
3165:Telecommunication portal
2946:Telecommunications equipment
1954:"3M Twisted Pair Flat Cable"
1618:, Elsevier, pp. 32–34,
1195:. Stranded cable is used at
154:The twist rate (also called
90:electromagnetic interference
7:
2682:Alexander Stepanovich Popov
1723:"CCNA: Network Media Types"
1667:. Elsevier. 19 April 2002.
1272:
1239:Easy to handle and install.
1116:and reduce attenuation for
410:STP (shielded twisted pair)
350:applications, primarily in
280:wires measured at 22 or 24
10:
3394:
3310:Ethernet over twisted pair
3303:Copper cable certification
2386:Telecommunications history
2067:Reeve, Whitman D. (1995).
1642:, CRC Press, p. 269,
1294:Ethernet over twisted pair
819:Telephone and modem lines
757:
369:
338:has improved to match the
210:, hence increasing range.
180:
36:
29:
3294:
3243:
3153:
3095:
3032:
2994:Public Switched Telephone
2954:
2918:
2875:
2816:
2806:telecommunication circuit
2767:Fiber-optic communication
2750:
2512:Francis Blake (telephone)
2459:
2307:Optical telecommunication
2151:
1470:Steven T. Karris (2009).
1342:submarine telegraph cable
1123:
1103:
975:UTP, F/UTP, U/FTP, S/FTP
678:SSTP, SFTP, STP, STP PiMF
489:Individual shield (U/FTP)
372:Electromagnetic shielding
82:electromagnetic radiation
80:, a twisted pair reduces
2905:Orbital angular-momentum
2342:Satellite communications
2181:Communications satellite
1638:Barry J. Elliot (2002),
1614:Stephen Roberts (2001),
1327:
753:
272:originally developed by
195:single-wire earth return
3358:19th-century inventions
2784:Molecular communication
2607:Gardiner Greene Hubbard
2436:Undersea telegraph line
2171:Cable protection system
1304:Main distribution frame
782:Building infrastructure
532:Industry abbreviations
252:Unshielded twisted pair
113:unshielded twisted pair
3363:Communication circuits
2926:Communication protocol
2712:Charles Sumner Tainter
2527:Walter Houser Brattain
2472:Edwin Howard Armstrong
2280:Information revolution
1979:"Twisted Pair Testing"
1256:mitigate this problem.
1177:
1149:
453:
389:
381:
312:
261:
190:
54:
2900:Polarization-division
2632:Narinder Singh Kapany
2597:Erna Schneider Hoover
2517:Jagadish Chandra Bose
2497:Alexander Graham Bell
2228:online video platform
2111:at Wikimedia Commons
1289:Copper wire and cable
1172:
1143:
1097:ISO/IEC 11801-1:2017
795:Typical construction
451:
444:F for foil shielding.
387:
379:
310:
259:
245:Alexander Graham Bell
188:
148:Common-mode rejection
131:, which as part of a
105:shielded twisted pair
94:Alexander Graham Bell
92:. It was invented by
60:cabling is a type of
49:
2742:Vladimir K. Zworykin
2702:Almon Brown Strowger
2672:Charles Grafton Page
2327:Prepaid mobile phone
2255:Electrical telegraph
1136:Twisted ribbon cable
274:AT&T Corporation
62:communications cable
2692:Johann Philipp Reis
2451:Wireless revolution
2413:The Telephone Cases
2270:Hydraulic telegraph
2109:Twisted-pair cables
1930:"Bonded Pair Cable"
788:
771:General Post Office
528:
317:computer networking
282:American Wire Gauge
175:computer networking
32:Twisted Pair (film)
2890:Frequency-division
2867:Telephone exchange
2737:Charles Wheatstone
2667:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
2642:Innocenzo Manzetti
2577:Reginald Fessenden
2312:Optical telegraphy
2145:Telecommunications
1178:
1150:
950:UTP, F/UTP, U/FTP
925:UTP, F/UTP, U/FTP
890:Not commonly used
786:
526:
454:
422:, where the first
390:
382:
313:
270:25-pair color code
262:
223:wire transposition
191:
142:common-mode signal
138:interfering source
84:from the pair and
55:
51:25-pair color code
18:Twisted pair cable
3340:
3339:
3317:Modular connector
3203:
3202:
2941:Store and forward
2936:Data transmission
2850:Network switching
2801:Transmission line
2647:Guglielmo Marconi
2612:Internet pioneers
2477:Mohamed M. Atalla
2446:Whistled language
2107:Media related to
1866:978-1-119-80696-7
1674:978-0-08-049742-6
1483:978-1-934404-15-7
1209:punch-down blocks
1101:
1100:
719:
718:
705:Braiding and Foil
621:Braiding and Foil
438:U for unshielded,
204:balanced circuits
111:) and without as
16:(Redirected from
3385:
3230:
3223:
3216:
3207:
3206:
3193:
3192:
3183:
3182:
3173:
3172:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3034:Notable networks
3024:Wireless network
2964:Cellular network
2956:Types of network
2931:Computer network
2818:Network topology
2732:Thomas A. Watson
2587:Oliver Heaviside
2572:Philo Farnsworth
2547:Daniel Davis Jr.
