1240:
1231:
species, the result is not subject the lengthy and expensive regulatory process associated with GMOs. While CRISPR may use foreign DNA to aid the editing process, the second generation of edited plants contain none of that DNA. Researchers celebrated the acceleration because it may allow them to "keep up" with rapidly evolving pathogens. The U.S. Department of
Agriculture stated that some examples of gene-edited corn, potatoes and soybeans are not subject to existing regulations. As of 2016, other review bodies had yet to make statements.
898:
451:
1114:(RNAi) has been used to silence an organism's genes. By modifying an organism to express microRNA targeted to its endogenous genes, researchers have been able to knockout or partially reduce gene function in a range of species. The ability to partially reduce gene function has allowed the study of genes that are lethal when completely knocked out. Other advantages of using RNAi include the availability of inducible and tissue specific knockout. In 2007 microRNA targeted to insect and
586:, wherein a trait that helps an organism survive better is passed on. Early breeding relied on unconscious and natural selection. The introduction of methodical selection is unknown. Common characteristics that were bred into domesticated plants include grains that did not shatter to allow easier harvesting, uniform ripening, shorter lifespans that translate to faster growing, loss of toxic compounds, and productivity. Some plants, like the Banana, were able to be propagated by
41:
646:
1044:
1195:. The researchers added the new genome to bacterial cells and selected for cells that contained the new genome. To do this the cells undergoes a process called resolution, where during bacterial cell division one new cell receives the original DNA genome of the bacteria, whilst the other receives the new synthetic genome. When this cell replicates it uses the synthetic genome as its template. The resulting bacterium the researchers developed, named
851:
1031:(OSTP) to develop mechanisms to regulate the developing technology. In 1986 the OSTP assigned regulatory approval of genetically modified plants in the US to the USDA, FDA and EPA. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, guidance on assessing the safety of genetically engineered plants and food emerged from organizations including the FAO and WHO.
881:. Herbert Boyer and Stanley Norman Cohen took Berg's work a step further and introduced recombinant DNA into a bacterial cell. Cohen was researching plasmids, while Boyers work involved restriction enzymes. They recognised the complementary nature of their work and teamed up in 1972. Together they found a restriction enzyme that cut the
4027:
Gibson, D. G.; Glass, J. I.; Lartigue, C.; Noskov, V. N.; Chuang, R.-Y.; Algire, M. A.; Benders, G. A.; Montague, M. G.; Ma, L.; Moodie, M. M.; Merryman, C.; Vashee, S.; Krishnakumar, R.; Assad-Garcia, N.; Andrews-Pfannkoch, C.; Denisova, E. A.; Young, L.; Qi, Z.-Q.; Segall-Shapiro, T. H.; Calvey, C.
1183:
The first transgenic livestock were produced in 1985, by micro-injecting foreign DNA into rabbit, sheep and pig eggs. The first animal to synthesise transgenic proteins in their milk were mice, engineered to produce human tissue plasminogen activator. This technology was applied to sheep, pigs, cows
889:
antibiotic into the gap. Cohen had previously devised a method where bacteria could be induced to take up a plasmid and using this they were able to create a bacterium that survived in the presence of the kanamycin. This represented the first genetically modified organism. They repeated experiments
3301:
Zan, Y; Haag, J. D.; Chen, K. S.; Shepel, L. A.; Wigington, D; Wang, Y. R.; Hu, R; Lopez-Guajardo, C. C.; Brose, H. L.; Porter, K. I.; Leonard, R. A.; Hitt, A. A.; Schommer, S. L.; Elegbede, A. F.; Gould, M. N. (2003). "Production of knockout rats using ENU mutagenesis and a yeast-based screening
1230:
was used to modify plant genomes. Chinese labs used it to create a fungus-resistant wheat and boost rice yields, while a U.K. group used it to tweak a barley gene that could help produce drought-resistant varieties. When used to precisely remove material from DNA without adding genes from other
1122:
Genetic engineering has been used to produce proteins derived from humans and other sources in organisms that normally cannot synthesize these proteins. Human insulin-synthesising bacteria were developed in 1979 and were first used as a treatment in 1982. In 1988 the first human antibodies were
1118:
genes was expressed in plants, leading to suppression when they fed on the transgenic plant, potentially creating a new way to control pests. Targeting endogenous microRNA expression has allowed further fine tuning of gene expression, supplementing the more traditional gene knock out approach.
1373:, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US. In 1996 a total of 35 approvals had been granted to commercially grow 8 transgenic crops and one flower crop (carnation), with 8 different traits in 6 countries plus the EU.
479:, with archeological evidence dating to about 12,000 BC. Other carnivores domesticated in prehistoric times include the cat, which cohabited with human 9,500 years ago. Archeological evidence suggests sheep, cattle, pigs and goats were domesticated between 9,000 BC and 8,000 BC in the
593:
Hybridization was another way that rapid changes in plant's makeup were introduced. It often increased vigor in plants, and combined desirable traits together. Hybridization most likely first occurred when humans first grew similar, yet slightly different plants in close proximity.
1298:
to be released into the environment when a strawberry field and a potato field in
California were sprayed with it. Both test fields were attacked by activist groups the night before the tests occurred: "The world's first trial site attracted the world's first field trasher".
