Genetically modified food controversies

2563:, a canola breeder and grower in Bruno, Saskatchewan, discovered that one of his fields had canola that was resistant to Roundup. He had not purchased this seed, which had blown onto his land from neighboring fields. He later harvested the area and saved the crop in the back of a pickup truck. Before the 1998 planting, Monsanto representatives informed Schmeiser that using this crop for seed would infringe the patent, and offered him a license, which Schmeiser refused. According to the Canadian Supreme Court, after this conversation "Schmeiser nevertheless took the harvest he had saved in the pick-up truck to a seed treatment plant and had it treated for use as seed. Once treated, it could be put to no other use. Mr. Schmeiser planted the treated seed in nine fields, covering approximately 1,000 acres in all ... A series of independent tests by different experts confirmed that the canola Mr. Schmeiser planted and grew in 1998 was 95 to 98 percent Roundup resistant." After further negotiations between Schmeiser and Monsanto broke down, Monsanto sued Schmeiser for patent infringement and prevailed in the initial case. Schmeiser appealed and lost, and appealed again to the Canadian Supreme Court, which in 2004 ruled 5 to 4 in Monsanto's favor, stating that "it is clear on the findings of the trial judge that the appellants saved, planted, harvested and sold the crop from plants containing the gene and plant cell patented by Monsanto". 1498:

concluded that none had discovered any safety problems linked to consumption of GM food. A 2009 review by Magaña-Gómez found that although most studies concluded that modified foods do not differ in nutrition or cause toxic effects in animals, some did report adverse changes at a cellular level caused by specific modified foods. The review concluded that "More scientific effort and investigation is needed to ensure that consumption of GM foods is not likely to provoke any form of health problem". Dona and Arvanitoyannis' 2009 review concluded that "results of most studies with GM foods indicate that they may cause some common toxic effects such as hepatic, pancreatic, renal, or reproductive effects and may alter the hematological, biochemical, and immunologic parameters". Reactions to this review in 2009 and 2010 noted that Dona and Arvanitoyannis had concentrated on articles with an anti-modification bias that were refuted in peer-reviewed articles elsewhere. Flachowsky concluded in a 2005 review that food with a one-gene modification were similar in nutrition and safety to non-modified foods, but he noted that food with multiple gene modifications would be more difficult to test and would require further animal studies. A 2004 review of animal feeding trials by Aumaitre and others found no differences among animals eating genetically modified plants.

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pesticide applications. Introduced traits potentially can cross into neighboring plants of the same or closely related species through three different types of gene flow: crop-to-crop, crop-to-weedy, and crop-to-wild. In crop-to-crop, genetic information from a genetically modified crop is transferred to a non-genetically modified crop. Crop-to-weedy transfer refers to the transfer of genetically modified material to a weed, and crop-to-wild indicates transfer from a genetically modified crop to a wild, undomesticated plant and/or crop. There are concerns that the spread of genes from modified organisms to unmodified relatives could produce species of weeds resistant to herbicides that could contaminate nearby non-genetically modified crops, or could disrupt the ecosystem, This is primarily a concern if the transgenic organism has a significant survival capacity and can increase in frequency and persist in natural populations. This process, whereby genes are transferred from GMOs to wild relatives, is different from the development of so-called "superweeds" or "superbugs" that develop resistance to pesticides under natural selection.

1147:, reviewed 94 peer-reviewed studies pertaining to GMO safety to assess whether conflicts of interest correlated with outcomes that cast GMOs in a favorable light. They found that financial conflict of interest was not associated with study outcome (p = 0.631) while author affiliation to industry (i.e., a professional conflict of interest) was strongly associated with study outcome (p < 0.001). Of the 94 studies that were analyzed, 52% did not declare funding. 10% of the studies were categorized as "undetermined" with regard to professional conflict of interest. Of the 43 studies with financial or professional conflicts of interest, 28 studies were compositional studies. According to Marc Brazeau, an association between professional conflict of interest and positive study outcomes can be skewed because companies typically contract with independent researchers to perform follow-up studies only after in-house research uncovers favorable results. In-house research that uncovers negative or unfavorable results for a novel GMO is generally not further pursued. 3806:

crops (Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Environmental Impacts Associated with Commercialization of Transgenic Plants, National Research Council and Division on Earth and Life Studies 2002). Both the U.S. National Research Council and the Joint Research Centre (the European Union's scientific and technical research laboratory and an integral part of the European Commission) have concluded that there is a comprehensive body of knowledge that adequately addresses the food safety issue of genetically engineered crops (Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health and National Research Council 2004; European Commission Joint Research Centre 2008). These and other recent reports conclude that the processes of genetic engineering and conventional breeding are no different in terms of unintended consequences to human health and the environment (European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation 2010).

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before their arrival on the market? Why are we not given an effective choice about whether or not to buy these products? Have potential long-term and irreversible consequences been seriously evaluated, and by whom? Do regulatory authorities have sufficient powers to effectively regulate large companies? Who wishes to develop these products? Can controls imposed by regulatory authorities be applied effectively? Who will be accountable in cases of unforeseen harm?" PABE also found that the public's scientific knowledge does not control public opinion, since scientific facts do not answer these questions. PABE also found that the public does not demand "zero risk" in GM food discussions and is "perfectly aware that their lives are full of risks that need to be counterbalanced against each other and against the potential benefits. Rather than zero risk, what they demanded was a more realistic assessment of risks by regulatory authorities and GMO producers."

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However, Vain found 692 research studies in 2007 that focused on GM crop and food safety and found increasing publication rates of such articles in recent years. Vain commented that the multidisciplinarian nature of GM research complicated the retrieval of studies based on it and required many search terms (he used more than 300) and multiple databases. Domingo and Bordonaba reviewed the literature again in 2011 and said that, although there had been a substantial increase in the number of studies since 2006, most were conducted by biotechnology companies "responsible of commercializing these GM plants." In 2016, Domingo published an updated analysis, and concluded that as of that time there were enough independent studies to establish that GM crops were not any more dangerous acutely than conventional foods, while still calling for more long-term studies.

1920:, which have in some cases "completely eroded all benefits from Bt cotton cultivation". A 2009 study in China concluded that the increase in secondary pests depended on local temperature and rainfall conditions and occurred in half the villages studied. The increase in insecticide use for the control of these secondary insects was far smaller than the reduction in total insecticide use due to Bt cotton adoption. A 2011 study based on a survey of 1,000 randomly selected farm households in five provinces in China found that the reduction in pesticide use in Bt cotton cultivars was significantly lower than that reported in research elsewhere: The finding was consistent with a hypothesis that more pesticide sprayings are needed over time to control emerging secondary pests, such as 1335:) and Price (FDA, retired) argued that transgenesis is less disruptive than traditional breeding techniques because the latter routinely involve more changes (mutations, deletions, insertions and rearrangements) than the relatively limited changes (often single gene) in genetic engineering. The FDA found that all of the 148 transgenic events that they evaluated to be substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts, as have Japanese regulators for 189 submissions including combined-trait products. This equivalence was confirmed by more than 80 peer-reviewed publications. Hence, the authors argue, compositional equivalence studies uniquely required for GM food crops may no longer be justified on the basis of scientific uncertainty. 2988:) was "orthodox and well accepted harvest methodology". "In 2011, eight GM canola plants were found to have grown up as self-sown volunteer plants on Eagle Rest", which "were identified and pulled out", and "no more volunteer RR canola plants grew on Eagle Rest in subsequent years". The summary judgment stated that the loss of organic certification "was occasioned by the erroneous application of governing NASAA Standards applicable to NASAA organic operators as regards GMOs (genetically modified organisms) at the time". and that "he absence of a reliable underlying evidentiary platform to support a perpetual injunction against swathing was a significant deficiency". 3750:

of the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002). These foods have been assessed for increased risks to human health by several national regulatory authorities (inter alia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, the United Kingdom and the United States) using their national food safety procedures (ICSU). To date no verifiable untoward toxic or nutritionally deleterious effects resulting from the consumption of foods derived from genetically modified crops have been discovered anywhere in the world (GM Science Review Panel). Many millions of people have consumed foods derived from GM plants - mainly maize, soybean and oilseed rape - without any observed adverse effects (ICSU).

2684:) began distributing products either locally or nationwide with labels such as "Partially produced with Genetic Engineering". Other manufacturers removed about 3,000 non-compliant products from sale in Vermont. The federal government of the United States passed a law at the end of that month pre-empting all state laws, including Vermont's. The law requires labeling regulations to be issued by July 2018, and allows indirect disclosure such as with a phone number, bar code, or web site. It is unclear whether the rules will require labeling of oils and sugars from GM crops, where the final product does not contain any "genetic material" as mentioned in the law. 1694:

including liver and kidney damage and large tumors. The study provoked widespread criticism. Séralini held a press conference just before the paper was released in which he announced the release of a book and a movie. He allowed reporters to have access to the paper before his press conference only if they signed a confidentiality agreement under which they could not report other scientists' responses to the paper. The press conference resulted in media coverage emphasizing a connection between GMOs, glyphosate, and cancer. Séralini's publicity stunt yielded criticism from other scientists for prohibiting critical commentary. Criticisms included insufficient

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This was attributed to European corn borer populations reduced by exposure to Bt corn, leaving fewer to attack conventional corn nearby. Agriculture economists calculated that "world surplus $ 240.3 million for 1996. Of this total, the largest share (59%) went to U.S. farmers. Seed company Monsanto received the next largest share (21%), followed by US consumers (9%), the rest of the world (6%), and the germplasm supplier, Delta and Pine Land Company (5%)." PG Economics comprehensive 2012 study concluded that GM crops increased farm incomes worldwide by $ 14 billion in 2010, with over half this total going to farmers in developing countries.

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realized that these shipments contained GM maize, they rejected the shipments and stopped releasing the food that had been sent to them. Critics accused the US of "exploiting the Southern African famine as a public relations tool". The U.S. countered these comments by saying that European nations were letting millions of Africans suffer from hunger and starvation because of "irrational fears over hypothetical and unproven risks". The US had a pre-GMO policy of shipping US crops as food aid, rather than buying crops in/near the countries that needed aid. The US policy was claimed to be more costly than Europe's.

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GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies.

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variance in yield from year to year was reduced, equivalent to a yield increase of 0.8–4.2 bushels per acre. Bushel per acre yield changes were +6.4 for European corn borer resistance, +5.76 for glufosinate tolerance, −5.98 for glyphosate tolerance and −12.22 for corn rootworm resistance. The study found interactions among the genes in multi-trait hybrid strains, such that the net effect varied from the sum of the individual effects. For example, the combination of European corn borer resistance and glufosinate tolerance increased yields by 3.13, smaller than either of the individual traits

17261:(3) Traceability requirements for GMOs should facilitate both the withdrawal of products where unforeseen adverse effects on human health, animal health or the environment, including ecosystems, are established, and the targeting of monitoring to examine potential effects on, in particular, the environment. Traceability should also facilitate the implementation of risk management measures in accordance with the precautionary principle. (4) Traceability requirements for food and feed produced from GMOs should be established to facilitate accurate labeling of such products. 4038:

research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies." The World Health Organization, the American Medical Association, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the British Royal Society, and every other respected organization that has examined the evidence has come to the same conclusion: consuming foods containing ingredients derived from GM crops is no riskier than consuming the same foods containing ingredients from crop plants modified by conventional plant improvement techniques.

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still remains on whether the reduced amounts of pesticides used actually invoke a lower negative environmental effect, since there is also a shift in the types of pesticides used, and different pesticides have different environmental effects. In August 2015, protests occurred in Hawaii over the possibility that birth defects were being caused by the heavy use of pesticides on new strains of GM crops being developed there. Hawaii uses 17 times the amount of pesticides per acre compared to the rest of the US.

21865: 8792:"While EPA had no specific data to indicate that Cry9C was an allergen, the protein expressed in StarLink corn did exhibit certain characteristics (i.e. relative heat stability and extended time to digestion) that were common to known food allergens such as those found in peanuts, eggs, etc. EPA's concern was that StarLink corn may be a human food allergen and in the absence of more definitive data, EPA has not made a decision whether or not to register the human food use." Staff, EPA. November 2000 3603:. National Academies Press. pp R9-10: "In contrast to adverse health effects that have been associated with some traditional food production methods, similar serious health effects have not been identified as a result of genetic engineering techniques used in food production. This may be because developers of bioengineered organisms perform extensive compositional analyses to determine that each phenotype is desirable and to ensure that unintended changes have not occurred in key components of food." 2019:(GURT), also called "Terminator". This uncommercialized technology would allow the production of crops with sterile seeds, which would prevent the escape of GM traits. Groups concerned about food supplies had expressed concern that the technology would be used to limit access to fertile seeds. Another hypothetical technology known as "Traitor" or "T-GURT", would not render seeds sterile, but instead would require application of a chemical to GM crops to activate engineered traits. Groups such as 2552:, but Monsanto won every case. Monsanto Canada's Director of Public Affairs stated, "It is not, nor has it ever been Monsanto Canada's policy to enforce its patent on Roundup Ready crops when they are present on a farmer's field by accident ... Only when there has been a knowing and deliberate violation of its patent rights will Monsanto act." In 2009 Monsanto announced that after its soybean patent expires in 2014, it will no longer prohibit farmers from planting soybean seeds that they grow. 2984:

reported the seed and plants to his local organic certification board, and lost the organic certification of some 70 per cent of his 478 hectare farm. Marsh sued on the grounds that Baxter used a method of harvesting his crop that was substandard and negligent, and on the basis that his land had been widely contaminated. In its summary judgment, the court found that approximately 245 cut canola plants were blown by the wind into Marsh's property, Eagle's Rest. However, Baxter's method (

2473:, but noted that the move by some companies to divest their seed operations questioned the long-term viability of these conglomerates. Two economists have said that the seed companies' market power could raise welfare despite their pricing strategies, because "even though price discrimination is often considered to be an unwanted market distortion, it may increase total welfare by increasing total output and by making goods available to markets where they would not appear otherwise." 52: 3138:

India from other causes including malnutrition, diseases and suicides that were non-farming related, or about 171 million deaths from 1995 to 2013. Activists and scholars have offered a number of conflicting reasons for farmer suicides, such as monsoon failure, high debt burdens, genetically modified crops, government policies, public mental health, personal issues and family problems. There are also accusations of states reporting inaccurate data on farmer suicides.