2522:Charles Bourseul
2482:John Logie Baird
2191:Data compression
2186:Computer network
2138:
2131:
2124:
2115:
2114:
2106:
2091:
2090:
2074:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2047:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2022:
2014:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1997:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1958:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1934:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1909:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1851:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1836:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1811:
1805:sewelldirect.com
1797:
1791:
1790:
1788:
1787:
1778:. Archived from
1772:
1727:
1726:
1719:
1710:
1697:
1691:
1685:
1679:
1678:
1659:
1653:
1652:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1602:
1601:
1592:. Archived from
1586:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1568:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1549:
1548:
1543:
1534:
1528:
1523:
1517:
1512:
1503:
1502:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1467:
1461:
1456:
1455:
1451:
1444:
1438:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1418:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1383:
1366:
1355:
1349:
1338:
1175:punch-down block
789:
785:
765:Analog telephone
747:
727:
715:
694:
673:
652:
631:
615:SFTP, S-FTP, STP
610:
589:
568:
541:Cable shielding
529:
525:
352:security cameras
133:balanced circuit
76:or an untwisted
74:single conductor
72:. Compared to a
21:
3393:
3392:
3388:
3387:
3386:
3384:
3383:
3382:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3290:
3239:
3234:
3204:
3199:
3159:
3157:
3149:
3091:
3028:
2950:
2914:
2871:
2820:
2812:
2753:
2746:
2652:Robert Metcalfe
2507:Tim Berners-Lee
2455:
2275:Information Age
2147:
2142:
2100:
2095:
2094:
2087:
2065:
2061:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2015:
2011:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1927:
1923:
1913:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1902:
1898:
1889:
1887:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1867:
1853:
1852:
1843:
1834:
1832:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1809:
1807:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1785:
1783:
1774:
1773:
1730:
1721:
1720:
1713:
1698:
1694:
1686:
1682:
1675:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1636:
1632:
1626:
1612:
1608:
1599:
1597:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1575:
1573:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1555:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1535:
1531:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1506:
1495:
1491:
1484:
1468:
1464:
1453:
1445:
1441:
1429:Trotter, A.P.,
1428:
1424:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1400:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1369:
1356:
1352:
1339:
1335:
1330:
1316:Star quad cable
1310:Registered jack
1275:
1259:Imbalance (see
1221:
1167:
1138:
1126:
1106:
1034:
884:16 Mbit/s
784:
767:
762:
756:
751:
750:
728:
724:
699:SSTP, SFTP, STP
636:STP, ScTP, PiMF
544:Pair shielding
473:
374:
368:
366:Cable shielding
254:
183:
167:cable shielding
125:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3391:
3381:
3380:
3378:Video hardware
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3327:
3320:
3313:
3306:
3299:
3295:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3247:
3245:
3241:
3240:
3233:
3232:
3225:
3218:
3210:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3197:
3187:
3177:
3167:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3147:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3119:
3118:
3113:
3105:
3099:
3097:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3038:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2960:
2958:
2952:
2951:
2949:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2922:
2920:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2885:Space-division
2881:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2869:
2864:
2863:
2862:
2857:
2847:
2846:
2845:
2835:
2830:
2824:
2822:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2764:
2758:
2756:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2722:Camille Tissot
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2697:Claude Shannon
2694:
2689:
2687:Tivadar Puskás
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2657:Antonio Meucci
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2627:Charles K. Kao
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2602:Harold Hopkins
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2502:Emile Berliner
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2441:Videotelephony
2438:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2416:
2409:
2404:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2356:
2355:
2354:
2344:
2339:
2337:Radiotelephone