418:. Advances followed that allowed scientists to manipulate and add genes to a variety of different organisms and induce a range of different effects. Plants were first commercialized with virus resistant tobacco released in China in 1992. The first
1023:(OECD) released a report into the potential hazards of releasing genetically modified organisms into the environment as the first transgenic plants were being developed. As the technology improved and genetically organisms moved from
462:
Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using certain biotechnology techniques that have only existed since the 1970s. Human directed genetic manipulation was occurring much earlier, beginning with the
590:. Offspring often did not contain seeds, and was therefore sterile. However, these offspring were usually juicier and larger. Propagation through cloning allows these mutant varieties to be cultivated despite their lack of seeds.
1034:
The
European Union first introduced laws requiring GMO's to be labelled in 1997. In 2013 Connecticut became the first state to enact a labeling law in the US, although it would not take effect until other states followed suit.
945:
to their offspring. In 1981 the laboratories of Frank Ruddle, Frank
Constantini and Elizabeth Lacy injected purified DNA into a single-cell mouse embryo and showed transmission of the genetic material to subsequent generations.
581:
described three types of selection: methodical selection, wherein humans deliberately select for particular characteristics; unconscious selection, wherein a characteristic is selected simply because it is desirable; and
3665:
Ye, Xudong; Al-Babili, Salim; Klöti, Andreas; Zhang, Jing; Lucca, Paola; Beyer, Peter; Potrykus, Ingo (2000-01-14). "Engineering the
Provitamin A (β-Carotene) Biosynthetic Pathway into (Carotenoid-Free) Rice Endosperm".
4413:
Fraley, R. T.; Rogers, S. G.; Horsch, R. B.; Sanders, P. R.; Flick, J. S.; Adams, S. P.; Bittner, M. L.; Brand, L. A.; Fink, C. L.; Fry, J. S.; Galluppi, G. R.; Goldberg, S. B.; Hoffmann, N. L.; Woo, S. C. (1983).
991:
The development of genetic engineering technology led to concerns in the scientific community about potential risks. The development of a regulatory framework concerning genetic engineering began in 1975, at
4502:
Vaeck, Mark; Reynaerts, Arlette; Höfte, Herman; Jansens, Stefan; De
Beuckeleer, Marc; Dean, Caroline; Zabeau, Marc; Montagu, Marc Van; Leemans, Jan (1987). "Transgenic plants protected from insect attack".
1218:
and then efficiently replicate them. The plasmid retained the unnatural base pairs when it doubled an estimated 99.4% of the time. This is the first organism engineered to use an expanded genetic alphabet.
510:
were sites of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's
567:
period about 6,800 to 6,300 BC. Due to the soft tissues, archeological evidence for early vegetables is scarce. The earliest vegetable remains have been found in
Egyptian caves that date back to the
1000:
recommended a set of guidelines regarding the cautious use of recombinant technology and any products resulting from that technology. The
Asilomar recommendations were voluntary, but in 1976 the
722:
2458:"Biochemical Method for Inserting New Genetic Information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli"
1557:"Biochemical Method for Inserting New Genetic Information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli"
339:
in 1934. The first artificial genetic modification accomplished using biotechnology was transgenesis, the process of transferring genes from one organism to another, first accomplished by
4697:
4205:
3448:
Schwab, Rebecca; Ossowski, Stephan; Warthmann, Norman; Weigel, Detlef (2010-01-01). "Directed Gene
Silencing with Artificial MicroRNAs". In Meyers, Blake C.; Green, Pamela J. (eds.).
1439:
he was conducting in 1998 the public opposition to genetically modified food increased. Opposition continued following controversial and publicly debated papers published in 1999 and
2334:
Wirth, Reinhard; Friesenegger, Anita; Fiedlerand, Stefan (1989). "Transformation of various species of gram-negative bacteria belonging to 11 different genera by electroporation".
671:
in 1865 following experiments crossing peas. Although largely ignored for 34 years he provided the first evidence of hereditary segregation and independent assortment. In 1889
3844:
Brophy, B.; Smolenski, G.; Wheeler, T.; Wells, D.; l'Huillier, P.; Laible, G. T. (2003). "Cloned transgenic cattle produce milk with higher levels of β-casein and κ-casein".
4806:
1673:
Montague, Michael J.; Li, Gang; Gandolfi, Barbara; Khan, Razib; Aken, Bronwen L.; Searle, Steven M. J.; Minx, Patrick; Hillier, LaDeana W.; Koboldt, Daniel C. (2014-12-02).
2141:"Enzymatic breakage and joining of deoxyribonucleic acid, I. Repair of single-strand breaks in DNA by an enzyme system from Escherichia coli infected with T4 bacteriophage"
1614:
Larson, Greger; Karlsson, Elinor K.; Perri, Angela; Webster, Matthew T.; Ho, Simon Y. W.; Peters, Joris; Stahl, Peter W.; Piper, Philip J.; Lingaas, Frode (2012-06-05).
805:
1376:
By 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialized biotech crops and a further 31 countries had granted regulatory approval for transgenic crops to be imported. In 2013
1290:
to protect crops from frost, but environmental groups and protestors delayed the field tests for four years with legal challenges. In 1987 the ice-minus strain of
1286:
in 1982. In 1983 a biotech company, Advanced
Genetic Sciences (AGS) applied for U.S. government authorization to perform field tests with the ice-minus strain of
3090:
U.S. Office of Science and Technology Policy (1986). "Coordinated framework for regulation of biotechnology; announcement of policy; notice for public comment".