3205: 21876: 2122:. Traceability has become commonplace in the food and feed supply chains of most countries, but GMO traceability is more challenging given strict legal thresholds for unwanted mixing. Since 2001, conventional and organic food and feedstuffs can contain up to 0.9% of authorised modified material without carrying a GMO label. (any trace of non-authorised modification is cause for a shipment to be rejected). Authorities require the ability to trace, 2221:

cotton adoption had led to higher yields and lower pesticide use. Another study concluded that insecticide use on cotton and corn during the years 1996 to 2005 fell by 35,600,000 kilograms (78,500,000 lb) of active ingredient, roughly equal to the annual amount applied in the European Union. A Bt cotton study in six northern Chinese provinces from 1990 to 2010 concluded that it halved the use of pesticides and doubled the level of

22180: 1265:"The World Health Organization, the American Medical Association, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the British Royal Society, and every other respected organization that has examined the evidence has come to the same conclusion: consuming foods containing ingredients derived from GM crops is no riskier than consuming the same foods containing ingredients from crop plants modified by conventional plant improvement techniques." 21896: 1413:(Bt) protein Cry9C, was found contaminating corn products in U.S. supermarkets and restaurants. It was also found in Japan and South Korea. Starlink corn had only been approved for animal feed as the Cry9C protein lasts longer in the digestive system than other Bt proteins raising concerns about its potential allergenicity. In 2000, Taco Bell-branded taco shells sold in supermarkets were found to contain Starlink, resulting in a 1205:

safety of GM crops." In 2010, the European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation reported that "The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of involving more than 500 independent research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies."

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Many protests occurred in Southern California, and some participants carried signs expressing support for mandatory labeling of GMOs that read "Label GMOs, It's Our Right to Know", and "Real Food 4 Real People". Canal said that the movement would continue its "anti-GMO cause" beyond the initial event. Further marches occurred in October 2013 and in May 2014 and 2015. The protests were reported by news outlets including

21906: 21886: 21855: 3191: 2086:. The strain was developed by Monsanto, and had been field-tested from 1998 to 2005. The discovery threatened US wheat exports which totaled $ 8.1 billion in 2012. Japan, South Korea and Taiwan temporarily suspended winter wheat purchases as a result of the discovery. As of August 30, 2013, while the source of the modified wheat remained unknown, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan had resumed placing orders. 1305:, carcinogenic toxins made by fungi that travel on insects' backs and that grow in the wounds of damaged corn. Studies show that most Bt corn has lower levels of fumonisins than conventional insect-damaged corn. Workshops and consultations organized by the OECD, WHO, and FAO have worked to acquire data and develop better understanding of conventional foods, for use in assessing GM foods. 2580:

engineered seed is permitted". Opponents claimed that "incorporating stringent socio-economic standards into the science-based regulatory system could spell the end of private research funding; because if private biotechnology companies can't see the possibility of a return on their investment, they'll invest their research budget elsewhere". The bill was defeated 176 to 97 in 2011.

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market....The Union of Concerned Scientists ("UCS"), an alliance of 50,000 citizens and scientists, has been another prominent voice on the issue.... As the pace of GM products entering the market increased in the 1990s, UCS became a vocal critic of what it saw as the agency's collusion with industry and failure to fully take account of allergenicity and other safety issues.

2212:, does not distinguish between genetically modified and non-genetically modified crops. Brookes had earlier published a study that found that the use of biotech crops had reduced the volume and environmental impact of herbicide and other pesticides, which contradicted Benbrook. Brookes stated that Benbrook had made "biased and inaccurate" assumptions. 838:, Greenpeace and others have disrupted GMO research around the world. Within the UK and other European countries, as of 2014 80 crop trials by academic or governmental research institutes had been destroyed by protesters. In some cases, threats and violence against people or property were carried out. In 1999, activists burned the biotech lab of 4002:. Overall, a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food... Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GMO food have been reported or substantiated in peer-reviewed literature to date. 7642:"The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of research, and involving more than 500 independent research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies." (p. 16) 1418:

also found to be contaminated with StarLink corn and the aid was rejected. The U.S. corn supply has been monitored for Starlink Bt proteins since 2001 and no positive samples have been found since 2004. In response, GeneWatch UK and Greenpeace set up the GM Contamination Register in 2005. During the recall, the United States

2441:, a group opposed to genetic engineering and cloning of food animals, summarized peer-reviewed studies on the yield contribution of GM soybeans and maize in the US. The report concluded that other agricultural methods had made a greater contribution to national crop yield increases in recent years than genetic engineering. 1135:

ability to "alter what has been a research environment rife with obstruction and suspicion". Monsanto previously had research agreements (i.e., Academic Research Licenses) with approximately 100 universities that allowed for university scientists to conduct research on their GM products with no oversight.

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bodies and heard 80 witnesses. They concluded that GM crops had given farmers economic advantages but found no evidence that GM crops had increased yields. They also noted that weed resistance to GM crops could cause major agricultural problems but this could be addressed by better farming procedures.

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The labeling should include objective information to the effect that a food or feed consists of, contains or is produced from GMOs. Clear labeling, irrespective of the detectability of DNA or protein resulting from the genetic modification in the final product, meets the demands expressed in numerous

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GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have

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Despite various concerns, today, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the World Health Organization, and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods. Compared with conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering is far

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The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years

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Currently available transgenic crops and foods derived from them have been judged safe to eat and the methods used to test their safety have been deemed appropriate. These conclusions represent the consensus of the scientific evidence surveyed by the ICSU (2003) and they are consistent with the views

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As of 1 January 2013, all foods containing GMOs must be labelled. The Legal Metrology (Packaged Commodities) Rules, 2011 states that "every package containing the genetically modified food shall bear at the top of its principal display panel the letters 'GM.'" The rules apply to 19 products including

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say that patent rights give corporations excessive control over agriculture. The Center for Ecoliteracy claimed that "patenting seeds gives companies excessive power over something that is vital for everyone". A 2000 report stated, "If the rights to these tools are strongly and universally enforced -

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and the US Department of Agriculture held a meeting in Ankeny, Iowa, to look at the competitive dynamics in the seed industry. Christine Varney, who heads the antitrust division in the Justice Department, said that her team was investigating whether biotech-seed patents were being abused. A key issue

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A study unusually published as correspondence rather than as an article examined maize modified to express four traits (resistance to European corn borer, resistance to corn root worm, glyphosate tolerance and glyfosinate tolerance) singly and in combination in Wisconsin fields from 1990 to 2010. The

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US maize yields were flat until the 1930s, when the adoption of conventional hybrid seeds caused them to increase by ~.8 bushels/acre (1937–1955). Thereafter a combination of improved genetics, fertilizer and pesticide availability and mechanization raised the rate of increase to 1.9 bushels per acre

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The main Bt crop grown by small farmers in developing countries is cotton. A 2006 review of Bt cotton findings by agricultural economists concluded, "the overall balance sheet, though promising, is mixed. Economic returns are highly variable over years, farm type, and geographical location". However,

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and can occur in any new open-pollinated crop variety. As late as the 1990s this was thought to be unlikely and rare, and if it were to occur, easily eradicated. It was thought that this would add no additional environmental costs or risks - no effects were expected other than those already caused by

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birds were more abundant on conventional maize after the application of the herbicide, but that there were no significant differences in any other crop or prior to herbicide treatment. A 2012 study found a correlation between the reduction of milkweed in farms that grew glyphosate-resistant crops and

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The diversity and number of weed populations has been shown to decrease in farm-scale trials in the United Kingdom and in Denmark when comparing herbicide-resistant crops to their conventional counterparts. The UK trial suggested that the diversity of birds could be adversely affected by the decrease

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published many critical letters, with only a few expressing support. National food safety and regulatory agencies also reviewed the paper and dismissed it. In March 2013, Séralini responded to these criticisms in the same journal that originally published his study, and a few scientists supported his

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database using 12 search terms indicated that the "number of references" on the safety of GM or transgenic crops was "surprisingly limited", and he questioned whether the safety of GM food had been demonstrated. The review also stated that its conclusions were in agreement with three earlier reviews.

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GMO proponents note that because of the safety testing requirements, the risk of introducing a plant variety with a new allergen or toxin is much smaller than from traditional breeding processes, which do not require such tests. Genetic engineering can have less impact on the expression of genomes or

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Kuiper examined this process further in 2002, finding that substantial equivalence does not measure absolute risks, but instead identifies differences between new and existing products. He claimed that characterizing differences is properly a starting point for a safety assessment and "the concept of

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organisms are treated similarly when assessed. However, in 2012 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) GMO Panel said that "novel hazards" could be associated with transgenic strains. In a 2016 review, Domingo concluded that studies in recent years had established that GM soybeans, rice, corn, and

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that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.

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Surveys indicate widespread concern among consumers that eating genetically modified food is harmful, that biotechnology is risky, that more information is needed and that consumers need control over whether to take such risks. A diffuse sense that social and technological change is accelerating, and

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Existing evidence from developed countries shows that while mandatory labeling regulations have failed thus far to demonstrate any visible benefit in terms of consumer choice and consumer information, they have contributed to the disappearance of GM food ingredients in targeted

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Several scientific organizations in the US have issued studies or statements regarding the safety of GMOs indicating that there is no evidence that GMOs present unique safety risks compared to conventionally bred products. These include the National Research Council, the American Association for the

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In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of

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The literature about Biodiversity and the GE food/feed consumption has sometimes resulted in animated debate regarding the suitability of the experimental designs, the choice of the statistical methods or the public accessibility of data. Such debate, even if positive and part of the natural process

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activists as well as from the packaged-food industry; both sides had major concerns that no logistical framework or regulations had been established to guide the law's implementation and enforcement. On March 21, 2014, the Indian government revalidated 10 GM-based food crops and allowed field trials

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that year prevented any increase in yield, because the GM strain was not drought tolerant. Drought-tolerant variants were later developed. Driven by substantially reduced losses to insect predation, by 2011 88% of Indian cotton was modified. There are economic and environmental benefits of GM cotton

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Critics claimed that shipment of US food to southern Africa was more about promoting the adoption of biotech crops in the region than about hunger. The US was supplying Africa with meals and support during a food crisis they were facing in the early 2000s. However, once some of the African countries

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that the EU was violating international trade agreements, by blocking imports of US farm products through its ban on GM food. The countries argued that the EU's regulatory process was far too slow and its standards were unreasonable given the scientific evidence showing that the crops were safe. The

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Traditionally, farmers in all nations saved their own seed from year to year. However, since the early 1900s hybrid crops have been widely used in the developed world and seeds to grow these crops are purchased each year from seed producers. The offspring of the hybrid corn, while still viable, lose

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In 2013, the European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC) asked the EU to allow the development of agricultural GM technologies to enable more sustainable agriculture, by employing fewer land, water and nutrient resources. EASAC also criticizes the EU's "timeconsuming and expensive regulatory

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GM food's economic value to farmers is one of its major benefits, including in developing nations. A 2010 study found that Bt corn provided economic benefits of $ 6.9 billion over the previous 14 years in five Midwestern states. The majority ($ 4.3 billion) accrued to farmers producing non-Bt corn.

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Studies comparing the genetic diversity of cotton found that in the US diversity has either increased or stayed the same, while in India it has declined. This difference was attributed to the larger number of modified varieties in the US compared to India. A review of the effects of Bt crops on soil

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Lövei et al. analyzed laboratory settings and found that Bt toxins could affect non-target organisms, generally closely related to the intended targets. Typically, exposure occurs through the consumption of plant parts, such as pollen or plant debris, or through Bt ingestion by predators. A group of

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concluding that any risk posed to butterfly populations was negligible. A 2002 review of the scientific literature concluded that "the commercial large-scale cultivation of current Bt–maize hybrids did not pose a significant risk to the monarch population" and noted that despite large-scale planting

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reviewed his work and concluded that the data did not support his conclusions. The work was criticized on the grounds that the unmodified potatoes were not a fair control diet and that any rat fed only potatoes would suffer from protein deficiency. Pusztai responded by stating that all diets had the

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Reviews of animal feeding studies mostly found no effects. A 2014 review found that the performance of animals fed GM feed was similar to that of animals fed "isogenic non-GE crop lines". A 2012 review of 12 long-term studies and 12 multigenerational studies conducted by public research laboratories

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of those products, and eventually led to the recall of over 300 products. Sales of StarLink seed were discontinued and the registration for the Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000. Aid sent by the United Nations and the United States to Central African nations was

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A Deloitte survey in 2010 found that 34% of U.S. consumers were very or extremely concerned about GM food, a 3% reduction from 2008. The same survey found gender differences: 10% of men were extremely concerned, compared with 16% of women, and 16% of women were unconcerned, compared with 27% of men.

