106:
569:
133:
390:
520:, but densest around the head. In turbellarians, a distinct brain is present, albeit relatively simple in structure. From the brain one to four pairs of nerve cords run along the length the body, with numerous smaller nerves branching off. The ventral pair of nerve cords are typically the largest, and, in many species, are the only ones present. Unlike more complex animals, such as
624:. Sperm ducts run from the testes, through bulb-like seminal vesicles, to the muscular penis. In many species, this basic plan is considerably complicated by the addition of accessory glands or other structures. The penis lies inside a cavity, and can be everted through an opening on the posterior underside of the animal. It often, although not always, possesses a sharp
531:("little eyes"), one pair in most species, but two or even three pairs in some. A few large species have many eyes in clusters over the brain, mounted on tentacles, or spaced uniformly round the edge of the body. The ocelli can only distinguish the direction from which light is coming and enable the animals to avoid it.
445:
Small aquatic species use the cilia for locomotion, while larger ones use muscular movements of the whole body or of a specialized sole to creep or swim. Some are capable of burrowing, anchoring their rear ends at the bottom of the burrow, then stretching the head up to feed and then pulling it back
402:
These have about 4,500 species, are mostly free-living, and range from 1 mm (0.039 in) to 600 mm (24 in) in length. Most are predators or scavengers, and terrestrial species are mostly nocturnal and live in shaded humid locations such as leaf litter or rotting wood. However some
483:. These turbellarians usually have an eversible pharynx, in other words, one that can be extended by being turned inside-out, and the mouths of different species can be anywhere along the underside. The freshwater species
1304:
496:
cells which capture food particles that have already been partially digested by enzymes in the gut. Digestion is then completed within the phagocytic cells and the nutrients diffuse through the body.
877:
skins. It is also generally agreed that the
Neodermata are a relatively small sub-group a few levels down in the "family tree" of the Rhabditophora. Hence the traditional sub-phylum "Turbellaria" is
560:
Most species have ciliated touch-sensor cells scattered over their bodies, especially on tentacles and around the edges. Specialized cells in pits or grooves on the head are probably smell-sensors.
546:, fluid-filled chambers containing a small solid particle or, in a few groups, two. These statocysts are thought to be balance and acceleration sensors, as that is the function they perform in
219:. There are about 4,500 species, which range from 1 mm (0.039 in) to large freshwater forms more than 500 mm (20 in) long or terrestrial species like
365:. This limits the thickness of the body, so they are either microscopic or are flat and ribbon- or leaf-shaped, and vulnerable to fluid loss. The body is filled with
241:. However, many of the smaller forms are round in cross section. Most are predators, and all live in water or in moist terrestrial environments. Most forms reproduce
273:, and it is agreed that these are descended from one small sub-group within the free-living Platyhelminthes. Hence the "Turbellaria" as traditionally defined are
485:
438:
between the cilia. They have many glands, usually submerged in the muscle layers below the skin and connect to the surface by pores through which they secrete
1327:
1384:
1733:
1268:
Jondelius, U.; Ruiz-Trillo, I.; Baguñà, J.; Riutort, M. (April 2002). "The
Nemertodermatida are basal bilaterians and not members of the Platyhelminthes".
843:(another small group previously classified as "turbellarians") are the sister group to all other bilaterians, including the rest of the Platyhelminthes.
936:
Dirk Knaust; André Desrochers (2019). "Exceptionally preserved soft-bodied assemblage in
Ordovician carbonates of Anticosti Island, eastern Canada".
316:). The name "Turbellaria" refers to the "whirlpools" of microscopic particles created close to the skins of aquatic species by the movement of their
1628:
1385:"Filling a gap in the phylogeny of flatworms: relationships within the Rhabdocoela (Platyhelminthes), inferred from 18S ribosomal DNA sequences"
1148:
Rieger, R. M.; Sterrer, W. (1975). "New spicular skeletons in
Turbellaria, and the occurrence of spicules in marine meiofauna, Parts I and II".