759:, that join broken DNA together, had been discovered earlier in 1967 and by combining the two enzymes it was possible to "cut and paste" DNA sequences to create
4787:
1020:
4752:
Vàzquez-Salat, Núria; Salter, Brian; Smets, Greet; Houdebine, Louis-Marie (2012-11-01). "The current state of GMO governance: Are we ready for GM animals?".
937:. He took his SV40 samples to Mintz's lab and injected them into early mouse embryos expecting tumours to develop. The mice appeared normal, but after using
322:
3129:
WHO (1991) Strategies for assessing the safety of foods produced by biotechnology, Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Consultation. World Health Organization, Geneva
675:
came up with the name "(pan)gene" after postulating that particles are responsible for inheritance of characteristics and the term "genetics" was coined by
4028:
H.; Parmar, P. P.; Hutchison Ca, C. A.; Smith, H. O.; Venter, J. C. (2010). "Creation of a Bacterial Cell Controlled by a Chemically Synthesized Genome".
1159:
back into a plant cell that had its cell wall removed. With the introduction of the gene gun in 1987 it became possible to integrate foreign genes into a
2674:
4090:
Malyshev, Denis A.; Dhami, Kirandeep; Lavergne, Thomas; Chen, Tingjian; Dai, Nan; Foster, Jeremy M.; Corrêa, Ivan R.; Romesberg, Floyd E. (2014-05-15).
3153:
Application of the principle of substantial equivalence to the safety evaluation of foods or food components from plants derived by modern biotechnology
2378:
1365:
tomato, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. Also in 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide
507:
4234:
Goeddel, D. V.; Kleid, D. G.; Bolivar, F.; Heyneker, H. L.; Yansura, D. G.; Crea, R.; Hirose, T.; Kraszewski, A.; Itakura, K.; Riggs, A. D. (1979).
1357:. The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialize transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994
4324:
4213:
3710:
4946:
Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin
1922:
335:
Genetic engineering is the science of manipulating genetic material of an organism. The concept of genetic engineering was first proposed by
809:
4727:
3780:
3737:
1903:
1322:, was the first company to genetically engineer insect-resistant plants by incorporating genes that produced insecticidal proteins from
4813:
4580:
315:
3196:
838:. By removing the genes in the plasmid that caused the tumor and adding in novel genes researchers were able to infect plants with
687:
653:
3166:
1302:
The first genetically modified crop plant was produced in 1982, an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. The first field trials of
1028:
1005:
271:
4680:
3031:"US regulatory system for genetically modified [genetically modified organism (GMO), rDNA or transgenic] crop cultivars"
3887:
Hammer, R. E.; Pursel, V. G.; Rexroad, C. E.; Wall, R. J.; Bolt, D. J.; Ebert, K. M.; Palmiter, R. D.; Brinster, R. L. (1985).
997:
2062:
1166:
Genetic transformation has become very efficient in some model organisms. In 1998 genetically modified seeds were produced in
828:
was developed in the late 1980s, increasing the efficiency and bacterial range. In 1907 a bacterium that caused plant tumors,
4954:
4608:
2617:"Simian virus 40 DNA sequences in DNA of healthy adult mice derived from preimplantation blastocysts injected with viral DNA"
3945:
Clark, A. John (1998). "The Mammary Gland as a Bioreactor: Expression, Processing, and Production of Recombinant Proteins".
3394:
4837:
308:
4625:
2409:"Ti plasmid vector for the introduction of DNA into plant cells without alteration of their normal regeneration capacity"
4647:
1675:"Comparative analysis of the domestic cat genome reveals genetic signatures underlying feline biology and domestication"
2758:
Gordon, J.; Ruddle, F. (1981). "Integration and stable germ line transmission of genes injected into mouse pronuclei".
1833:
1369:, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialized in Europe. In 1995 Bt Potato was approved safe by the
1152:
426:
tomato marketed in 1994. By 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialized biotech crops. In 2000 a paper published in
4713:
3465:
986:
143:
779:
developed a method for sequencing DNA in 1977, greatly increasing the genetic information available to researchers.
631:
in 1927. Between 1927 and 2007, more than 2,540 genetically mutated plant varieties had been produced using x-rays.
4072:
1508:"Ancient Wolf Genome Reveals an Early Divergence of Domestic Dog Ancestors and Admixture into High-Latitude Breeds"
1384:'s executive vice president and chief technology officer), Marc Van Montagu and Mary-Dell Chilton were awarded the
787:
in 1983, allowed small sections of DNA to be amplified and aided identification and isolation of genetic material.
3118:
Principles for the Safety Assessment of Food Additives and Contaminants in Food, Environmental Health Criteria 70
1370:
1009:
347:
in 1973. It was the result of a series of advancements in techniques that allowed the direct modification of the
153:
1431:
Opposition and support for the use of genetic engineering has existed since the technology was developed. After
3980:
Gordon, Katherine; Lee, Eric; Vitale, James A.; Smith, Alan E.; Westphal, Heiner; Hennighausen, Lothar (1987).