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Dorsch JA, Candas M, Griko NB, Maaty WS, Midboe EG, Vadlamudi RK, Bulla LA (September 2002). "Cry1A toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis bind specifically to a region adjacent to the membrane-proximal extracellular domain of BT-R(1) in Manduca sexta: involvement of a cadherin in the entomopathogenicity

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Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects. The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM

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A report issued by the scientific council of the American Medical Association (AMA) says that no long-term health effects have been detected from the use of transgenic crops and genetically modified foods, and that these foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts." "Crops

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Here, we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the

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stating "when human activities may lead to threats of serious and irreversible damage to the environment that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish the threat". Respondents filed a motion for reconsideration in June 2013 and on September 20, 2013 the

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A petition filed May 17, 2013, by environmental group Greenpeace Southeast Asia and farmer-scientist coalition Masipag (Magsasaka at Siyentipiko sa Pagpapaunlad ng Agrikultura) asked the appellate court to stop the planting of Bt eggplant in test fields, saying the impacts of such an undertaking to

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In 2014, Maui County, Hawaii approved an initiative calling for a moratorium on GMO production and research. The initiative specified penalties including fines and jail for knowing violations and did not limit its scope to commercial agriculture. The initiative passed by about 50.2 to 47.9 percent.

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exports to Europe were rejected when traces of an experimental GM flax were found in shipments. This led a member of Parliament to propose Private Member's Bill C-474, which would have required that "an analysis of potential harm to export markets be conducted before the sale of any new genetically

2207:

from 1996 to 2006, a 43% (.9 kg/ha) increase for cotton from 1996 to 2010 and a 16% (.5 kg/ha) decrease for corn from 1996 to 2010. However, this study came under scrutiny because Benbrook did not consider the fact that glyphosate is less toxic than other herbicides, thus net toxicity may

1999:

stated that "the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper", although it did not retract the paper. A subsequent large-scale study, in 2005, found no evidence of gene flow in Oaxaca. However, other authors claimed to have found evidence of such gene flow.

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In this case, the plaintiff argued both for mandatory labeling on the basis of consumer demand, and that GMO foods should undergo the same testing requirements as food additives because they are "materially changed" and have potentially unidentified health risks. The plaintiff also alleged that the

471:

Specific perceptions include a view of genetic engineering as meddling with naturally evolved biological processes, and one that science has limitations on its comprehension of potential negative ramifications. An opposing perception is that genetic engineering is itself an evolution of traditional

4389:

The Royal Society review (2002) concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences in GM plants are negligible, and while calling for caution in the introduction of potential allergens into food crops, stressed the absence of evidence that commercially

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The EU, for example, has invested more than €300 million in research on the biosafety of GMOs. Its recent report states: "The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of research and involving more than 500 independent

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India is an agrarian country with around 60% of its people depending directly or indirectly upon agriculture. From 1995 to 2013, a total of 296,438 farmers have killed themselves in India, or an average of 16,469 suicides per year. During the same period, about 9.5 million people died per year in

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dismissed "Marsh v. Baxter". The plaintiff was Steve Marsh, an organic farmer, and the defendant was Michael Baxter, his lifelong neighbour, who grew GM canola. In late 2010, Marsh found seeds from Baxter's crop in his fields. Later, Marsh found escaped GM canola growing amidst his crop. Marsh

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regulating international trade in GM food, and in July agreed to new regulations requiring labeling and traceability, as well as an opt-out provision for individual countries. The approval of new GMOs resumed in May 2004. While GMOs have been approved since then, approvals remain controversial and

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Prior to the new federal rules taking effect, while it does require pre-market approval, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not required GMO labeling as long as there are no differences in health, environmental safety, and consumer expectations based on the packaging. The federal rules come

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A claimed environmental benefit of Bt-cotton and maize is reduced insecticide use. A PG Economics study concluded that global pesticide use was reduced by 286,000 tons in 2006, decreasing pesticidal environmental impact by 15%. A survey of small Indian farms between 2002 and 2008 concluded that Bt

1903:

in a Roundup formulation) by creating artificial ecosystems in tanks and then applying "each chemical at the manufacturer's maximum recommended application rates" found that "species richness was reduced by 15% with Sevin, 30% with malathion, and 22% with Roundup, whereas 2,4-D had no effect". The

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In 2012, Séralini's lab published a paper that considered the long-term effects of feeding rats various levels of GM glyphosate-resistant maize, conventional glyphosate-treated maize, and a mixture of the two strains. The paper concluded that rats fed the modified maize had severe health problems,

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and that substantial equivalence should be abandoned. This commentary was criticized for misrepresenting history, for distorting existing data and poor logic. Kuiper claimed that it oversimplified safety assessments and that equivalence testing involves more than chemical tests, possibly including

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warned that substantial equivalence testing "could be flawed in some cases" and that current safety tests could allow harmful substances to enter the human food supply. The same year Millstone, Brunner and Mayer argued that the standard was a pseudo-scientific product of politics and lobbying that

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of rats that were fed diets derived from GM crops, and identified some systemic flaws in this area of the scientific literature. Most studies were performed years after the approval of the crop for human consumption. Papers were often imprecise in their descriptions of the histological results and

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agreed to "allow public researchers greater freedom to study the effects of GM food crops". The companies signed blanket agreements permitting such research. This agreement left many scientists optimistic about the future; other scientists still express concern as to whether this agreement has the

17253:"Regulation (EC) No 1830/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2003 concerning the traceability and labeling of genetically modified organisms and the traceability of food and feed products produced from genetically modified organisms and amending Directive 2001/18/EC" 3805:

There is broad scientific consensus that genetically engineered crops currently on the market are safe to eat. After 14 years of cultivation and a cumulative total of 2 billion acres planted, no adverse health or environmental effects have resulted from commercialization of genetically engineered

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efforts are not driven by evidence that GM foods are actually dangerous. Indeed, the science is quite clear: crop improvement by the modern molecular techniques of biotechnology is safe. Rather, these initiatives are driven by a variety of factors, ranging from the persistent perception that such

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considered all published English-language examinations of the agronomic and economic impacts between 1995 and March 2014. The study found that herbicide-tolerant crops have lower production costs, while for insect-resistant crops the reduced pesticide use was offset by higher seed prices, leaving

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GM crops are as natural and safe as today's bread wheat, opined Dr. Borlaug, who also reminded agricultural scientists of their moral obligation to stand up to the antiscience crowd and warn policy makers that global food insecurity will not disappear without this new technology and ignoring this

2011:

genes. According to the researchers, the lack of reports in the United States suggested that oversight and monitoring were inadequate. A 2010 report stated that the advent of glyphosate-resistant weeds could cause GM crops to lose their effectiveness unless farmers combined glyphosate with other

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for use as a pasture crop was shown to cause an allergic reaction in mice. Work on this variety was immediately halted. These cases have been used as evidence that genetic modification can produce unexpected and dangerous changes in foods, and as evidence that safety tests effectively protect the

739:

The initial march took place on May 25, 2013. The number of protesters who took part is uncertain; figures of "hundreds of thousands" and the organizers' estimate of "two million" were variously cited. Events took place in between 330 and 436 cities around the world, mostly in the United States.

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In the mid-1990s, government approval of some GMO crops in the United States precipitated public concern in Europe and led to a dramatic decrease in American exports to Europe. "Prior to 1997, corn exports to Europe represented about 4% of total US corn exports, generating about $ 300 million in

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Tillage decreased by 25–58% on herbicide-resistant soybeans. Glyphosate-resistant crops allowed farmers to plant rows closer together as they did not have to control post-emergent weeds with mechanical tillage. Insecticide applications on Bt crops were reduced by 14–76%. 72% of farmers worldwide

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and politics, rather than production. Other critics say that the world has so many people because the second green revolution adopted unsustainable agricultural practices that left the world with more mouths to feed than the planet can sustain. Pfeiffer claimed that even if technological farming

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covering 147 original studies of farm surveys and field trials, and 15 studies from the researchers conducting the study, concluded that adoption of GM technology had reduced chemical pesticide use by 37%, with the effect larger for insect-tolerant crops than herbicide-tolerant crops. Some doubt

1204:

The ENTRANSFOOD project was a European Commission-funded scientist group chartered to set a research program to address public concerns about the safety and value of agricultural biotechnology. It concluded that "the combination of existing test methods provides a sound test-regime to assess the

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concluded that GM foods are safe for human consumption and they could find no conclusive evidence that they harm the environment nor wildlife. They analysed over 1.000 studies over the previous 30 years that GM crops have been available, reviewed 700 written presentations submitted by interested

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very different. Eurobrometer survey in 2019 reported that most Europeans do not care about GMO when the topic is not presented explicitly, and when presented only 27% choose it as a concern. In just nine years since identical survey in 2010 the level of concern has halved in 28 EU Member States.

567:

project (PABE) found the public neither accepting nor rejecting GMOs. Instead, PABE found that public had "key questions" about GMOs: "Why do we need GMOs? Who benefits from their use? Who decided that they should be developed and how? Why were we not better informed about their use in our food,

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The largest differences between the public and the AAAS scientists are found in beliefs about the safety of eating genetically modified (GM) foods. Nearly nine-in-ten (88%) scientists say it is generally safe to eat GM foods compared with 37% of the general public, a difference of 51 percentage

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When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks, it is prudent to err on the side of caution and, above all, learn from accumulating knowledge and experience. Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the

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We have reviewed the scientific literature on GE crop safety for the last 10 years that catches the scientific consensus matured since GE plants became widely cultivated worldwide, and we can conclude that the scientific research conducted so far has not detected any significant hazard directly

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On June 18, 2014, Marsh announced that he had filed an appeal. One ground was the costs of $ 803,989 awarded against him. The appeal hearing commenced on 23 March 2015 and was adjourned on 25 March "to deal with an order to ascertain whether Mr Baxter's defence has been financially supported by

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convened an Advisory Committee on Biotechnology and 21st Century Agriculture (AC21) to study coexistence and make recommendations about the issue. The members of AC21 included representatives of the biotechnology industry, the organic food industry, farming communities, the seed industry, food

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Additionally, ethical concerns guide human subject research. These mandate that each tested intervention must have a potential benefit for the human subjects, such as treatment for a disease or nutritional benefit (ruling out, e.g., human toxicity testing). Kimber claimed that the "ethical and

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Other jurisdictions make such labeling voluntary or have had plans to require labeling. Major GM food crop exporters like the United States (until 2018), Argentina, and Canada have adopted voluntary labeling approaches; China and Brazil have major GM (largely non-food) crops and have adopted

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removed for medical reasons. As this gene transfer did not increase after the consumption of the modified soy, the researchers concluded that gene transfer did not occur. In volunteers with intact digestive tracts, the transgene did not survive. The antibiotic resistance genes used in genetic

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chemicals and that existing diets were never proven to be safe. This lack of knowledge re conventional food means that modified foods may differ in anti-nutrients and natural toxins that have never been identified in the original plant, possibly allowing harmful changes to be missed. In turn,

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On the basis of detailed examination of comparisons of currently commercialized GE with non-GE foods in compositional analysis, acute and chronic animal toxicity tests, long-term data on health of livestock fed GE foods, and human epidemiological data, the committee found no differences that

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and regulations. Marked differences distinguish the US from Europe. Crops not intended as foods are generally not reviewed for food safety. GM foods are not tested in humans before marketing because they are not a single chemical, nor are they intended to be ingested using specific doses and

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By the late 1990s, public awareness of GM foods reached a critical level and a number of public interest groups emerged to focus on the issue. One of the early groups to focus on the issue was Mothers for Natural Law ("MFNL"), an Iowa-based organization that aimed to ban GM foods from the

5163:"Biotechnology companies produce genetically engineered crops to control insects and weeds and to manufacture pharmaceuticals and other chemicals. The Union of Concerned Scientists works to strengthen the federal oversight needed to prevent such products from contaminating our food supply" 3658:+pp 292-293. Foods derived from GM crops have been consumed by hundreds of millions of people across the world for more than 15 years, with no reported ill effects (or legal cases related to human health), despite many of the consumers coming from that most litigious of countries, the USA. 1187:

meal secreted fragments of the foreign gene in their milk. In December 2015 one of the papers was retracted for "self-plagiarism", although the journal noted that the results remained valid. A second paper was retracted in March 2016 after The University of Naples concluded that "multiple

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Advancement of Science, and the American Medical Association. Groups in the US opposed to GMOs include some environmental organizations, organic farming organizations, and consumer organizations. A substantial number of legal academics have criticized the US's approach to regulating GMOs.

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and Greenpeace emphasize this risk. A 2005 review of the results from allergen testing stated that "no biotech proteins in foods have been documented to cause allergic reactions". Regulatory authorities require that new modified foods be tested for allergenicity before they are marketed.

5816: 827:(ENSSER), posted a statement claiming that there is no scientific consensus on the safety of GMOs, which was signed by about 200 scientists in various fields in its first week. On January 25, 2015, their statement was formally published as a whitepaper by Environmental Sciences Europe: 3109:

During a conference in the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa, Kingsley Amoako, Executive Secretary of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), encouraged African nations to accept GM food and expressed dissatisfaction in the public's negative opinion of biotechnology.

1690:(EFSA) then concluded that the differences were all within the normal range. EFSA also stated that Séralini's statistics were faulty. EFSA's conclusions were supported by FSANZ, a panel of expert toxicologists, and the French High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee (HCB). 1296:

substantial equivalence is an adequate tool in order to identify safety issues related to genetically modified products that have a traditional counterpart". Kuiper noted practical difficulties in applying this standard, including the fact that traditional foods contain many toxic or

689:. The researchers, led by John Pickett, wrote a letter to the group in early May 2012, asking them to call off their protest, aimed for 27 May 2012. Group member Lucy Harrap said that the group was concerned about spread of the crops into nature, and cited examples of outcomes in the 4377:

In our view, the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods. However, safety concerns cannot, as yet, be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently

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academic scientists criticized the analysis, writing: "We are deeply concerned about the inappropriate methods used in their paper, the lack of ecological context, and the authors' advocacy of how laboratory studies on non-target arthropods should be conducted and interpreted".