265:
were formerly included in the
Turbellaria, but are no longer regarded as Platyhelminthes. All the exclusively parasitic Platyhelminthes form a
557:. However turbellarian statocysts have no sensory cilia, and it is unknown how they sense the movements and positions of the solid particles.
1654:
225:
which can reach 600 mm (24 in) in length. All the larger forms are flat with ribbon-like or leaf-like shapes, since their lack of
978:
1723:
1602:
1641:
652:
446:
down for safety. Some terrestrial species throw a thread of mucus which they use as a rope to climb from one leaf to another.
909:
Dirk Knaust (2010). "Remarkably preserved benthic organisms and their traces from a Middle
Triassic (Muschelkalk) mud flat".
1646:
1234:
434:(small mobile "hairs"), although in some large species the upper surface has no cilia. These skins are also covered with
1246:
1189:
1132:
1095:
1068:
1014:
1085:
1690:
1659:
1594:
613:, a duel in which each tries to impregnate the other, and the loser adopts the female role of developing the eggs.
1425:
881:, since it does not include the Neodermata although these are descendants of a sub-group of "turbellarians".
430:. However the skins of most species consist of a single layer of cells, each of which generally has multiple
179:
1728:
1550:
1210:
415:. Free-living turbellarians are mostly black, brown or gray, but some larger ones are brightly colored.
132:
1356:
Larsson, K.; Jondelius, U. (December 2008). "Phylogeny of
Catenulida and support for Platyhelminthes".
1555:
1695:
1206:
828:
1490:
635:
In most species "miniature adults" emerge when the eggs hatch, but a few large species produce
602:
584:
themselves by transverse or longitudinal division, and others, especially acoels, reproduce by
395:
115:
1528:
1323:
1682:
1672:
1718:
1633:
1537:
945:
824:
606:
489:
can open its mouth almost as wide as its body is long, to swallow prey as large as itself.
374:
1124:
1118:
1060:
1054:
8:
242:
949:
1466:
1449:
Ehlers, U. (January 1986). "Comments on a phylogenetic system of the
Platyhelminthes".
1417:
1285:
1161:
961:
422:(external layer of organic but non-cellular material). In a few species the skin is a
351:
347:
230:
226:
127:
857:
It has been agreed since 1985 that each of the wholly parasitic platyhelminth groups (
1667:
1563:
1403:
1281:
1242:
1185:
1128:
1091:
1064:
1010:
965:
922:
890:
370:
1542:
1421:
1289:
869:) is monophyletic, and that together these form a larger monophyletic grouping, the
1568:
1470:
1458:
1407:
1399:
1365:
1319:
1277:
1157:
953:
918:
840:
625:
457:
Most other turbellarians are carnivorous, either preying on small invertebrates or
313:
221:
354:
329:
286:
212:
568:
449:
Some
Turbelleria have spicular skeletons, giving the appearance of annulations.
1589:
1228:
1226:
524:, there are no ganglia on the nerve cords, other than those forming the brain.
480:
378:
246:
1369:
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1513:
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59:
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1347:
1223:
878:
832:
358:
305:
274:
266:
261:
253:
983:
576:. Each has two penises, the white spikes on the undersides of their heads.
504:
Concentration of nervous tissue in the head region is least marked in the
426:, a collection of cells with multiple nuclei and a single shared external
1615:
1522:
1383:
Willems, W.R.; Wallberg, A.; Jondelius, U.; et al. (November 2005).
1344:
461:, or scavenging on dead animals. A few feed on larger animals, including
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34:
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79:
44:
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979:
Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates
874:
866:
862:
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760:
629:
628:. Unusually among animals, in most species, the sperm cells have two
601:, having both female and male reproductive cells, and fertilize eggs
543:
509:
493:
476:
471:
423:
408:
404:
362:
335:
297:
293:
290:
234:
216:
215:(flatworms), and include all the sub-groups that are not exclusively
144:
84:
1484:
1296:
1005:
Hinde, R.T. (2001). "The Platyhelminthes". In Anderson, D.T. (ed.).
653:
Platyhelminthes § Classification and evolutionary relationships
1607:
1581:
1507:
1184:. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 201–230.