2277:"Non chromosomal Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria: Genetic Transformation of Escherichia coli by R-Factor DNA"
1890:
1334:
171:
4983:
2852:
Lemaux, P. (2008). "Genetically Engineered Plants and Foods: A Scientist's Analysis of the Issues (Part I)".
2386:
1295:
1001:
403:
62:
53:
4978:
4973:
1338:
1283:
1013:
941:
he discovered that the virus had integrated itself into the mice genome. However the mice did not pass the
743:
As well as discovering how DNA works, tools had to be developed that allowed it to be manipulated. In 1970
503:
113:
22:
3239:"The origins of oncomice: A history of the first transgenic mice genetically engineered to develop cancer"
1071:
that predisposed them to developing cancer. The technology has also been used to generate mice with genes
834:, was discovered and in the early 1970s the tumor inducing agent was found to be a DNA plasmid called the
993:
391:
118:
89:
79:
74:
4397:
4549:
4477:
4355:
2894:(1983). "A chimaeric antibiotic resistance gene as a selectable marker for plant cell transformation".
1444:
906:
768:
472:
415:
395:
336:
238:
103:
98:
67:
1278:
case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented. The insulin produced by bacteria, branded
1004:(NIH) formed a recombinant DNA advisory committee. This was followed by other regulatory offices (the
3347:"The C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14"
2515:
1188:
1064:
977:
techniques a single tobacco cell was selected that contained the gene and a new plant grown from it.
885:
plasmid at a single point and were able to insert and ligate a gene that conferred resistance to the
830:
791:
780:
727:
703:
419:
372:
364:
243:
193:
108:
84:
4332:
2801:
Costantini, F.; Lacy, E. (1981). "Introduction of a rabbit β-globin gene into the mouse germ line".
1464:
Yakimova, A.O.; Baranovskii, D.S.; Ivanov, S.A.; Shegay, P.V.; Kaprin, A.D.; Klabukov, I.D. (2023).
1345:
was approved for use in several countries. Cheese had typically been made using the enzyme complex
973:
transformed with this plasmid resulting in the chimeric gene being inserted into the plant. Through
3714:
683:
649:
380:
1802:
3538:
Gentner, B.; Naldini, L. (2012-11-01). "Exploiting microRNA regulation for genetic engineering".
577:
of domesticated plants was once the main way early farmers shaped organisms to suit their needs.
520:
495:
276:
203:
148:
3756:
2530:
1734:"Domestication and early agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact"
475:
is believed to be the first animal domesticated, possibly arising from a common ancestor of the
1825:
1819:
1323:
1275:
1096:
445:
414:
in 1978. In 1983, an antibiotic resistant gene was inserted into tobacco, leading to the first
4478:"Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995"
3741:
2865:
1907:
1311:
664:
4398:
Altered Bacterium Does Its Job : Frost Failed to Damage Sprayed Test Crop, Company Says
1239:
790:
As well as manipulating the DNA, techniques had to be developed for its insertion (known as
4903:
4512:
4427:
4247:
4160:
4103:
4037:
3900:
3675:
3406:
3395:"Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA in Caenorhabditis elegans"
3167:"Mandatory Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods: Does it Really Provide Consumer Choice?"
2950:
2903:
2810:
2767:
2712:
2628:
2561:
2469:
2288:
2152:
2093:
1745:
1686:
1627:
1568:
1519:
1177:
1168:
794:) into an organism's genome. Griffiths experiment had already shown that some bacteria had
663:
Various genetic discoveries have been essential in the development of genetic engineering.
468:
344:
291:
4577:
1465:
949:
The first genetically engineered plant was tobacco, reported in 1983. It was developed by
8:
2082:"Classic Perspective: How restriction enzymes became the workhorses of molecular biology"
2049:
1408:
1400:
1358:
1306:
occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to
752:
748:
699:
695:
640:
624:
to potentially make a new species making grafting a form of natural genetic engineering.
31:
4907:
4516:
4431:
4385:
4251:
4164:
4107:
4041:
3904:
3679:
3410:
2954:
2907:
2814:
2771:
2716:
2632:
2565:
2473:
2407:
Zambryski, P.; Joos, H.; Genetello, C.; Leemans, J.; Montagu, M. V.; Schell, J. (1983).
2292:
2156:
2097:
1749:
1690:
1631:
1572:
1523:
4528:
4186:
4124:
4091:
4009:
3924:
3869:
3826:
3642:
3617:
3598:
3515:
3490:
3430:
3327:
2919:
2834:
2675:"'Any idiot can do it.' Genome editor CRISPR could put mutant mice in everyone's reach"
2579:
2424:
2359:
2116:
2081:
2023:
1998:
1974:
1947:
1768:
1733:
1709:
1674:
1650:
1615:
1271:
954:
938:
795:
680:
628:
587:
574:
352:
4450:
4415:
4270:
4235:
3174:
2973:
2938:
2735:
2700:
2651:
2616:
2592:
2545:
2492:
2457:
2433:
2408:
2311:
2276:
2175:
2140:
1591:
1556:
1440:
286:
4950:
4921:
4872:
4769:
4765:
4604:
4554:
4455:
4356:"Some Thoughts on the American Approach to Regulating Genetically Modified Organisms"
4275:
4178:
4129:
4053:
4001:
3962:
3916:
3861:
3818:
3814:
3691:
3647:
3590:
3555:
3520:
3471:
3461:
3422:
3368:
3363:
3346:
3319:
3260:
3099:
3052:
3047:
3030:
3005:
2978:
2891:
2869:
2826:
2783:
2740:
2656:
2597:
2497:
2438:
2351:
2316:
2257:
2253:
2240:
Mandel, Morton; Higa, Akiko (1970). "Calcium-dependent bacteriophage DNA infection".