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One strategy to delay Bt-resistance is to plant pest refuges using conventional crops, thereby diluting any resistant genes. Another is to develop crops with multiple Bt genes that target different receptors within the insect. In 2012, a Florida field trial demonstrated that

1363:

Genetic modification can also be used to remove allergens from foods, potentially reducing the risk of food allergies. A hypo-allergenic strain of soybean was tested in 2003 and shown to lack the major allergen that is found in the beans. A similar approach has been tried in

17354:

Page accessed March 21, 2015. Quote: As discussed above, labeling requirements apply to the marketing of transgenic plants, propagation material, and organisms. Labeling requirements for distribution of processed food products containing GMO components do not apply at this

11635: 3170:, a genetically modified eggplant, for commercialisation in October 2009. After opposition by some scientists, farmers and environmental groups, a moratorium was imposed on its release in February 2010 "for as long as it is needed to establish public trust and confidence". 388:

Specific concerns include mixing of genetically modified and non-genetically modified products in the food supply, effects of GMOs on the environment, the rigor of the regulatory process, and consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs.

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and not extensively licensed or provided pro bono in the developing world – then the potential applications of GM technologies described previously are unlikely to benefit the less developed nations of the world for a long time" (i.e. until after the restrictions expire).

1710:(females fed three times the standard dose showed a decreased number of tumours) and no identified mechanism for the tumour increases. Six French national academies of science issued an unprecedented joint statement condemning the study and the journal that published it. 853:

to be released into the environment when a strawberry field in California was sprayed with the bacteria. This was followed by the spraying of a crop of potato seedlings. The plants in both test fields were uprooted by activist groups, but were re-planted the next day.

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Monsanto said that it respected people's rights to express their opinion on the topic, but maintained that its seeds improved agriculture by helping farmers produce more from their land while conserving resources, such as water and energy. The company reiterated that

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available GM foods cause clinical allergic manifestations. The BMA shares the view that there is no robust evidence to prove that GM foods are unsafe but we endorse the call for further research and surveillance to provide convincing evidence of safety and benefit.

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toxicity testing. Keler and Lappe supported Congressional legislation to replace the substantial equivalence standard with safety studies. In a 2016 review, Domingo criticized the use of the "substantial equivalence" concept as a measure of the safety of GM crops.

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Yields increased 9% for herbicide tolerance and 25% for insect resistance. Farmers who adopted GM crops made 69% higher profits than those who did not. The review found that GM crops help farmers in developing countries, increasing yields by 14 percentage points.

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program, an education program to ensure that organic farmers put appropriate contracts in place and that neighboring GMO farmers take appropriate containment measures. Overall the report supported a diverse agriculture system supporting diverse farming systems.

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of consumers and facilitate the withdrawal of products if adverse effects on health or the environment are discovered. A 2007 review on the effect of labeling laws found that once labeling went into effect, few products continued to contain GM ingredients.

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The US has no legislation governing the relationship among mixtures of farms that grow organic, conventional, and GM crops. The country relies on a "complex but relaxed" combination of three federal agencies (FDA, EPA, and USDA/APHIS) and states' common law

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König A, Cockburn A, Crevel RW, Debruyne E, Grafstroem R, Hammerling U, Kimber I, Knudsen I, Kuiper HA, Peijnenburg AA, Penninks AH, Poulsen M, Schauzu M, Wal JM (July 2004). "Assessment of the safety of foods derived from genetically modified (GM) crops".

2781:, a former Monsanto lobbyist, was appointed as a senior adviser to the FDA on food safety in 1991. After leaving the FDA, Taylor became a vice-president of Monsanto. On 7 July 2009, Taylor returned to government as a senior adviser to the FDA Commissioner. 16732: 2696:. Connecticut and Maine had passed laws in 2013 and 2014 respectively, which would have required GMO food labels if Northeast states with a population of at least 20 million had passed similar laws (and for Connecticut, representing at least four states). 571:

In 2006, the Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology made public a review of U.S. survey results between 2001 and 2006. The review showed that Americans' knowledge of GM foods and animals was low throughout the period. Protests during this period against

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crops should be continued. These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit. The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming, the environment, food safety and other potential health effects.

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manufacturers, State governments, consumer and community development groups, the medical profession, and academic researchers. AC21 recommended that a study assess the potential for economic losses to US organic farmers; that any serious losses lead to a

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method for detecting the Cry1Ab protein was not validated and that no evidence showed that GM food was the protein's source. The organization also suggested that even had the protein been detected its source was more likely conventional or organic food.

3014:

Court of Appeals chose to uphold their May decision saying the bt talong field trials violate the people's constitutional right to a "balanced and healthful ecology". The Supreme Court on December 8, 2015, permanently stopped the field testing for Bt (

1436:

The risk of horizontal gene transfer between GMO plants and animals is very low and in most cases is expected to be lower than background rates. Two studies on the possible effects of feeding animals with genetically modified food found no residues of

5472:

What would you think if I said that your dinner resembles Frankenstein an unnatural hodgepodge of alien ingredients? Fish genes are swimming in your tomato sauce, microscopic bacterial genes in your tortillas, and your veg curry has been spiked with

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Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM

2803:

The Canadian Biotechnology Advisory Committee that reviewed Canada's regulations in 2003 was accused by environmental and citizen groups of not representing the full spectrum of public interests and for being too closely aligned to industry groups.

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A University of Naples investigation suggested that images in eight papers on animals were intentionally altered and/or misused. The leader of the research group, Federico Infascelli, rejected the claim. The research concluded that mother goats fed

503:

In the United States support or opposition or skepticism about GMO food is not divided by traditional partisan (liberal/conservative) lines, but young adults are more likely to have negative opinions on genetically modified food than older adults.

1995:, concerns were raised about GM maize's effects on local strains. A 2001 report found Bt maize cross-breeding with conventional maize in Mexico. The data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact and the publishing journal 1847:

of genetically modified crops, the butterfly's population was increasing. However, the herbicide glyphosate used to grow GMOs kills milkweed, the only food source of monarch butterflies, and by 2015 about 90% of the U.S. population has declined.

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various countries have utilized opt-out provisions. In 2006, the World Trade Organization ruled that the pre-2004 restrictions had been violations, although the ruling had little immediate effect since the moratorium had already been lifted.

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sales ... For example, before 1997, the U.S. sold about 1.75 million tons of corn annually to Spain and Portugal ... But in the 1998–99 crop year, Spain bought less than a tenth of the previous year's amount and Portugal bought none at all."

9074:

Beagle JM, Apgar GA, Jones KL, Griswold KE, Radcliffe JS, Qiu X, Lightfoot DA, Iqbal MJ (March 2006). "The digestive fate of Escherichia coli glutamate dehydrogenase deoxyribonucleic acid from transgenic corn in diets fed to weanling pigs".

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on protein and metabolite levels than conventional breeding or (non-directed) plant mutagenesis. Toxicologists note that "conventional food is not risk-free; allergies occur with many known and even new conventional foods. For example, the

377:(GM food or GMO food) are whether such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the environment, the effect on 10958:

Doull J, Gaylor D, Greim HA, Lovell DP, Lynch B, Munro IC (November 2007). "Report of an Expert Panel on the reanalysis by of a 90-day study conducted by Monsanto in support of the safety of a genetically modified corn variety (MON 863)".

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foods are somehow "unnatural" and potentially dangerous to the desire to gain competitive advantage by legislating attachment of a label meant to alarm. Another misconception used as a rationale for labeling is that GM crops are untested.

1863:, modifications that increase their use, either because successful strains require them or because the accompanying development of resistance will require increased amounts of chemicals to offset increased resistance in target organisms. 1959:

In 2004, Chilcutt and Tabashnik found Bt protein in kernels of a refuge crop (a conventional crop planted to harbor pests that might otherwise become resistant a pesticide associated with the GMO) implying that gene flow had occurred.

9792:"Safety assessment and feeding value for pigs, poultry and ruminant animals of pest protected (Bt) plants and herbicide tolerant (glyphosate, glufosinate) plants: interpretation of experimental results observed worldwide on GM plants" 7256:

Diels J, Cunha M, Manaia C, Sabugosa-Madeira B, Silva M (2011). "Association of financial or professional conflict of interest to research outcomes on health risks or nutritional assessment studies of genetically modified products".

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Concerned scientists began to patrol the scientific literature and react strongly, both publicly and privately, to discredit conclusions they view as flawed in order to prevent unjustified public outcry and regulatory action. A 2013

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modification was found in commercial rice crops, although it had not been approved for release. An investigation by the USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) failed to determine the cause of the contamination.

2329:

for its efforts, but the bank recommended that they shift to genetics research and productivity enhancement. Obstacles include access to patents, commercial licenses and the difficulty that developing countries have in accessing

12127:

Romeis J, Bartsch D, Bigler F, Candolfi MP, Gielkens MM, Hartley SE, Hellmich RL, Huesing JE, Jepson PC, Layton R, Quemada H, Raybould A, Rose RI, Schiemann J, Sears MK, Shelton AM, Sweet J, Vaituzis Z, Wolt JD (February 2008).

602:

A review article about European consumer polls as of 2009 concluded that opposition to GMOs in Europe has been gradually decreasing, and that about 80% of respondents did not "actively avoid GM products when shopping". The 2010

10995:"Opinion relating to the deposition of 15 December 2009 by the Member of Parliament, François Grosdidier, as to the conclusions of the study entitled "A comparison of the effects of three GM corn varieties on mammalian health"" 1256:" to their conventional counterparts, to detect any negative unintended consequences. New protein(s) that differ from conventional food proteins or anomalies that arise in the substantial equivalence comparison require further 15450:

Hutchison WD, Burkness EC, Mitchell PD, Moon RD, Leslie TW, Fleischer SJ, Abrahamson M, Hamilton KL, Steffey KL, Gray ME, Hellmich RL, Kaster LV, Hunt TE, Wright RJ, Pecinovsky K, Rabaey TL, Flood BR, Raun ES (October 2010).

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Zhang L, Hou D, Chen X, Li D, Zhu L, Zhang Y, Li J, Bian Z, Liang X, Cai X, Yin Y, Wang C, Zhang T, Zhu D, Zhang D, Xu J, Chen Q, Ba Y, Liu J, Wang Q, Chen J, Wang J, Wang M, Zhang Q, Zhang J, Zen K, Zhang CY (January 2012).

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and foods produced using recombinant DNA techniques have been available for fewer than 10 years and no long-term effects have been detected to date. These foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts.

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to France recommended "moving to retaliation" to cause "some pain" against France and the European Union in an attempt to fight the French ban and changes in European policy toward genetically modified crops, according to a

18393: 2499:(the beneficial traits of the parents). This benefit of first-generation hybrid seeds is the primary reason for not planting second-generation seed. However, for non-hybrid GM crops, such as GM soybeans, seed companies use 956:. Generally, these conspiracy theories posit that GMOs are being knowingly and maliciously introduced into the food supply either as a means to unduly enrich agribusinesses or as a means to poison or pacify the population. 18374: 8711:

Prescott VE, Campbell PM, Moore A, Mattes J, Rothenberg ME, Foster PS, Higgins TJ, Hogan SP (November 2005). "Transgenic expression of bean alpha-amylase inhibitor in peas results in altered structure and immunogenicity".

448:, the first major US legislation on the subject. This began an enduring concern over the purity and later "naturalness" of food that evolved from a single focus on sanitation to include others on added ingredients such as 5576:

A report to the European Commission's Directorate-General for Research] European Commission Directorate-General for Research 2010 Science in Society and Food, Agriculture & Fisheries, & Biotechnology, EUR 24537

878:

that the vandalism was carried out by a group led by the extreme-left Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas or Peasant Movement of the Philippines (KMP), to the dismay of other protesters. Golden rice is designed to prevent

18898: 4286:

been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods.

9594:

Snell C, Bernheim A, Bergé JB, Kuntz M, Pascal G, Paris A, Ricroch AE (March 2012). "Assessment of the health impact of GM plant diets in long-term and multigenerational animal feeding trials: a literature review".

861:, and destroyed a genetically modified wheat plot. The sentencing judge accused Greenpeace of cynically using junior members to avoid risking their own freedom. The offenders were given 9-month suspended sentences. 3899:

I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another

16736: 1842:. A collaborative research exercise over the following two years by several groups of scientists in the US and Canada studied the effects of Bt pollen in both the field and the laboratory. The study resulted in a 1166:

the selection of study endpoints, and lacked necessary details about methods and results. The authors called for the development of better study guidelines for determining the long-term safety of eating GM foods.