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89:
64:
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Timothy, D.; Littlewood, J.; Telford, M.J.; Bray, R.A. (2004).
1023:
836:
831:
analyses since 2000 using different sections of DNA agree that
617:
528:
462:
309:
209:
154:
640:
621:
505:
439:
431:
317:
257:
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1150:
Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research
935:
839:(traditionally regarded as very simple turbellarians) and
1110:
323:
1382:
827:
analyses of anatomical features in the mid-1980s and
616:
In turbellarians there are one or more pairs of both
594:
is a well-known representative of class Turbellaria.
304:. In this classification the Turbellaria include the
1312:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
384:
1710:
1355:
1241:. Oxford University Press US. pp. 209–223.
1116:
1052:
373:that can regenerate injured tissues and permits
208:are one of the traditional sub-divisions of the
1117:Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S.; Barnes, R.D. (2004).
1053:Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S.; Barnes, R.D. (2004).
1147:
609:. Some of the larger aquatic species mate by
289:into four groups: Turbellaria and the wholly
1734:Taxa named by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
1009:. Oxford University Press. pp. 58–80.
908:
1237:. In Cracraft, J.; Donoghue, M.J. (eds.).
1207:"Fighting to mate: flatworm penis fencing"
1090:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 194–195.
873:, in which the adults of all members have
104:
1411:
1204:
1141:
646:
1324:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130124
1302:
567:
388:
342:, but have no internal body cavity (are
233:systems means that they have to rely on
285:Traditional classifications divide the
1711:
1448:
1179:
1123:(7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
1083:
1059:(7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
324:Features common to all Platyhelminthes
119:(Bedford's Flatworm), a member of the
1489:
1488:
1004:
452:
1175:
1173:
1171:
527:Most turbellarians have pigment-cup
1358:Organisms Diversity & Evolution
597:All turbellarians are simultaneous
13:
1305:"The New View of Animal Phylogeny"
1162:10.1111/j.1439-0469.1975.tb00509.x
442:, adhesives and other substances.
14:
1745:
1724:Late Ordovician first appearances
1480:
1235:"Protostomes and Platyhelminthes"
1168:
1087:The Diversity of Living Organisms
499:
381:is concentrated at the head end.
1404:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2005.00216.x
1303:Halanych, K.M. (December 2004).
1282:10.1046/j.1463-6409.2002.00090.x
923:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2009.00196.x
385:Features specific to Turbellaria
245:and with few exceptions all are
131:
32:
1442:
1261:
1198:
563:
972:
929:
902:
280:
1:
896:
572:Two turbellarians mating by
7:
1239:Assembling the Tree of Life
884:
247:simultaneous hermaphrodites
10:
1750:
1180:Barnes, Robert D. (1982).
650:
492:The intestine is lined by
327:
237:for internal transport of
96:Possible Ordovician record
1497:
1370:10.1016/j.ode.2008.09.002
750:
737:
730:
717:
710:
697:
690:
672:
665:
407:of other animals such as
192:
187:
128:Scientific classification
126:
112:
103:
23:
958:10.1016/j.gr.2019.01.016
346:), and lack specialized
1084:Barnes, R.S.K. (1998).
829:molecular phylogenetics
820:Internal relationships
739:various "Turbellaria"
719:various "Turbellaria"
699:various "Turbellaria"
647:Taxonomy and evolution
577:
534:A few groups – mainly
469:, while some, such as
418:Turbellarians have no
399:
396:Pseudoceros dimidiatus
338:, platyhelminthes are
116:Pseudobiceros bedfordi
571:
512:rather like those of
392:
1333:on December 16, 2008
1182:Invertebrate Zoology
1120:Invertebrate Zoology
1056:Invertebrate Zoology
1007:Invertebrate Zoology
486:Microstomum caudatum
375:asexual reproduction
1729:Paraphyletic groups
950:2019GondR..71..117K
632:, rather than one.