2222:
2180:
2121:
2028:
1979:
1886:
1829:
1773:
1714:
1655:
1596:
1537:
1485:
1404:
1303:
1255:
958:
922:
890:
showing that other genes could be expressed in bacteria, including one from the toad
772:
744:
613:
595:
583:
568:
454:
DNA studies suggested that the dog most likely arose from a common ancestor with the
427:
296:
176:
3873:
3602:
3331:
2996:
Hutt, P. B. (1978). "Research on recombinant DNA molecules: The regulatory issues".
2923:
2363:
1616:"Rethinking dog domestication by integrating genetics, archeology, and biogeography"
1506:
Skoglund, Pontus; Ersmark, Erik; Palkopoulou, Eleftheria; Dalén, Love (2015-06-01).
1016:(FDA), effectively making all recombinant DNA research tightly regulated in the US.
4911:
4864:
4761:
4659:
4532:
4520:
4445:
4435:
4265:
4255:
4190:
4168:
4119:
4111:
4045:
4013:
3993:
3954:
3928:
3908:
3853:
3810:
3683:
3637:
3629:
3582:
3547:
3510:
3502:
3453:
3434:
3414:
3358:
3311:
3283:
3250:
3042:
2968:
2958:
2911:
2887:
2861:
2838:
2818:
2775:
2730:
2720:
2646:
2636:
2587:
2569:
2546:"Recircularization and Autonomous Replication of a Sheared R-Factor DNA Segment in
2487:
2477:
2428:
2420:
2343:
2306:
2296:
2249:
2214:
2199:
2170:
2160:
2111:
2101:
2066:
2018:
2010:
1969:
1959:
1763:
1753:
1704:
1694:
1645:
1635:
1586:
1576:
1527:
1477:
1385:
1315:
1111:
1048:
950:
918:
800:
776:
499:
480:
4236:"Expression in Escherichia coli of chemically synthesized genes for human insulin"
3830:
3278:
Pilcher, Helen R. (2003). "It's a knockout: First rat to have key genes altered".
2218:
4944:
4598:
4584:
4294:
3687:
2014:
1882:
1155:(invented in 1987). In the 1980s techniques were developed to introduce isolated
1144:
1088:
1060:
926:
914:
902:
870:
858:
825:
760:
711:
676:
399:
181:
3457:
3071:
2621:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2554:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1436:
1416:
1412:
1200:
1148:
1080:
1076:
1024:
974:
930:
891:
578:
387:
368:
281:
210:
3958:
3633:
3152:
3139:
3117:
1532:
1507:
450:
4967:
3452:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 592. Humana Press. pp. 71–88.
3026:
1489:
1481:
1432:
1377:
1243:
1072:
1052:
962:
897:
842:
and let the bacteria insert their chosen DNA into the genomes of the plants.
824:
treatment was also effective for uptake of plasmid DNA. Transformation using
715:
672:
668:
599:
544:
528:
491:
464:
340:
255:
188:
4483:. The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications
4440:
4049:
3089:
2779:
2725:
2482:
2106:
2051:("pan-gene" definition on page 7 and 40 of this 1910 translation in English)
1758:
1699:
1640:
1581:
1388:
for improving the "quality, quantity or availability" of food in the world.
721:
4925:
4876:
4842:
4773:
4182:
4133:
4057:
3966:
3865:
3822:
3695:
3651:
3559:
3524:
3475:
3323:
3264:
3103:
3056:
3009:
2963:
2939:"Summary statement of the Asilomar conference on recombinant DNA molecules"
2937:
Berg, P.; Baltimore, D.; Brenner, S.; Roblin, R. O.; Singer, M. F. (1975).
2873:
2744:
2641:
2574:
2442:
2301:
2226:
2165:
2125:
1983:
1803:
the history of maize cultivation in southern Mexico dates back 9,000 years.
1777:
1718:
1659:
1541:
1354:
1259:
1156:
1100:
1084:
934:
878:
813:
707:
686:
the existence of a "transforming principle" involved in inheritance, which
617:
564:
556:
407:
250:
198:
40:
4459:
4260:
4005:
3982:"Production of human tissue plasmnogen activator in transgenic mouse milk"
3920:
3594:
3426:
3372:
3287:
2830:
2787:
2660:
2601:
2501:
2355:
2333:
2320:
2261:
2184:
2032:
1600:
4664:
3997:
3390:
3386:
2982:
1964:
1423:
enabling it to grow year-round instead of only during spring and summer.