963:

identified a belief among the conservative political and religious figures who were opposed to GMOs that GMOs were "a conspiracy by Jewish Multinational Companies and Israel for world domination." Additionally, a

9301:"Real-time quantitative PCR and droplet digital PCR for plant miRNAs in mammalian blood provide little evidence for general uptake of dietary miRNAs: limited evidence for general uptake of dietary plant xenomiRs" 4665: 1127:, the editors called for the restrictions to be lifted and for the EPA to require, as a condition of approval, that independent researchers have unfettered access to genetically modified products for research. 803:

experts, scientists, academics, medical doctors and nutritionists, and "company experts" from founding members of the Council for Biotechnology Information, which funds the initiative. Founding members include

13869:

Report by the U.S. National Academies: press release on the report "The Impact of Genetically Engineered Crops on Farm Sustainability in the United States" Office of News and Public Information, News from the

2299: 1122:

editorial quoted a scientist who said that several studies that were initially approved by seed companies were blocked from publication when they returned "unflattering" results. While favoring protection of

5162: 4207: 3065:

approaches, introducing foreign genes and sometimes using bacteria to transfer the genes. In the US, these foreign genetic elements placed the resulting plant under the jurisdiction of the USDA under the

2482:

was how Monsanto licenses its patented glyphosate-tolerance trait that was in 93 percent of US soybeans grown in 2009. About 250 family farmers, consumers and other critics of corporate agriculture held a

1769:. The pollen from the plants is distributed in the environment like that of any other crop. This distribution has led to concerns over the effects of GM crops on the environment. Potential effects include 11799:"Review of the Séralini et al. (2012) publication on a 2-year rodent feeding study with glyphosate formulations and GM maize NK603 as published online on 19 September 2012 in Food and Chemical Toxicology" 2571:

GM crops have been the source of international trade disputes and tensions within food-exporting nations over whether introduction of genetically modified crops would endanger exports to other countries.

2476:

Market share gives firms the ability to set or influence price, dictate terms, and act as a barrier to entry. It also gives firms bargaining power over governments in policy making. In March 2010, the US

1538:

technical constraints of conducting human trials, and the necessity of doing so, is a subject that requires considerable attention." Food with nutritional benefits may escape this objection. For example,

12566:

Bohan DA, Boffey CW, Brooks DR, Clark SJ, Dewar AM, Firbank LG, Haughton AJ, Hawes C, Heard MS, May MJ, Osborne JL, Perry JN, Rothery P, Roy DB, Scott RJ, Squire GR, Woiwod IP, Champion GT (March 2005).

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Streit L, Beach LR, Register JC, Jung R, Fehr WR (2001). "Association of the Brazil nut protein gene and Kunitz trypsin inhibitor alleles with soybean protease inhibitor activity and agronomic traits".

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Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close to 20 years, and during that time, no overt consequences on human health have been reported and/or substantiated in the peer-reviewed literature. (first

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National Academies Of Sciences, Engineering; Division on Earth Life Studies; Board on Agriculture Natural Resources; Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience Future Prospects (2016).

1859:

Crop genetic diversity might decrease due to the development of superior GM strains that crowd others out of the market. Indirect effects might affect other organisms. To the extent that agrochemicals

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could feed the current population, its dependence on fossil fuels, which in 2006 he incorrectly predicted would reach peak output in 2010, would lead to a catastrophic rise in energy and food prices.

5132: 1643:. It reported the presence of pesticides associated with the modified foods in women and in pregnant women's fetuses. The paper and related media reports were criticized for overstating the results. 1093:

article noted that a "tiny minority" of biologists have published concerns about GM food, and said that scientists who support the use of GMOs in food production are often overly dismissive of them.

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to non-genetically engineered counterparts that are already deemed fit for human consumption. No reports of ill effects have been documented in the human population from genetically modified food.

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have allowed scientists to modify plant genomes without adding foreign genes, thus escaping USDA regulation. Critics have called for regulation to be changed to keep up with changing technology.

2413:. The large data set allowed the study to control for potentially confounding variables such as fertiliser use. Separately, they concluded that the funding source did not influence study results. 17543:"Want to Know If Your Food Is Genetically Modified? Across the country, an aggressive grassroots movement is winning support with its demands for GMO labeling. If only it had science on its side" 11573:

Avis des Académies nationales d'Agriculture, de Médecine, de Pharmacie, des Sciences, des Technologies, et Vétérinaire sur la publication récente de G.E. Séralini et al. sur la toxicité d'un OGM

6722: 5665: 2335: 11556: 4164:

Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close to 20 years, and during that time, no overt consequences on human health have been reported and/or substantiated in the peer-reviewed literature.

18727: 11253: 9424:

Netherwood T, Martín-Orúe SM, O'Donnell AG, Gockling S, Graham J, Mathers JC, Gilbert HJ (February 2004). "Assessing the survival of transgenic plant DNA in the human gastrointestinal tract".

1706:

guidelines recommended using 65 rats per experiment instead of the 10 in Séralini's. Other criticisms included the lack of data regarding food amounts and specimen growth rates, the lack of a

1078:

on butterflies. The paper produced a public uproar and demonstrations, however by 2001 multiple follow-up studies had concluded that "the most common types of Bt maize pollen are not toxic to

21480: 19919: 2518:

Corporations say that they need to prevent seed piracy, to fulfill financial obligations to shareholders, and to finance further development. DuPont spent approximately half its $ 2 billion

2064:-branded taco shells sold in supermarkets were found to contain it. StarLink was then discontinued. Registration for Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000. 1484:. As of 2012 it was the only human feeding study to have been conducted with GM food. The transgene was detected in three volunteers from a group of seven who had previously had their large 18508: 16172: 8765: 3398:

To better detect potential harms of bioengineered foods, the Council believes that pre-market safety assessment should shift from a voluntary notification process to a mandatory requirement

2533:

Monsanto has patented its seed and it obligates farmers who choose to buy its seeds to sign a license agreement, obligating them store or sell, but not plant, all the crops that they grow.

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In most countries environmental studies are required before approval of a GMO for commercial purposes, and a monitoring plan must be presented to identify unanticipated gene flow effects.

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The development of genetically modified products found to cause allergic reactions has been halted by the companies developing them before they were brought to market. In the early 1990s,

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was neither arbitrary nor capricious. The court gave deference to the FDA's process on all issues, leaving future plaintiffs little legal recourse to challenge the FDA's policy on GMO's.

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were inappropriate for a lifetime study (as opposed to a shorter toxicity study) because of their tendency to develop cancer (one study found that more than 80% normally got cancer). The

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laureates in science have signed an open letter in 2016 in support of genetically modified farming and called for Greenpeace to cease its anti-scientific campaign, especially against the

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has been developing resistance to Bt cotton. Consequently, in 2012 Maharashtra banned Bt cotton and ordered an independent socioeconomic study of its use. Indian regulators cleared the

464:

as a category and, finally, concerns over GM food. Some consumers, including many in the US, came to see GM food as "unnatural", with various negative associations and fears (a reverse

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Genetically modified crops are planted in fields much like regular crops. There they interact directly with organisms that feed on the crops and indirectly with other organisms in the

1831:

protein, and therefore is not affected by Bt. Regulatory agencies assess the potential for transgenic plants to affect non-target organisms before approving their commercial release.

2807:

Most of the Chinese National Biosafety Committee are involved in biotechnology, a situation that led to criticisms that they do not represent a wide enough range of public concerns.

2237:

Resistance evolves naturally after a population has been subjected to selection pressure via repeated use of a single pesticide. In November 2009, Monsanto scientists found that the

1201:

The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.

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Fully 88% of AAAS scientists say it is generally safe to eat genetically modified (GM) foods compared with 37% of the general public who say the same, a gap of 51 percentage points.

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The escape of genetically modified seed into neighboring fields, and the mixing of harvested products, is of concern to farmers who sell to countries that do not allow GMO imports.

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A 2013 review, of 1,783 papers on genetically modified crops and food published between 2002 and 2012 found no plausible evidence of dangers from the use of then marketed GM crops.

480:

that people cannot affect this context of change, becomes focused when such changes affect food. Leaders in driving public perception of the harms of such food in the media include

426:

The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.

381:, the impact of such crops for farmers, and the role of the crops in feeding the world population. In addition, products derived from GMO organisms play a role in the production of 18397: 10932: 13497: 1225:

wheat do not differ from the corresponding conventional crops in terms of short-term human health effects, but recommended that further studies of long-term effects be conducted.

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Shelton AM, Naranjo SE, Romeis J, Hellmich RL, Wolt JD, Federici BA, Albajes R, Bigler F, Burgess EP, Dively GP, Gatehouse AM, Malone LA, Roush R, Sears M, Sehnal F (June 2009).

11636:"A study of the University of Caen neither constitutes a reason for a re-evaluation of genetically modified NK603 maize nor does it affect the renewal of the glyphosate approval" 8444: 599:

found that in Australia, where labeling is mandatory, 27% of Australians checked product labels to see whether GM ingredients were present when initially purchasing a food item.

16550: 18906: 13712:

Piñeyro-Nelson A, Van Heerwaarden J, Perales HR, Serratos-Hernández JA, Rangel A, Hufford MB, Gepts P, Garay-Arroyo A, Rivera-Bustamante R, Alvarez-Buylla ER (February 2009).

13060: 12358: 10824:"EFSA Minutes of the 55th Plenary Meeting of the Scientific Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms Held on 27–28 January 2010 IN Parma, Italy, Annex 1, Vendemois et al. 2009" 3327: 1113:(EPA) in 2009 protesting that "as a result of restrictive access, no truly independent research can be legally conducted on many critical questions regarding the technology". 16033:

Naylor RL, Falcon WP, Goodman RM, Jahn MM, Sengooba T, Tefera H, Nelson RJ (2004). "Biotechnology in the developing world: A case for increased investments in orphan crops".

19270:

Kikulwe EM, Wesseler J, Falck-Zepeda J (October 2011). "Attitudes, perceptions, and trust. Insights from a consumer survey regarding genetically modified banana in Uganda".

11414: 7231: 3258: 1387:

and skin prick allergy tests. The tests showed that the transgenic soy was allergenic. Pioneer Hi-Bred therefore discontinued further development. In 2005, a pest-resistant

537:

of the foods people depend on, and about the effects of the growing corporatization of large-scale agriculture. To address these problems, Pollan has brought up the idea of

17600:

To date, no material differences in composition or safety of commercialized GE crops have been identified that would justify a label based on the GE nature of the product.

16693:. Last Modified: 6 June 2008. Originally published in U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1894–1992. Yearbooks of agriculture. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 3113:

Studies for Uganda showed that transgenic bananas had a high potential to reduce rural poverty but that urban consumers with a relatively higher income might reject them.

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that moves it from regulation based on characteristics of the development-process (process-based regulation) to characteristics of the product (product-based regulation).

1392: 16246: 19814: 8192:

Ostry V, Ovesna J, Skarkova J, Pouchova V, Ruprich J (August 2010). "A review on comparative data concerning Fusarium mycotoxins in Bt maize and non-Bt isogenic maize".

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Kuiper HA, Kleter GA, Noteborn HP, Kok EJ (December 2002). "Substantial equivalence – an appropriate paradigm for the safety assessment of genetically modified foods?".

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was created to reassure consumers and aid biotechnology companies to reduce the time and cost of safety testing. They suggested that GM foods have extensive biological,

18655: 16199: 14111: 10880: 6253: 5464:"Sara Chamberlain Dissects The Food That We Eat And Finds Some Alarming Ingredients. Article On Genetically Engineered/modified Foods For New Internationalist Magazine" 1015:

in formulating and disseminating its policy on GMO's. The federal district court rejected all of those arguments and found that the FDA's determination that GMO's are

13467: 5880: 5710: 4447:"Public views on GMOs: deconstructing the myths. Stakeholders in the GMO debate often describe public opinion as irrational. But do they really understand the public?" 4406: 2997: 18920: 17237:

surveys by a large majority of consumers, facilitates informed choice and precludes potential misleading of consumers as regards methods of manufacture or production.

14319: 11718: 11303: 10626: 10600: 14794: 12616:

Strandberg B, Bruus Pedersen M, Elmegaard N (2005). "Weed and arthropod populations in conventional and genetically modified herbicide tolerant fodder beet fields".

6623: 5324: 2322: 1170: 19220:"Zambia and Genetically Modified Food Aid. Case Study #4-4 of the Program: "Food Policy for Developing Countries: The Role of Government in the Global Food System"" 17415: 13020: 12078:

Romeis J, Hellmich RL, Candolfi MP, Carstens K, De Schrijver A, Gatehouse AM, Herman RA, Huesing JE, McLean MA, Raybould A, Shelton AM, Waggoner A (February 2011).

7112:

Despite overwhelming evidence that GM crops are safe to eat, the debate over their use continues to rage, and in some parts of the world, it is growing ever louder.

5798: 3259:"Proposals for managing the coexistence of GM, conventional and organic crops Response to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs consultation paper" 21648: 19071: 10644:

Séralini GE, Cellier D, de Vendomois JS (May 2007). "New analysis of a rat feeding study with a genetically modified maize reveals signs of hepatorenal toxicity".

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including use of modified crops is needed to provide sufficient food. The potential for genetically modified food to help developing nations was recognised by the

17: 17496: 9155:"Sensitive and highly specific quantitative real-time PCR and ELISA for recording a potential transfer of novel DNA and Cry1Ab protein from feed into bovine milk" 5511: 2536:

Besides large agri-businesses, in some instances, GM crops are also provided by science departments or research organisations which have no commercial interests.

16894: 13602:

Kaplinsky N, Braun D, Lisch D, Hay A, Hake S, Freeling M (April 2002). "Biodiversity (Communications arising): maize transgene results in Mexico are artefacts".

5762:

Morand C (October 16, 2013). "Le prix mondial de l'alimentation à Monsanto et Syngenta? Une farce" [The World Food Prize Monsanto and Syngenta? A joke].

1360:

fruit was introduced into the U.S. and the European markets in the 1960s with no known human allergies; however, today there are people allergic to this fruit."

1237: 17667: 17045:

The fear about a company claiming ownership of a farmer's crop based on the inadvertent presence of GM pollen grain or seed is ... widespread and ... unfounded.

10881:"Review of the report by Séralini et al., (2007): "New analysis of a rat feeding study with a genetically modified maize reveals signs of hepatorenal toxicity"" 6962: 22206: 19000: 15876: 11993: 4610: 3301: 2257:

were resistant to Dupont-Dow's GM corn. This resistance was discovered in Puerto Rico in 2006, prompting Dow and DuPont to stop selling the product there. The

1703: 15266:

Christou P, Capell T, Kohli A, Gatehouse JA, Gatehouse AM (June 2006). "Recent developments and future prospects in insect pest control in transgenic crops".