580:Many turbellarians
1463:10.1007/BF00046222
578:
453:Diet and digestion
400:
16:Class of flatworms
1706:
1705:
1668:Open Tree of Life
1491:Taxon identifiers
1392:Zoologica Scripta
1270:Zoologica Scripta
938:Gondwana Research
891:Urastoma cyprinae
817:
816:
808:
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799:
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781:
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393:The turbellarian
371:connective tissue
202:
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113:A marine species
98:
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30:Middle Triassic–0
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841:Nemertodermatida
835:, consisting of
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663:Platyhelminthes
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588:. The planarian
479:on the gills of
314:Nemertodermatida
222:Bipalium kewense
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27:Temporal range:
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481:horseshoe crabs
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411:, and some are
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1481:External links
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306:Acoelomorpha
284:
275:paraphyletic
267:monophyletic
262:Xenoturbella
260:
254:Acoelomorpha
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114:
18:
1719:Turbellaria
1616:iNaturalist
1543:Turbellaria
1529:Turbellaria
1523:Wikispecies
1499:Turbellaria
1457:(1): 1–12.
1398:(1): 1–17.
1156:: 207–278.
944:: 117–128.
555:ctenophores
518:ctenophores
409:crustaceans
352:respiratory
348:circulatory
336:bilaterians
281:Description
239:metabolites
231:circulatory
227:respiratory
206:Turbellaria
175:Turbellaria
121:Polycladida
24:Turbellaria
1713:Categories
1435:2008-12-23
1337:2008-12-23
1254:2008-12-23
1216:2008-12-21
1103:2008-12-21
897:References
871:Neodermata
848:Catenulida
753:Neodermata
675:Catenulida
607:copulation
603:internally
544:statocysts
536:catenulids
514:cnidarians
510:nerve nets
494:phagocytic
459:protozoans
436:microvilli
367:mesenchyme
344:acoelomate
271:Neodermata
188:Subgroups
1413:1942/1609
966:134814852
875:syncitial
867:Trematoda
863:Monogenea
823:Detailed
775:parasites
765:Trematoda
761:Monogenea
548:cnidarian
477:commensal
472:Bdelloura
467:barnacles
424:syncitium
413:parasites
405:symbiotes
363:diffusion
298:Monogenea
294:Trematoda
291:parasitic
235:diffusion
217:parasitic
180:Ehrenberg
151:Kingdom:
145:Eukaryota
1508:Wikidata
1422:85917387
1290:84015834
885:See also
637:plankton
540:seriates
522:annelids
428:membrane
256:and the
243:sexually
195:See text
161:Phylum:
155:Animalia
141:Domain:
1514:Q212798
1471:6018712
1125:196–224
1061:226–269
946:Bibcode
911:Lethaia
859:Cestoda
757:Cestoda
622:ovaries
591:Dugesia
586:budding
553:and in
551:medusae
542:– have
463:oysters
420:cuticle
302:Cestoda
171:Class:
1683:425249
1680:uBio:
1673:580670
1660:166384
1582:1TURBC
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837:Acoela
641:larvae
639:-like
626:stylet
618:testes
529:ocelli
506:acoels
475:, are
377:. The
355:organs
310:Acoela
269:group
210:phylum
182:, 1831
1691:WoRMS
1647:53964
1629:IRMNG
1621:52320
1595:14226
1569:7NF4Y
1467:S2CID
1429:(PDF)
1418:S2CID
1388:(PDF)
1331:(PDF)
1308:(PDF)
1286:S2CID
962:S2CID
630:tails
582:clone
440:mucus
432:cilia
357:, so
318:cilia
258:genus
1655:NCBI
1642:ITIS
1634:1027
1603:GBIF
1577:EPPO
1551:BOLD
1243:ISBN
1186:ISBN
1129:ISBN
1092:ISBN
1065:ISBN
1011:ISBN
865:and
850:and
620:and
538:and
516:and
465:and
403:are
369:, a
350:and
312:and
300:and
252:The
229:and
204:The
35:PreꞒ
1696:794
1608:341
1564:CoL
1538:ADW
1459:doi
1455:132
1408:hdl
1400:doi
1366:doi
1320:doi
1278:doi
1211:PBS
1158:doi
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605:by
334:As
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