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2303:
2302:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2223:Internet video
2215:
2214:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2157:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2141:
2140:
2133:
2126:
2118:
2099:
2098:External links
2096:
2093:
2092:
2085:
2059:
2034:
2009:
1984:
1970:
1945:
1921:
1896:
1872:
1865:
1841:
1816:
1792:
1728:
1711:
1692:
1680:
1673:
1654:
1648:
1630:
1624:
1606:
1581:
1553:
1529:
1518:
1504:
1489:
1482:
1462:
1459:USPTO 00244426
1439:
1422:
1405:
1398:
1377:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1350:
1332:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1324:
1319:
1313:
1307:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1274:
1271:
1270:
1269:
1257:
1253:
1241:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1228:
1220:
1217:
1193:work hardening
1189:permanent link
1182:Stranded cable
1166:
1163:
1137:
1134:
1125:
1122:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1095:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1070:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1026:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
992:
991:
988:
979:
976:
973:
967:
966:
963:
954:
951:
948:
942:
941:
938:
929:
926:
923:
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913:
904:
901:
898:
892:
891:
888:
882:
879:
876:
870:
869:
866:
857:
854:
851:
845:
844:
841:
835:
832:
830:
824:
823:
820:
817:
814:
812:
806:
805:
802:
799:
796:
793:
783:
780:
766:
763:
755:
752:
749:
748:
746:
745:
742:
739:
736:
733:
721:
720:
717:
716:
709:
706:
703:
700:
696:
695:
688:
685:
682:
679:
675:
674:
667:
664:
661:
658:
654:
653:
646:
643:
640:
637:
633:
632:
625:
622:
619:
616:
612:
611:
604:
601:
598:
595:
591:
590:
583:
580:
577:
574:
573:FTP, STP, ScTP
570:
569:
562:
559:
556:
553:
549:
548:
545:
542:
539:
533:
513:
512:
508:
504:
503:
499:
495:
494:
490:
471:
446:
445:
442:
439:
370:Main article:
367:
364:
360:BNC connectors
253:
250:
182:
179:
124:
121:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3390:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3373:Signal cables
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3348:
3333:
3332:
3328:
3326:
3325:
3321:
3319:
3318:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3305:
3304:
3300:
3297:
3296:
3293:
3287:
3286:Cat 8/8.1/8.2
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3231:
3226:
3224:
3219:
3217:
3212:
3211:
3208:
3196:
3188:
3186:
3178:
3176:
3168:
3166:
3156:
3155:
3152:
3145:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3094:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2957:
2953:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2917:
2911:
2910:Code-division
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2895:Time-division
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2880:
2878:
2874:
2868:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2851:
2848:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2821:and switching
2819:
2815:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2802:
2799:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2773:
2772:optical fiber
2770:
2769:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2762:Coaxial cable
2760:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2749:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2677:Radia Perlman
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2567:Lee de Forest
2565:
2563:
2562:Thomas Edison
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2552:Donald Davies
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2537:Claude Chappe
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2381:Smoke signals
2379:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2360:
2359:Semiconductor
2357:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2218:Digital media
2216:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2134:
2132:
2127:
2125:
2120:
2119:
2116:
2112:
2110:
2105:
2088:
2086:0-7803-0440-3
2082:
2078:
2073:
2072:
2063:
2044:
2038:
2019:
2013:
1994:
1988:
1980:
1974:
1955:
1949:
1931:
1925:
1906:
1900:
1886:
1882:
1876:
1868:
1862:
1858:
1857:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1830:
1826:
1820:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1782:on 2020-06-02
1781:
1777:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1724:
1718:
1716:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1696:
1689:
1684:
1676:
1670:
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1596:on 2014-03-11
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1399:9780782143317
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1285:
1284:Balanced line
1282:
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1266:
1262:
1261:balanced line
1258:
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1245:
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1233:is minimized.