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it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality.

333: 11261: 5140: 5033: 3909:

Panchin, Alexander Y.; Tuzhikov, Alexander I. (January 14, 2016). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons".

3721:

of review by the scientific community, has frequently been distorted by the media and often used politically and inappropriately in anti-GE crops campaigns.

736:, a ballot initiative which would have required labeling food products made from GMOs. Advocates support mandatory labeling laws for food made from GMOs . 17584: 14761: 12951:

Wang Z, Lin H, Huang J, Hu R, Rozelle S, Pray C (2009). "Bt Cotton in China: Are Secondary Insect Infestations Offsetting the Benefits in Farmer Fields?".

10527:

Aris A, Leblanc S (May 2011). "Maternal and fetal exposure to pesticides associated to genetically modified foods in Eastern Townships of Quebec, Canada".

6660: 5010: 4141: 3561: 3371: 2095: 1971:

of pesticide resistance to weeds, in a few plants from a single season; they found no evidence that any of the hybrids had survived in subsequent seasons.

19341: 18451: 17217: 10214:

Ewen SW, Pusztai A (October 1999). "Effect of diets containing genetically modified potatoes expressing Galanthus nivalis lectin on rat small intestine".

3737:"State of Food and Agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor. Health and environmental impacts of transgenic crops" 2548:

infringement suits against 145 farmers, but proceeded to trial with only 11. In some of the latter, the defendants claimed unintentional contamination by

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retracted the paper. The retraction was met with protests from Séralini and his supporters. In 2014, the study was republished by a different journal,

1347:. Allergen testing is routine for products intended for food, and passing those tests is part of the regulatory requirements. Organizations such as the 14451: 6133: 2425:

summarised the results of 49 peer reviewed studies. On average, farmers in developed countries increased yields by 6% and 29% in developing countries.

18737: 12569:"Effects on weed and invertebrate abundance and diversity of herbicide management in genetically modified herbicide-tolerant winter-sown oilseed rape" 9110:

Brigulla M, Wackernagel W (April 2010). "Molecular aspects of gene transfer and foreign DNA acquisition in prokaryotes with regard to safety issues".

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per year. In the years since the advent of GM maize, the rate increased slightly to 2.0. Average US maize yields were 174.2 bushels per acre in 2014.

21643: 21099: 19313:

Kikulwe EM, Birol E, Wesseler J, Falck-Zepeda J (2011). "A latent class approach to investigating demand for genetically modified banana in Uganda".

16911: 16223: 2249:. This was the first instance of Bt resistance confirmed by Monsanto. Similar resistance was later identified in Australia, China, Spain and the US. 19037: 17429: 15994: 15321: 14254: 476:, and that the weight of current evidence suggests current GM foods are identical to conventional foods in nutritional value and effects on health. 21603: 16176: 4692: 3120: 2278:

said that complete rejection of genetic engineering is "illogical and potentially harmful to the interests of poorer peoples and the environment".

968:

study showed that a segment of the population believed that GMOs were part of a greater conspiracy theory to poison the population of the country.

19219: 18516: 14163: 11661:[BVL checks rat feeding study with a genetically modified maize and glyphosate pesticide (Seralini et al. 2012.)] (in German). The German 8776: 6745: 21942: 20021: 18862: 17852: 17542: 17192: 15653: 14370: 14338: 13394: 5220: 2908:, was approved for commercial cultivation in Europe. However, in the 1990s a series of unrelated food crises created consumer apprehension about 784:

were safe and improved crop yields. Similar sentiments were expressed by the Hawaii Crop Improvement Association, of which Monsanto is a member.

18621: 11379: 10778:"Statement of the Scientific Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms on the analysis of data from a 90-day rat feeding study with MON 863 maize" 3459: 20780: 19141: 7128: 6868: 5590:

Gaskell G, Allansdottir A, Allum N, Castro P, Esmer Y, Fischler C, et al. (February 2011). "The 2010 Eurobarometer on the life sciences".

5425: 2405:

The researchers considered some studies that were not peer-reviewed, and a few that did not report sample sizes. They attempted to correct for

1530:

to test, lack of knowledge about the potential long-term effects of conventional foods, variability in the ways humans react to foods and that

19093:"US regulation misses some GM crops Gaps in oversight of transgenic technologies allow scientists to test the waters for speciality varieties" 17125: 16812: 14885:

Roh JY, Choi JY, Li MS, Jin BR, Je YH (April 2007). "Bacillus thuringiensis as a specific, safe, and effective tool for insect pest control".

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study has been used by environmental groups to argue that use of agrochemicals causes unintended harm to the environment and to biodiversity.

21535: 19959: 18826: 18760: 18433: 15082:

Lu Y, Wu K, Jiang Y, Guo Y, Desneux N (July 2012). "Widespread adoption of Bt cotton and insecticide decrease promotes biocontrol services".

11666: 11577: 10910: 7295: 5917: 3239: 1110: 549:. Some organizations, like The BioBricks Foundation, have already worked out open-source licenses that could prove useful in this endeavour. 507: 17169: 12335: 9912: 6541: 4498: 2486:

prior to the government meeting to protest Monsanto's purchase of independent seed companies, patenting seeds and then raising seed prices.

1811:. Bt proteins have been used as organic sprays for insect control in France since 1938 and the US since 1958, with no reported ill effects. 21788: 21502: 13916: 8665: 7880: 7488:"Fate of transgenic DNA and evaluation of metabolic effects in goats fed genetically modified soybean and in their offsprings – Retraction" 1603:. Pusztai reported significant differences in the thickness of the gut epithelium, but no differences in growth or immune system function. 1012: 412:

The safety assessment of genetically engineered food products by regulatory bodies starts with an evaluation of whether or not the food is

18360: 16372: 15507: 7528: 6597: 5949: 5545: 3018:) talong (eggplant), upholding the decision of the Court of Appeals which stopped the field trials for the genetically modified eggplant. 2688:

after GMO labeling was debated in many state legislatures and defeated in popular referendums in Oregon (2002 and 2014), Colorado (2014),

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overturned the nationwide ban on GM alfalfa and an appeal court allowed the partial deregulation of GM sugar beets. After APHIS prepared

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organizations both said that long-term human studies of the effect of GM food are not feasible. The reasons included lack of a plausible

19604: 15302: 14912:

Marvier M, McCreedy C, Regetz J, Kareiva P (June 2007). "A meta-analysis of effects of Bt cotton and maize on nontarget invertebrates".

13494: 11772: 9717: 7377: 4770: 18224: 17448: 17372: 17218:"Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2003 On Genetically Modified Food And Feed" 16554: 12651:

Gibbons DW, Bohan DA, Rothery P, Stuart RC, Haughton AJ, Scott RJ, Wilson JD, Perry JN, Clark SJ, Dawson RJ, Firbank LG (August 2006).

11898: 11846:"Answers to critics: Why there is a long term toxicity due to a Roundup-tolerant genetically modified maize and to a Roundup herbicide" 11659:"BVL prüft Rattenfütterungsstudie mit gentechnisch verändertem Mais und glyphosathaltigen Pflanzenschutzmitteln (Seralini et al. 2012)" 11020: 8452: 6380:"Vandals hack down Hawaii's genetically modified papaya trees: The destruction is believed to have been the work of anti-GMO activists" 5309: 2828: 2020: 1534:

studies were unlikely to differentiate modified from conventional foods, which come with their own suite of unhealthy characteristics.

1372:: here a fertile GM grass was produced that lacked the main pollen allergen, demonstrating that hypoallergenic grass is also possible. 19890: 16715: 14858: 14208: 14144: 1461:. Other studies however, found no or negligible transfer of plant microRNAs into the blood of humans or any of three model organisms. 21564: 18677: 18198: 17791: 10193: 1109:

Elson Shields was the spokesperson for one group of scientists who opposed such restrictions. The group submitted a statement to the

326: 13068: 12389: 12080:"Recommendations for the design of laboratory studies on non-target arthropods for risk assessment of genetically engineered plants" 10452: 7411: 2208:

decrease even as use increases. Graham Brookes accused Benbrook of subjective herbicide estimates because his data, provided by the

1249:

design. Regulators examine the genetic modification, related protein products and any changes that those proteins make to the food.

1101:

Prior to 2010, scientists wishing to conduct research on commercial GM plants or seeds were unable to do so, because of restrictive

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Kiers ET, Leakey RR, Izac AM, Heinemann JA, Rosenthal E, Nathan D, Jiggins J (April 2008). "Ecology. Agriculture at a crossroads".

10484:

Kuiper HA, Noteborn HP, Peijnenburg AA (October 1999). "Adequacy of methods for testing the safety of genetically modified foods".

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Tudisco R, Mastellone V, Cutrignelli MI, Lombardi P, Bovera F, Mirabella N, Piccolo G, Calabrò S, Avallone L, Infascelli F (2010).

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Most conventional agricultural products are the products of genetic manipulation via traditional cross-breeding and hybridization.

17685: 17631: 16844: 16577: 14964: 11421: 8901: 8794:

Executive Summary: EPA Preliminary Evaluation of Information Contained in the October 25, 2000 Submission from Aventis Cropscience

6358: 5978: 5691: 5236: 4715: 3269: 21578: 17730: 15602: 13409:"Evidence for landscape-level, pollen-mediated gene flow from genetically modified creeping bentgrass with CP4 EPSPS as a marker" 11511: 7029: 3596: 3030: 2589: 2500: 1514:

While some groups and individuals have called for more human testing of GM food, multiple obstacles complicate such studies. The

857:

In 2011, Greenpeace paid reparations when its members broke into the premises of an Australian scientific research organization,

18085:"US regulatory system for genetically modified [genetically modified organism (GMO), rDNA or transgenic] crop cultivars" 17895: 17273: 16938: 16483: 16110: 6398: 4876: 22034: 18277: 15603:"Bales and balance: A review of the methods used to assess the economic impact of Bt cotton on farmers in developing economies" 11885: 11704: 11125: 7805: 6379: 5221:"Pew Research Center: The GMO debate is hugely polarizing, but the divide 'does not fall along familiar political fault lines'" 4335:

These principles dictate a case-by-case premarket assessment that includes an evaluation of both direct and unintended effects.

3998:

It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA

1988:) as well as in native grasses up to 21 km (13 mi) from the test sites, released when freshly cut, wind-blown grass. 409:

say risks have not been adequately identified and managed, and they have questioned the objectivity of regulatory authorities.

19822: 17764: 17189:"CAST Issue Paper Number 54: The Potential Impacts of Mandatory Labeling for Genetically Engineered Food in the United States" 15958:

The Hope, Hype and Reality of Genetic Engineering: Remarkable Stories from Agriculture, Industry, Medicine and the Environment

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required labeling of GMO fish and shellfish in 2005, even though no GM fish had been approved by the FDA at the time. A 2014

1489:

engineering are naturally found in many pathogens and antibiotics these genes confer resistance to are not widely prescribed.

1422:

evaluated reports of allergic reactions to StarLink corn, and determined that no allergic reactions to the corn had occurred.

1188:

heterogeneities were likely attributable to digital manipulation, raising serious doubts on the reliability of the findings".

1085:

in concentrations the insects would encounter in the fields" and that they had "brought that particular question to a close".

21569: 21517: 21422: 17818: 16877: 16206: 15970: 15939: 15912: 15675:

Planting the future: opportunities and challenges for using crop genetic improvement technologies for sustainable agriculture

15057: 14026: 13714:"Transgenes in Mexican maize: molecular evidence and methodological considerations for GMO detection in landrace populations" 10884: 8624: 7635: 7103: 6250: 4227: 4095: 3599:(2004). Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods: Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects. National Academies Press. 1568:

published the first peer-reviewed paper to find negative effects from GM food consumption in 1999. Pusztai fed rats potatoes

18040:

Chen M, Shelton A, Ye GY (2011). "Insect-resistant genetically modified rice in China: from research to commercialization".

17058: 15372:

Areal FJ, Riesgo L, Rodríguez-Cerezo E (2012). "Economic and agronomic impact of commercialized GM crops: A meta-analysis".

15223:

Tabashnik BE, Gassmann AJ, Crowder DW, Carriére Y (February 2008). "Insect resistance to Bt crops: evidence versus theory".

13834: 5877: 5718: 4410: 4082:. Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. Biotechnologies, Agriculture, Food. European Commission, European Union. 2851:. APHIS lost all four cases at trial, with the judges ruling they failed to diligently follow the guidelines set out in the 2195:

concluded that the spread of glyphosate-resistant weeds had increased US herbicide use. That study cited a 23% increase (.3

2023:

raised concerns that further food safety and environmental testing needed to be done before T-GURT would be commercialized.

653:

With respect to the question of "Whether GMO foods were safe to eat", the gap between the opinion of the public and that of

21909: 21772: 21583: 21512: 21437: 21256: 20683: 20673: 18928: 18798: 18780: 12793:

Relyea RA (2004). "The impact of insecticides and herbicides on the biodiversity and productivity of aquatic communities".

11722: 11311: 10630: 10604: 10406: 5257: 2965: 1644: 596: 319: 19687: 15532:

Falck-Zepeda JB, Traxler G, Nelson RG (2000). "Surplus Distribution from the Introduction of a Biotechnology Innovation".