1319:
1254:, the first genetic engineering company was founded by Herbert Boyer and
1215:
1160:
1128:
784:
609:
524:
433:
4279:
4173:
4148:
4115:
3793:
Clough, S. J.; Bent, A. F. (1998). "Floral dip: A simplified method for
3586:
3506:
3255:
3238:
1407:. The first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was
1214:. This required altering the bacterium so it could import the unnatural
1043:
921:
by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first
2347:
1420:
1366:
1362:
1349:
that had been extracted from cows' stomach lining. Scientists modified
1176:
solution. The range of plants that can be transformed has increased as
1027:
to potential commercial products the US established a committee at the
835:
756:
516:
423:
376:
375:
of the DNA into a host organism was accomplished with the invention of
356:
3551:
1821:
The Origins and Spread of Domestic Plants in Southwest Asia and Europe
755:. This enabled scientists to isolate genes from an organism's genome.
751:
that allowed DNA to be cut at specific places and separated out on an
735:
into infected plant cells, which is then incorporated into the plants
645:
4524:
3912:
3573:
Ladisch, M. R.; Kohlmann, K. L. (1992). "Recombinant human insulin".
2915:
2822:
2583:
1396:
1333:
Genetically modified microbial enzymes were the first application of
1307:
1266:. Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human
1251:
1211:
1124:
1092:
1068:
942:
886:
866:
854:
548:
476:
455:
4916:
4891:
4868:
3981:
3889:"Production of transgenic rabbits, sheep and pigs by microinjection"
3888:
1353:
to produce chymosin, which was also able to clot milk, resulting in
1063:
allowed scientists to study the genetic elements of human diseases.
850:
4206:"10 Breakthrough Technologies 2016: Precise Gene Editing in Plants"
3857:
3315:
2543:
1391:
The first genetically modified animal to be commercialised was the
1381:
1350:
1342:
1115:
1107:
605:
602:. Its creation is the result of two separate hybridization events.
4788:"Aquabounty Cleared to Sell Salmon in USA for Commercial Purposes"
3418:
4751:
3220:
1392:
1327:
1279:
1267:
1207:
1196:
764:
540:
498:
villages in Southwest Asia dated about 10,500 to 10,100 BC. The
411:
402:. In 1976, the technology was commercialised, with the advent of
360:
3079:. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
965:
that joined an antibiotic resistant gene to the T1 plasmid from
1505:
1463:
1346:
1227:
1223:
1192:
882:
736:
621:
560:
532:
348:
220:
1923:"Farmers may have been accidentally making GMOs for millennia"
1191:
announced that they had created the first synthetic bacterial
4092:"A semi-synthetic organism with an expanded genetic alphabet"
3447:
3155:, Report of a WHO Workshop. World Health Organization, Geneva
3142:, Report of a WHO Workshop. World Health Organization, Geneva
3140:
Health aspects of marker genes in genetically modified plants
3069:
2406:
869:
used restriction enzymes and DNA ligases to create the first
732:
512:
487:
215:
3711:"Transforming Plants – Basic Genetic Engineering Techniques"
1854:
1842:
1443:
that claimed negative environmental and health impacts from
4233:
3843:
3491:"Ingested plant miRNAs regulate gene expression in animals"
3389:; Xu, S.; Montgomery, M. K.; Kostas, S. A.; Driver, S. E.;
1817:
1784:
1246:
helped found the first genetic engineering company in 1976.
874:
552:
536:
4550:"FDA Approves 1st Genetically Engineered Product for Food"
4501:
3073:
Biotechnology : international trends and perspectives
2936:
1613:
652:
proved the existence of a "transforming principle", which
436:, the first food developed with increased nutrient value.
4943:
Zohary, Daniel; Hopf, Maria; Weiss, Ehud (1 March 2012).
4412:
4089:
4026:
3757:"Biologists Invent Gun for Shooting Cells with DNA Issue"
1948:"Are Mutations in Genetically Modified Plants Dangerous?"
691:
657:
3735:
1466:"The Physical View of the Origin of Genetic Engineering"
1139:
As not all plant cells were susceptible to infection by
796:
the ability to naturally take up and express foreign DNA
4807:"Risk Assessment and Mitigation of AquAdvantage Salmon"
3886:
3165:
Gruère, Colin A. Carter and Guillaume P. (2003-12-15).
1337:
in food production and were approved in 1988 by the US
1258:
and a year later the company produced a human protein (
845:
4714:
Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2011
3616:
Woodard, S. L.; Woodard, J. A.; Howard, M. E. (2004).
3385:
1672:
1180:
techniques have been developed for different species.
1021:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
925:. Jaenisch was studying mammalian cells infected with
3736:
Voiland, Michael; McCandless, Linda (February 1999).
3664:
3236:
2614:
486:
The first evidence of plant domestication comes from
4855:
Waltz, Emily (2009-09-02). "GM crops: Battlefield".
4576:
National Centre for Biotechnology Education (2006).
4420:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA
4149:"Synthetic biology: New letters for life's alphabet"
3979:
3615:
3237:
Hanahan, D.; Wagner, E. F.; Palmiter, R. D. (2007).
1996:
1904:"Evolution of Wheatpublisher=Wheat, the big picture"
1206:
In 2014 a bacterium was developed that replicated a
1131:, was the first food with increased nutrient value.
816:
after treatment with calcium chloride solution (CaCl
4544:
4542:
2886:
2531:"History of Genetics: Genetic Engineering Timeline"
2132:
1555:Jackson, DA; Symons, RH; Berg, P (1 October 1972).