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1147:
1146:Parallel SCSI
1142:
1133:
1131:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1082:S/FTP, F/FTP
1081:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1057:F/UTP, U/FTP
1056:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1038:S/FTP, F/FTP
1037:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1005:
1003:600 MHz
1002:
1000:S/FTP, F/FTP
999:
997:
994:
993:
989:
987:
983:
980:
978:500 MHz
977:
974:
972:
969:
968:
964:
962:
958:
955:
953:250 MHz
952:
949:
947:
944:
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939:
937:
933:
930:
928:100 MHz
927:
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914:
912:
908:
905:
903:100 MHz
902:
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816:400 kHz
815:
813:
811:
808:
807:
803:
801:Applications
800:
797:
794:
791:
790:
779:
775:
772:
761:
760:ISO/IEC 11801
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547:Illustration
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536:ISO/IEC 11801
534:
531:
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521:FDDI networks
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416:ISO/IEC 11801
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353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
334:As UTP cable
332:
330:
329:coaxial cable
326:
325:optical fibre
322:
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236:, or six per
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215:utility poles
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129:balanced line
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78:balanced pair
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33:
19:
3331:Twisted pair
3330:
3329:
3322:
3315:
3308:
3301:
2877:Multiplexing
2752:Transmission
2717:Nikola Tesla
2707:Henry Sutton
2662:Samuel Morse
2592:Robert Hooke
2557:Amos Dolbear
2492:John Bardeen
2411:
2391:Telautograph
2295:Mobile phone
2250:Edholm's law
2233:social media
2166:Broadcasting
2101:
2070:
2062:
2050:. Retrieved
2037:
2025:. Retrieved
2012:
2000:. Retrieved
1987:
1973:
1961:. Retrieved
1948:
1937:. Retrieved
1924:
1912:. Retrieved
1899:
1888:. Retrieved
1884:
1875:
1855:
1833:. Retrieved
1831:. 2011-12-24
1828:
1819:
1808:. Retrieved
1804:
1795:
1784:. Retrieved
1780:the original
1699:
1695:
1687:
1683:
1663:
1657:
1639:
1633:
1615:
1609:
1598:. Retrieved
1594:the original
1584:
1574:, retrieved
1562:
1556:
1545:. Retrieved
1532:
1521:
1492:
1472:
1465:
1442:
1434:
1425:
1408:
1388:
1381:
1362:
1359:longitudinal
1358:
1353:
1336:
1322:Tip and ring
1279:ANSI/TIA-568
1242:
1222:
1205:
1197:patch panels
1186:
1179:
1161:techniques.
1154:ribbon cable
1151:
1127:
1107:
881:20 MHz
856:16 MHz
776:
768:
725:
538:designation
514:
484:
479:
477:
455:
431:
427:
423:
419:
414:
409:
405:
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391:
333:
314:
298:
294:polyethylene
286:polyethylene
263:
242:
227:
212:
192:
164:
155:
153:
146:
126:
116:
112:
108:
104:
98:
58:Twisted pair
57:
56:
43:
3324:TIA/EIA-568
3077:NPL network
2789:Radio waves
2727:Alfred Vail
2637:Hedy Lamarr
2622:Dawon Kahng
2582:Elisha Gray
2542:Yogen Dalal
2467:Nasir Ahmed
2401:Teleprinter
2265:Heliographs
1829:CustomCable
1265:common mode
1250:bend radius
1148:connections
1085:2 GHz
1060:2 GHz
1041:1 GHz
834:4 MHz
388:S/FTP cable
380:F/UTP cable
219:power lines
208:attenuation
123:Explanation
3353:2 (number)
3347:Categories
3244:Categories
3123:Antarctica
3082:Toasternet
3004:Television
2487:Paul Baran
2419:Television
2403:(teletype)
2396:Telegraphy
2374:transistor
2352:Phryctoria
2322:Photophone
2300:Smartphone
2290:Mass media
1939:2019-04-08
1890:2012-06-04
1835:2018-08-19
1810:2018-08-19
1786:2022-07-18
1649:0824741307
1625:0080521487
1600:2014-01-25
1576:2024-08-20
1547:2015-09-25
1373:References
1219:Properties
1201:patch cord
1114:load coils
1110:inductance
936:2.5GBASE-T
932:1000BASE-T
911:1000BASE-T
907:100BASE-TX
886:Token Ring
864:100BASE-T4
798:Bandwidth
758:See also:
517:Token Ring
493:crosstalk.
480:drain wire
344:television
3107:Americas
3096:Locations
3067:Internet2
2828:Bandwidth
2532:Vint Cerf
2429:streaming
2407:Telephone
2347:Semaphore
2238:streaming
2052:13 August
2027:13 August
2002:13 August
1963:13 August
1914:13 August
1885:Cisco.com
1688:Telephony
1448:US 244426
1299:Litz wire
1231:Crosstalk
1118:voiceband
1093:40GBASE-T
1089:25GBASE-T
1068:40GBASE-T
1064:25GBASE-T
986:10GBASE-T
961:10GBASE-T
657:FFTP, STP
594:STP, ScTP
466:Cat 8/8.1
456:Shielded
406:shielding
402:screening
394:shielding
336:bandwidth
319:. Modern
302:crosstalk
248:service.