12828: 6793: 2831:(APHIS), the agency within USDA that regulates genetically modified plants. Two involved field trials (herbicide-tolerant 2511:

license (covering transfer of the seeds themselves) forbids saving seeds, and also requires purchasers to sign a separate

22216: 22123: 21935: 21760: 21638: 14081: 12653:"Weed seed resources for birds in fields with contrasting conventional and genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops" 12232:

Sears MK, Hellmich RL, Stanley-Horn DE, Oberhauser KS, Pleasants JM, Mattila HR, Siegfried BD, Dively GP (October 2001).

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Alberts B, Beachy R, Baulcombe D, Blobel G, Datta S, Fedoroff N, Kennedy D, Khush GS, Peacock J, Rees M, Sharp P (2013).

3162:

in India, showed that Bt cotton increased yields, profits and living standards of smallholder farmers. However, recently

3009:

the environment, native crops and human health are still unknown. The Court of Appeals granted the petition, citing the

2770:'s lack of a requirement for additional testing for GMO's, lack of required labeling and the presumption that GMO's are " 2478: 895:

In 2017, two documentaries were released which countered the growing anti-GMO sentiment among the public. These included

15674: 9928:

Domingo JL, Giné Bordonaba J (May 2011). "A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants".

6931: 5744: 5444:"Horror Show: Why the debate over genetically modified organisms and other complex science stories freak out newspapers" 533:-tolerant ("Roundup-ready") corn and soybeans. He has also expressed concerns about biotechnology companies holding the 20773: 20624: 13551:

Quist D, Chapela IH (November 2001). "Transgenic DNA introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico".

12449:"Setting the record straight: a rebuttal to an erroneous analysis on transgenic insecticidal crops and natural enemies" 11236: 8374: 2856: 2848: 2734: 2016: 1827:) cells, resulting in their rupture. Any organism that lacks the appropriate receptors in its gut is unaffected by the 1063: 14645:"Impact of glyphosate-tolerant soybean and glufosinate-tolerant corn production on herbicide losses in surface runoff" 14625: 13955: 13407:

Watrud LS, Lee EH, Fairbrother A, Burdick C, Reichman JR, Bollman M, Storm M, King G, Van de Water PK (October 2004).

12700:

Chamberlain D, Freeman S, Vickery J (2007). "The effects of GMHT crops on bird abundance in arable fields in the UK".

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environment. As with all novel foods, safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case-by-case basis.

1887:

A 2005 study, designed to "simulate the impact of a direct overspray on a wetland" with four different agrochemicals (

525:

does not oppose eating genetically modified foods, but supports mandatory labeling of GM foods and has criticized the

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Domingo, José L. (September 2016). "Safety assessment of GM plants: An updated review of the scientific literature".

9401: 8923: 7658: 7614: 4074: 2941: 2852: 2556: 1622:. Misconduct procedures were used to seize his data and ban him from speaking publicly. The Rowett Institute and the 1519: 154: 19714: 18708: 14736: 9031:

Flachowsky G, Chesson A, Aulrich K (February 2005). "Animal nutrition with feeds from genetically modified plants".

5198: 2777:

Critics in the U.S. protested the appointment of lobbyists to senior positions in the Food and Drug Administration.

21782: 21618: 21549: 21544: 20306: 18394:"The Regulation of Gmos in Europe and the United States: A Case-Study of Contemporary European Regulatory Politics" 17514:

Scatasta S, Wesseler J, Hobbs J (2007). "Differentiating the consumer benefits from labeling of GM food products".

16398: 13865:"Genetically Engineered Crops Benefit Many Farmers, but the Technology Needs proper Management to Remain Effective" 13514: 12129: 4666:"The Regulation of GMOs in Europe and the United States: A Case-Study of Contemporary European Regulatory Politics" 3022: 2913: 2844: 2693: 2689: 1964: 1039: 733: 685:, based in Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England, to conduct an experimental trial wheat genetically modified to repel 373:, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists. The key areas of controversy related to 18331: 17147: 16787: 16410: 14281: 9203:"Exogenous plant MIR168a specifically targets mammalian LDLRAP1: evidence of cross-kingdom regulation by microRNA" 8285:"Evaluation of genetically engineered crops using transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic profiling techniques" 7780:"The concept of substantial equivalence in safety assessment of foods derived from genetically modified organisms" 5858: 4937: 21721: 21628: 21492: 21407: 21170: 20642: 20185: 16316: 15714: 13197:"The release of genetically modified crops into the environment. Part II. Overview of ecological risk assessment" 12980:"Erratum to: Benefits of Bt cotton counterbalanced by secondary pests? Perceptions of ecological change in China" 10096:"Key issues for the assessment of the allergenic potential of genetically modified foods: breakout group reports" 6767: 5817:"Energy-environment world food prize event in Iowa confronts divisive issues of biotech crops and global warming" 5041: 3153:

resulted in an average 42% increase in yield in 2002, the first year of commercial planting. A severe drought in

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for statements at the time of the recall, that indicated they did not anticipate that such a thing would happen.

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have opposed mandatory labeling absent scientific evidence of harm. The AMA said that even voluntary labeling is

2079: 1131: 682: 635: 164: 18482: 17961: 13180: 13163: 11920:"Republished study: long-term toxicity of a Roundup herbicide and a Roundup-tolerant genetically modified maize" 11075:

Séralini GE, Clair E, Mesnage R, Gress S, Defarge N, Malatesta M, Hennequin D, de Vendômois JS (November 2012).

8793: 4898: 4148: 3568: 3382: 21928: 21750: 21623: 21460: 21427: 20688: 20357: 19573: 18951: 18761:"GM canola farmer says Pastoralists and Graziers Association set up 'fighting fund' to 'help with legal costs'" 18459: 18250: 17228: 13533: 13252: 11688: 10006: 7718:

Domingo JL (September 2016). "Safety assessment of GM plants: An updated review of the scientific literature".

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ecosystems found that in general they "appear to have no consistent, significant, and long-term effects on the

1707: 1687: 1216:

Consensus among scientists and regulators pointed to the need for improved testing technologies and protocols.

182: 147: 17299: 11749: 8244: 6985: 6568: 5538:"Opposition decreasing or acceptance increasing?: An overview of European consumer polls on attitudes to GMOs" 5489: 3349: 1308:

A survey of publications comparing the intrinsic qualities of modified and conventional crop lines (examining

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positive modifications may also be missed. For example, corn damaged by insects often contains high levels of

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Gatehouse AM, Ferry N, Raemaekers RJ (May 2002). "The case of the monarch butterfly: a verdict is returned".

11844:

Séralini GE, Mesnage R, Defarge N, Gress S, Hennequin D, Clair E, Malatesta M, de Vendômois JS (March 2013).

9734: 7677:"Scientific opinion addressing the safety assessment of plants developed through cisgenesis and intragenesis" 7146: 4301:

Haslberger, Alexander G. (2003). "Codex guidelines for GM foods include the analysis of unintended effects".

3132: 2759: 2438: 2127: 2053: 1884:

reported that the study "raises the somewhat radical notion that perhaps weeds on farms should be protected.

1038:

On 16 June 1980, the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 split decision, held that "A live, human-made micro-organism is

850: 717: 434:

Consumer concerns about food quality first became prominent long before the advent of GM foods in the 1990s.

402: 398: 73: 64: 17925:"A Review of International Labeling Policies of Genetically Modified Food to Evaluate India's Proposed Rule" 17819:"A review of international labeling policies of genetically modified food to evaluate India's proposed rule" 17731:"A Review of International Labeling Policies of Genetically Modified Food to Evaluate India's Proposed Rule" 15875:. International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development. Archived from 14459: 14336: 13891: 10054: 9823:

Domingo JL (2007). "Toxicity studies of genetically modified plants: a review of the published literature".

2507:, each expressed in contracts, to prevent farmers from planting saved seed. For example, Monsanto's typical 21889: 21755: 20160: 20067: 19945: 19192: 19167: 16672: 16653: 14389:"Best Practice documents for coexistence of Genetically Modified Crops with Conventional and Organic Crops" 12737:"Milkweed loss in agricultural fields because of herbicide use: Effect on the monarch butterfly population" 12359:"Milkweed loss in agricultural fields because of herbicide use: effect on the monarch butterfly population" 6903:

Bratspies R (2007). "Some Thoughts on the American Approach to Regulating Genetically Modified Organisms".

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moratorium led to the suspension of approvals of new GMOs in the EU pending the adoption of revised rules.

2821: 2774:" (GRAS), have questioned whether the FDA is too close to companies that seek approval for their products. 2771: 2709: 2338:

attempted to remedy this problem, but results have been inconsistent. As a result, "orphan crops", such as

2318: 1712: 1595:. While some companies were considering growing GM crops expressing lectin, GNA was an unlikely candidate. 1124: 1016: 620:

Concern about specific topics decreased even more, for example genome editing on its own only concerns 4%.

124: 33: 16915: 15322:"Section: Can European corn borer develop resistance to Bt corn? in the Bt Corn & European Corn Borer" 13864: 13245: 10792:"EFSA review of statistical analyses conducted for the assessment of the MON 863 90-day rat feeding study" 9351:

Uzogara SG (May 2000). "The impact of genetic modification of human foods in the 21st century: a review".

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Domingo JL (June 2016). "Safety assessment of GM plants: An updated review of the scientific literature".

2317:

Claimed deployment constraints to developing nations include the lack of easy access, equipment costs and

2078:

In May 2013, unapproved glyphosate-resistant GM wheat (but that had been approved for human consumption)

1379:

attempted to improve the nutrition content of soybeans intended for animal feed by adding a gene from the

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argued that mandatory labeling and traceability are needed to allow for informed choice, avoid potential

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scientists is very wide with 88% of AAAS scientists saying yes in contrast to 37% of the general public.

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Carpenter JE (April 2010). "Peer-reviewed surveys indicate positive impact of commercialized GM crops".

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to address consumers' questions about GM foods in the U.S. food supply. GMO Answers' resources included

354: 22221: 22155: 22091: 21804: 20325: 20231: 20126: 19998: 19989: 19226: 18538: 17705:"As Maine Goes, So Goes The Nation? Labeling for Foods Made with Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)" 17321: 14345: 11284: 10062:

Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Foods Derived from Biotechnology (Geneva, Switzerland)

7622:. Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. Biotechnologies, Agriculture, Food. European Union. 6737: 4046:"AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could "Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers"" 3087: 3058: 3000:(PGA)". The Court of Appeal subsequently dismissed the appeal and ordered Marsh to pay Baxter's costs. 2039: 1404: 1075: 945: 884: 781: 350: 249: 114: 109: 78: 18873: 18002: 17860: 17252: 16120:. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan: Saskatoon Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Archived from 15763: 12899: 10823: 6318: 4736: 4121: 2229:

and spiders and extended environmental benefits to neighbouring crops of maize, peanuts and soybeans.

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In May 2012, a group called "Take the Flour Back" led by Gerald Miles protested plans by a group from

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Gruère G, Sengupta D (2011). "Bt cotton and farmer suicides in India: an evidence-based assessment".

17416:"Vermont's GMO Labeling Law Is Now In Effect. Here Are The Labels The Senate Is Trying To Get Rid Of" 16788:"Michael Pollan: California's Prop 37 Fight to Label GMOs Could Galvanize Growing U.S. Food Movement" 16376: 16147: 11386: 3470: 3046: 1667: 1569: 1523: 1515: 1446: 1279: 949: 839: 374: 254: 204: 119: 95: 18950:

Gould F, Amasino RM, Brossard D, Buell CR, Dixon RA, Falck-Zepeda JB, et al. (September 2022).

18199:"Roundup Ready® Sugar Beet News] USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Biotechnology" 17483: 17157:. USDA Foreign Agriculture Service: Global Agriculture Information Network (GAIN). February 7, 2011. 14432: 11333:

Suzuki H, Mohr U, Kimmerle G (October 1979). "Spontaneous endocrine tumors in Sprague-Dawley rats".

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Department of Soil and Crop Sciences at Colorado State University, Page last updated March 11, 2004

5997:"More than 100 participate in Charleston's March Against Monsanto, one of 300+ in world on Saturday" 787:

In July 2013, the agricultural biotechnology industry launched a GMO transparency initiative called

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Mechlem K, Raney T (2007). "Biotechnologies and International Human rights". In Francioni F (ed.).

16819: 16533: 15160: 14300: 6692:"Neil DeGrasse Tyson Drops Mic On Comments Criticizing Hulu For Showing Food Evolution Documentary" 4179: 3415:

Hollingworth RM, Bjeldanes LF, Bolger M, Kimber I, Meade BJ, Taylor SL, Wallace KB (January 2003).

2928: 2724:. The AAAS stated that mandatory labeling "can only serve to mislead and falsely alarm consumers". 2519: 2106: 1968: 1778: 1430: 741: 518:. In 2001, no such foods had been designated as unacceptable by Orthodox rabbis or Muslim leaders. 19667:. Ithaca, New York: International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) 18837: 18304: 18003:"Making the Market 'Safe' for GM Foods: The Case of the Canadian Biotechnology Advisory Committee" 17562:"The Potential Impacts of Mandatory Labeling for Genetically Engineered Food in the United States" 17371:. US Department of Commerce, Middle East, North Africa Business Information Center. Archived from 15576: 14337:

USDA Advisory Committee on Biotechnology and 21st Century Agriculture (AC21) (November 19, 2012).

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Stone GD (2011). "Field versus Farm in Warangal: Bt Cotton, Higher Yields, and Larger Questions".

11778:. Brazilian Ministry of Science Technology and Innovation, National Biosafety Technical Commission 11574: 10578: 10007:"Physicians and Scientists for Responsible Application of Science and Technology Official Website" 7303: 2379:

Commercial GM crops have traits that reduce yield loss from insect pressure or weed interference.