873:molecules. He combined DNA from the monkey virus
820:). Two years later, Stanley Cohen showed that CaCl
4678:
3300:
3277:
3197:"Connecticut Approves Qualified Genetic Labeling"
2701:"Inaugural Article: Biography of Rudolf Jaenisch"
2455:
2383:: The Natural Genetic Engineer (100 Years Later)"
2239:
1883:Hybrid: The History and Science of Plant Breeding
1554:
1103:is much harder and only became possible in 2003.
4965:
4539:
4292:
3488:
2456:Jackson, D. A.; Symons, R. H.; Berg, P. (1972).
1945:
1059:The ability to insert, alter or remove genes in
4942:
4725:
4240:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3754:
3618:"Plant molecular farming: Systems and products"
3572:
3021:
3019:
2943:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2705:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2462:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2281:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2275:Cohen, S. N.; Chang, A. C. Y.; Hsu, L. (1972).
2145:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2138:
2086:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1860:
1848:
1790:
1738:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1679:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1620:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1403:added that allows it to glow in the dark under
1051:in which a gene affecting hair growth has been
771:for transferring information between cells and
519:and several regions of the Americas. The eight
351:. Important advances included the discovery of
4728:"Executive at Monsanto wins global food honor"
4716:ISAAA Brief 43-2011. Retrieved 14 October 2012
4596:
4416:"Expression of bacterial genes in plant cells"
3947:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia
3944:
3537:
2800:
2544:Cohen, Stanley N.; Chang, Annie C. Y. (1973).
1361:attained approval to commercially release the
4645:
4471:
4469:
4146:
3344:
3025:
2274:
1999:"What Did Gregor Mendel Think He Discovered?"
929:(SV40) when he happened to read a paper from
316:
4623:
4570:
3016:
2757:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1411:in 2015. The salmon were transformed with a
1055:(left), is shown next to a normal lab mouse.
4626:"Global Status of Transgenic Crops in 1997"
4597:Campbell-Platt, Geoffrey (26 August 2011).
4147:Thyer, Ross; Ellefson, Jared (2014-05-15).
3223:. National Human Genome Research Institute.
2060:
4830:
4466:
4380:
4378:
4376:
4073:"Craig Venter creates synthetic life form"
3792:
3738:"Development Of The "Gene Gun" At Cornell"
3609:
3232:
3230:
3070:Bull, A.T.; Holt, G.; Lilly, M.D. (1982).
894:, the first cross kingdom transformation.
706:that genes code for proteins in 1941. The
323:
309:
4915:
4698:Genetically Altered Potato Ok'd For Crops
4663:
4617:
4449:
4439:
4353:
4269:
4259:
4172:
4123:
3641:
3514:
3362:
3254:
3046:
2972:
2962:
2734:
2724:
2650:
2640:
2591:
2573:
2491:
2481:
2432:
2310:
2300:
2197:
2174:
2164:
2115:
2105:
2022:
1973:
1963:
1866:
1767:
1757:
1708:
1698:
1649:
1639:
1590:
1580:
1531:
1067:were created in 1984 that carried cloned
4719:
3940:
3938:
2866:10.1146/annurev.arplant.58.032806.103840
2698:
2200:"Cell genetics and hereditary symbiosis"
1952:Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology
1238:
1143:other methods were developed, including
1042:
1038:
896:
849:
720:
644:
449:
4590:
4373:
4363:Kansas Journal of Law and Public Policy
3227:
2079:
1920:
1006:United States Department of Agriculture
798:. Artificial competence was induced in
767:, discovered in 1952, became important
627:X-rays were first used to deliberately
272:Genetically modified food controversies
4966:
4889:
4804:
4681:"Transgenic tobacco is European first"
4203:
4070:
3164:
2851:
2528:
2376:
2039:
1946:Schouten, H. J.; Jacobsen, E. (2007).
1818:Colledge, Sue; Conolly, James (2007).
555:) had all appeared by about 7,000 BC.
4854:
4475:
3935:
3194:
2516:"Genome and genetics timeline – 1973"
2139:Weiss, B.; Richardson, C. C. (1967).
1731:
1099:knocked out were generated. Creating
4836:Randerson, James (January 15, 2008)
3379:
2995:
1501:
1499:
1234:
1172:by simply dipping the flowers in an
846:Early genetically modified organisms
598:, wheat used in baking bread, is an
4648:"The case of the FLAVR SAVR tomato"
4646:Bruening, G.; Lyons, J. M. (2000).
3489:Vaucheret, H.; Chupeau, Y. (2011).
3120:. World Health Organization, Geneva
1296:genetically modified organism (GMO)
1134:
710:structure of DNA was identified by
13:
4805:Bodnar, Anastasia (October 2010).
4679:MacKenzie, Debora (18 June 1994).
4396:Maugh, Thomas H. (June 9, 1987).
4331:. 15 November 1982. Archived from
3781:Timelines: 1987: Next The gene gun
3708:
2425:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1983.tb01715.x
1341:. In the early 1990s, recombinant
1282:, was approved for release by the
14:
4995:
4812:. ISB News Report. Archived from
4293:US Supreme Court (16 June 1980).
1496:
987:Regulation of genetic engineering
4838:Arpad Pusztai: Biological divide
4766:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.02.006
4726:Pollack, Andrew (19 June 2013).