234:kilometre
171:telephone
86:crosstalk
3298:See also
3281:Cat 7/7a
3276:Cat 6/6a
3271:Cat 5/5e
3175:Category
3062:Internet
3052:CYCLADES
2969:Ethernet
2919:Concepts
2843:terminal
2794:wireless
2617:Bob Kahn
2460:Pioneers
2285:Internet
2176:Cable TV
2048:. Belden
2023:. Belden
1998:. Belden
1910:. Belden
1708:10634178
1363:metallic
1273:See also
982:5GBASE-T
957:5GBASE-T
860:10BASE-T
839:IBM 3270
684:Braiding
600:Braiding
462:Cat 6/6A
434:can be:
340:baseband
321:Ethernet
296:jacket.
266:Ethernet
101:shielded
3195:Commons
3185:Outline
3138:Oceania
3057:FidoNet
3042:ARPANET
2855:circuit
2424:digital
2153:History
2077:215–220
1935:. Turck
1078:Cat 8.2
1053:Cat 8.1
828:Level 2
810:Level 1
552:UTP, TP
470:Cat 7/7
181:History
66:circuit
3133:Europe
3103:Africa
3087:Usenet
3047:BITNET
2984:Mobile
2860:packet
2369:MOSFET
2364:device
2161:Beacon
2083:
1863:
1706:
1671:
1646:
1622:
1480:
1454:
1396:
1346:Luanda
1130:Belden
1124:Bonded
1104:Loaded
971:Cat 6A
921:Cat 5e
804:Notes
702:SF/FTP
618:SF/UTP
502:cable.
464:, and
458:Cat 5e
408:, and
278:copper
3266:Cat 4
3261:Cat 3
3256:Cat 2
3251:Cat 1
3116:South
3111:North
3072:JANET
3009:Telex
2999:Radio
2838:Nodes
2833:Links
2754:media
2332:Radio
2317:Pager
2245:Drums
2211:video
2206:image
2196:audio
2046:(PDF)
2021:(PDF)
1996:(PDF)
1957:(PDF)
1933:(PDF)
1908:(PDF)
1571:Intel
1567:(PDF)
1542:(PDF)
1417:(PDF)
1344:from
1328:Notes
1031:Cat 7
996:Cat 7
946:Cat 6
896:Cat 5
874:Cat 4
849:Cat 3
792:Name
754:Types
681:S/FTP
660:F/FTP
639:U/FTP
597:S/UTP
576:F/UTP
555:U/UTP
420:x/xTP
356:balun
348:video
199:trams
160:metre
156:pitch
53:chart
3128:Asia
3014:UUCP
2974:ISDN
2081:ISBN
2054:2016
2029:2016
2004:2016
1965:2016
1959:. 3M
1916:2016
1861:ISBN
1704:OCLC
1669:ISBN
1644:ISBN
1620:ISBN
1478:ISBN
1394:ISBN
1015:TERA
1011:GG45
900:UTP
878:UTP
853:UTP
708:Foil
687:Foil
666:Foil
663:Foil
645:Foil
642:None
624:None
603:None
582:None
579:Foil
561:None
558:None
327:and
238:mile
3019:WAN
2989:NGN
2979:LAN
2260:Fax
2201:DCT
1159:IDC
1023:TIA
1019:EIA
1013:or
519:or
342:of
290:FEP
288:or
230:EMI
119:).
117:UTP
109:STP
3349::
2079:.
1883:.
1844:^
1827:.
1803:.
1731:^
1714:^
1569:,
1507:^
1433:,
1173:A
1091:,
1066:,
1044:?
1025:.
1006:?
984:,
959:,
934:,
909:,
862:,
523:.
460:,
404:,
331:.
177:.
96:.
3229:e
3222:t
3215:v
3146:)
3142:(
2137:e
2130:t
2123:v
2089:.
2056:.
2031:.
2006:.
1981:.
1967:.
1942:.
1918:.
1893:.
1869:.
1838:.
1813:.
1789:.
1725:.
1677:.
1603:.
1550:.
1501:.
1486:.
1419:.
1402:.
1365:.
1348:.
1033:A
1021:/
472:A
432:x
428:x
424:x
115:(
107:(
41:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