665: 22103: 22076: 21676: 21588: 21029: 20904: 16761: 15962: 15453:"Areawide suppression of European corn borer with Bt maize reaps savings to non-Bt maize growers" 13064: 12843:"Mirid bug outbreaks in multiple crops correlated with wide-scale adoption of Bt cotton in China" 11969: 9909: 8949: 6338: 4502: 4354: 4045: 3232: 3103: 3010: 1614:, Pusztai said that rats fed on the potatoes had stunted growth and a repressed immune system. A 1253: 993:

In 1983, environmental groups and protesters delayed the field tests of the genetically modified

935: 414: 287: 214: 159: 20170: 14705:"Impacts of genetically engineered crops on pesticide use in the U.S. – the first sixteen years" 14063:"Genetically Altered Wheat Flagged – Thailand Detects Shipment Not Cleared for Commercial Sales" 13920: 7877: 7873: 5996: 4021: 22113: 22108: 22081: 21744: 21664: 21559: 21382: 21261: 17397: 17351: 11918:

Séralini GE, Clair E, Mesnage R, Gress S, Defarge N, Malatesta M, et al. (June 24, 2014).

10849:"Guidance on conducting repeated-dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rodents on whole food/Feed" 7753: 5957: 4636: 3736: 3033:

to stop the commercial distribution of genetically modified rice and eggplants in the country.

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director, the film "focuses on providing a science and evidence-based counter-narrative to the

835: 705: 546: 445: 394: 15929: 12531:

Icoz I, Stotzky G (2008). "Fate and effects of insect-resistant Bt crops in soil ecosystems".

7659:"Consensus Document on Molecular Characterisation of Plants Derived from Modern Biotechnology" 6916: 6812: 6462:"Dr. Strangelunch Or: Why we should learn to stop worrying and love genetically modified food" 4142:"REPORT 2 OF THE COUNCIL ON SCIENCE AND PUBLIC HEALTH (A-12): Labeling of Bioengineered Foods" 1725:, in an expanded form, including the raw data that Séralini had originally refused to reveal. 1635:

A 2011 study was the first to evaluate the correlation between maternal and fetal exposure to

22039: 21999: 21951: 21766: 21716: 21711: 21455: 21203: 20075: 19402:"Prospective study of one million deaths in India: rationale, design, and validation results" 18586: 18228: 15956: 15789: 13146: 11077:"Long term toxicity of a Roundup herbicide and a Roundup-tolerant genetically modified maize" 10997:. English translation of French High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee document 10276:

Vasconcelos IM, Oliveira JT (September 2004). "Antinutritional properties of plant lectins".

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Hilbeck A, Binimelis R, Defarge N, Steinbrecher R, Székács A, Wickson F, et al. (2015).

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Gaskell G, Stares S, Allansdottir A, Allum N, Castro P, Esmer Y, et al. (October 2010).

4180:"Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms: United States. Public and Scholarly Opinion" 3592: 3102:

refused emergency food aid that contained food from genetically modified crops, based on the

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in weed seeds available for foraging. Published farm data involved in the trials showed that

1473: 1465: 756: 534: 496:; organizations include Organic Consumers Association, Greenpeace (especially with regard to 19920:"Govt regulator paves way for field trials of GM food crops including wheat, rice and maize" 16689:

History of Research at the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Agricultural Research Service

16017: 14998:

Krishna VV, Qaim M (2012). "Bt cotton and sustainability of pesticide reductions in India".

13655:"Absence of detectable transgenes in local landraces of maize in Oaxaca, Mexico (2003-2004)" 12408:"Transgenic insecticidal crops and natural enemies: a detailed review of laboratory studies" 10319:

Enserink M (October 1999). "Transgenic food debate. The Lancet scolded over Pusztai paper".

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Overall finding on purported adverse effects on human health of foods derived from GE crops:

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20 out of 28 European Countries (including Switzerland) said No to GMOs until October 2015.

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destroy, repel or mitigate pests (an organism that attacks or competes with a crop). A 2014

1834:

In 1999, a paper stated that, in a laboratory environment, pollen from Bt maize dusted onto

1212:

Comparison of conventional plant breeding with transgenic and cisgenic genetic modification.

22086: 22049: 22029: 21979: 21879: 21193: 21022: 20877: 20614: 20389: 20155: 19768: 18963: 18765: 18202: 18125: 17019:

McHughen A, Wager R (December 2010). "Popular misconceptions: agricultural biotechnology".

15464: 15187: 15091: 15007: 14921: 14656: 14581: 14511: 13989: 13725: 13666: 13611: 13560: 13420: 13342: 12991: 12854: 12709: 12625: 12540: 12245: 12188: 11691: 11459: 10653: 10536: 10285: 9937: 9511: 9476: 8577: 8334:"Unintended compositional changes in genetically modified (GM) crops: 20 years of research" 8094: 8037: 7980: 7925: 7450: 7330: 5512:"Consumer Attitudes Survey 2007, A benchmark survey of consumers' attitudes to food issues" 5113: 5076: 3973: 3841: 3524: 3501:. University of California Agricultural and Natural Resource Service. ANR Publication 8180. 3163: 3067: 2785: 2642:

was in the process of issuing regulations for labeling of food with ingredients from GMOs.

2459: 2057: 2046:, even though it was only grown in test plots. No mechanism for the escape was identified. 2008: 1733:

Some plants are specifically genetically modified to be healthier than conventional crops.

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is the movement of genes from one organism to another in a manner other than reproduction.

1414: 1400: 1348: 1197: 792: 581: 422: 378: 302: 18685: 18564: 17983: 16957: 16062:"Ending world hunger. The promise of biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry" 13808: 6768:"Laureates Letter Supporting Precision Agriculture (GMOs) | Support Precision Agriculture" 6641: 5931: 5199:"Risk and Regulation: U.S. Regulatory Policy on Genetically Modified Food and Agriculture" 4529:"Evidence for Absolute Moral Opposition to Genetically Modified Food in the United States" 4253:

implicate a higher risk to human health from GE foods than from their non-GE counterparts.

3964:

Yang, Y.T.; Chen, B. (2016). "Governing GMOs in the USA: science, law and public health".

2900:

Until the 1990s, Europe's regulation was less strict than in the U.S. In 1998, the use of

607:" survey, which assesses public attitudes about biotech and the life sciences, found that 8: 22143: 22118: 21839: 21598: 21296: 20604: 20536: 20474: 20338: 19968: 18509:"WikiLeaks: US Ambassador Planned "Retaliation" Against France Over Ban on Monsanto Corn" 18144: 15648: 14756: 13133: 11595:"The SFPT feels compelled to point out weaknesses in the paper by Séralini et al. (2012)" 10746:"Genetically modified crops safety assessments: Present limits and possible improvements" 10459: 9671:

Dona A, Arvanitoyannis IS (February 2009). "Health risks of genetically modified foods".

7878:

Press release: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers

7167: 3328:"Genetically Modified Maize: Doctors' Chamber Warns of "Unpredictable Results" to Humans" 3175: 3071: 2945: 2905: 2742: 2522:(R&D) budget on agriculture in 2011 while Monsanto spends 9–10% of sales on R&D. 2350:

and indigenous plants, which are important in these countries receive little investment.

2258: 1992: 1991:

In 2009, Mexico created a regulatory pathway for GM maize, but because Mexico is maize's

1808: 1686:-resistant NK603). He concluded that the data showed liver, kidney and heart damage. The 1453:

genes in the blood and tissue of animals, and in 2012, a paper suggested that a specific

1118: 941: 750: 721: 698: 358: 42: 21895: 19772: 18967: 16997: 16895:"Bangladesh's embrace of GMO technology may embolden innovation in developing countries" 15468: 15191: 15095: 15011: 14925: 14660: 14585: 14515: 14019:

When Cooperation Fails: the international law and politics of genetically modified foods

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Human and Animal Health – Rebuttal to a Review of Dona and Arvanitoyannis 2009, part one

9515: 9480: 8965: 8581: 8098: 8041: 7984: 7929: 7454: 7334: 6498:"Altered Bacterium Does Its Job: Frost Failed to Damage Sprayed Test Crop, Company Says" 6484: 6461: 5080: 3977: 3952:

data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm.

3845: 3528: 3090:. (This bill is commonly referred to as the "Monsanto Protection Act" by its critics.) 2359:

Ending world hunger: the promise of biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry

22160: 21974: 21497: 21450: 21392: 21276: 20948: 20482: 20333: 19895: 19791: 19756: 19737: 19641: 19554: 19511: 19476: 19428: 19401: 19295: 19122: 19076: 18987: 18423:"U.S. vs. EU: An Examination of the Trade Issues Surrounding Genetically Modified Food" 18336: 18065: 18053: 18022: 17768: 16962: 16851: 16464: 16347: 16297: 16086: 16061: 15851: 15557: 15549: 15488: 15389: 15248: 15115: 14976: 14945: 14682: 14602: 14569: 14534: 14499: 13942: 13746: 13713: 13689: 13654: 13635: 13584: 13472: 13226: 13137: 12880: 12810: 12756: 12677: 12652: 12593: 12568: 12513: 12381: 12263: 12214: 12157: 12104: 12079: 11946: 11919: 11903: 11358: 10721: 10696: 10677: 10560: 10509: 10387: 10344: 10239: 10169: 10144: 10120: 10095: 10076: 9891: 9848: 9772: 9696: 9535: 9449: 9325: 9300: 9276: 9251: 9227: 9202: 9182: 9135: 9056: 8909: 8541: 8516: 8425: 8309: 8284: 8217: 8120: 8063: 8006: 7949: 7872:

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), Board of Directors (2012).

7213: 6850: 6296: 6185: 5615: 5370: 5343: 5233: 4983: 4559: 4471: 4446: 4326: 3942: 3890: 3791: 3766: 3707: 3644: 3619: 3562:"Report 2 of the Council on Science and Public Health: Labeling of Bioengineered Foods" 3372:"Report 2 of the Council on Science and Public Health: Labeling of Bioengineered Foods" 2896:

Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms § Europe and United States

2721: 2681: 2657: 2470: 2387:

A 2014 review, concluded that GM crops' effects on farming were positive. According to

2071: 1979: 1975: 1912:

Several studies documented surges in secondary pests within a few years of adoption of

1807:(Bt). Such toxins could affect other insects in addition to targeted pests such as the 1699: 1607: 1565: 1284: 1106: 994: 616: 615:, evokes a smaller reaction than transgenic methods, using genes from species that are 473: 20190: 18921:"SC orders stop to commercial release of genetically modified rice, eggplant products" 17830: 17644: 16635:

Who Owns Nature? Corporate Power and the Final Frontier in the Commodification of Life

16519:

Who Owns Nature? Corporate Power and the Final Frontier in the Commodification of Life

15617: 15407:

Finger R, El Benni N, Kaphengst T, Evans C, Herbert S, Lehmann B, et al. (2011).

14418: 13711: 13443: 13408: 13365: 13331:"Contamination of refuges by Bacillus thuringiensis toxin genes from transgenic maize" 13330: 13213: 13196: 12964: 12312: 12056: 12028: 10497: 10227: 9747:

Rickard C (January 2010). "Response to "Health risks of genetically modified foods"".

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framework" and said that the EU had fallen behind in the adoption of GM technologies.

1661: 887:, blinds or kills hundreds of thousands of children annually in developing countries. 297: 21824: 21633: 21319: 20953: 20938: 20920: 20834: 20719: 20609: 20599: 19796: 19757:"Economic impacts and impact dynamics of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) cotton in India" 19741: 19636: 19619: 19583: 19546: 19515: 19468: 19433: 19382: 19326: 19287: 19114: 19017: 18991: 18979: 18171: 18106: 18101: 18084: 18057: 18026: 17932: 17924: 17906: 17648: 17576: 17527: 17277: 17227:. The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. 2003. Archived from 17036: 16873: 16495: 16468: 16456: 16339: 16289: 16121: 16091: 15966: 15935: 15908: 15855: 15843: 15799: 15561: 15480: 15283: 15252: 15240: 15205: 15107: 14965:"Global Impact of Biotech Crops: Socio-Economic and Environmental Effects, 1996-2006" 14937: 14894: 14839: 14789: 14674: 14607: 14539: 14364: 14093: 14022: 13751: 13737: 13694: 13639: 13627: 13576: 13448: 13370: 13218: 13149: 13040: 12872: 12752: 12682: 12598: 12505: 12470: 12429: 12377: 12316: 12281: 12276: 12233: 12206: 12149: 12109: 12060: 11951: 11867: 11616: 11477: 11350: 11232: 11205: 11117: 11098: 10994: 10976: 10726: 10669: 10552: 10513: 10501: 10379: 10348: 10336: 10301: 10231: 10174: 10125: 9988: 9953: 9883: 9840: 9776: 9764: 9688: 9653: 9648: 9631: 9612: 9576: 9527: 9441: 9397: 9368: 9330: 9281: 9232: 9174: 9127: 9092: 9048: 9010: 8884: 8729: 8646: 8605: 8600: 8565: 8546: 8497: 8417: 8412: 8395: 8355: 8314: 8209: 8174: 8112: 8055: 7998: 7941: 7813: 7754:"Safety Evaluation of Foods Derived by Modern Biotechnology: Concepts and Principles" 7735: 7631: 7612: 7595: 7509: 7468: 7385: 7358: 7205: 7140: 7081: 6912: 6842: 6466: 6442: 5607: 5375: 5265: 5094: 4854: 4778: 4744: 4551: 4476: 4318: 4233: 4223: 4091: 4072: 3989: 3934: 3926: 3857: 3796: 3699: 3649: 3600: 3540: 3438: 3174:

biscuits, breads, cereals and pulses, and a few others. The law faced criticism from

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