3815:10.1046/j.1365-313x.1998.00343.x
3755:Segelken, Roger (May 14, 1987).
3048:10.1111/j.1467-7652.2007.00300.x
2615:Jaenisch, R.; Mintz, B. (1974).
1732:Zeder, Melinda A. (2008-08-19).
1151:and particle bombardment with a
1029:Office of Science and Technology
969:. The tobacco was infected with
39:
4883:
4848:
4798:
4780:
4745:
4707:
4691:
4672:
4639:
4495:
4406:
4390:
4347:
4317:
4286:
4227:
4197:
4140:
4083:
4064:
4020:
3973:
3880:
3837:
3786:
3774:
3748:
3729:
3702:
3658:
3566:
3531:
3482:
3441:
3338:
3294:
3271:
3213:
3195:Strom, Stephanie (2013-06-03).
3188:
3158:
3145:
3132:
3123:
3110:
3083:
3063:
2989:
2930:
2880:
2845:
2794:
2751:
2692:
2667:
2608:
2537:
2522:
2508:
2449:
2400:
2370:
2327:
2268:
2233:
2191:
2073:
2054:
1997:Hartl, D. L.; Orel, V. (1992).
1990:
1939:
1921:Le Page, Michael (2016-03-17).
1914:
1896:
1885:. University of Chicago Press.
1371:Environmental Protection Agency
1010:Environmental Protection Agency
1002:US National Institute of Health
154:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
3345:Lee, R.C.; Ambros, V. (1993).
2998:Southern California Law Review
2854:Annual Review of Plant Biology
2336:Molecular and General Genetics
1811:
1796:
1725:
1666:
1607:
1548:
1457:
1335:genetically modified organisms
467:of plants and animals through
439:
54:Genetically modified organisms
1:
4756:. Special issue on ACB 2011.
2219:10.1152/physrev.1952.32.4.403
1861:Zohary, Hopf & Weiss 2012
1849:Zohary, Hopf & Weiss 2012
1791:Zohary, Hopf & Weiss 2012
1450:
1426:
1304:genetically engineered plants
980:
933:describing the generation of
812:showed that it could take up
404:genetically modified bacteria
4892:"Rat study sparks GM furore"
4204:Talbot, David (March 2016).
3797:-mediated transformation of
3783:. lifesciencesfoundation.org
3688:10.1126/science.287.5451.303
3364:10.1016/0092-8674(93)90529-y
2254:10.1016/0022-2836(70)90051-3
2242:Journal of Molecular Biology
1824:. Left Coast Press. p.
1339:Food and Drug Administration
1284:Food and Drug Administration
1123:produced in plants. In 2000
1014:Food and Drug Administration
416:genetically engineered plant
7:
4600:Food Science and Technology
4386:GM crops: A bitter harvest?
4354:Bratspies, Rebecca (2007).
4071:Sample, Ian (20 May 2010).
3458:10.1007/978-1-60327-005-2_6
3035:Plant Biotechnology Journal
690:later (1944) identified as
634:
392:genetically modified animal
10:
5000:
4936:
2015:10.1093/genetics/131.2.245
1445:genetically modified crops
1187:In 2010 scientists at the
984:
688:Avery, MacLeod and McCarty
654:Avery, MacLeod and McCarty
638:
443:
337:Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky
239:Genetically modified crops
4603:. John Wiley & Sons.
4305:(303). Supreme.justia.com
3634:10.1007/s00299-004-0767-1
1533:10.1016/j.cub.2015.04.019
1189:J. Craig Venter Institute
1065:Genetically modified mice
831:Agrobacterium tumefaciens
781:Polymerase chain reaction
728:Agrobacterium tumefaciens
420:genetically modified food
365:polymerase chain reaction
4384:BBC News (14 June 2002)
2047:Intracellular Pangenesis
1881:Kingsbury, Noel (2009).
1482:10.1089/genbio.2023.0037
1415:-regulating gene from a
1210:containing an unnatural
1199:, was the world's first
667:was first discovered by
359:, the ability to design
4890:Butler, Declan (2012).
4441:10.1073/pnas.80.15.4803
4295:"Diamond V Chakrabarty"
4050:10.1126/science.1190719
3959:10.1023/a:1018723712996
3243:Genes & Development
2780:10.1126/science.6272397
2726:10.1073/pnas.0406416101
2483:10.1073/pnas.69.10.2904
2377:Nester, Eugene (2008).
2107:10.1073/pnas.0500923102
2080:Roberts, R. J. (2005).
1759:10.1073/pnas.0801317105
1700:10.1073/pnas.1410083111
1641:10.1073/pnas.1203005109
1582:10.1073/pnas.69.10.2904
1419:and a promoter from an
1106:After the discovery of
521:Neolithic founder crops
496:pre-Pottery Neolithic A
384:-mediated recombination
277:GMO conspiracy theories
149:Substantial equivalence
4754:Biotechnology Advances
4652:California Agriculture
3575:Biotechnology Progress
2964:10.1073/pnas.72.6.1981
2642:10.1073/pnas.71.4.1250
2575:10.1073/pnas.70.5.1293
2518:. Genome news network.
2302:10.1073/pnas.69.8.2110
2166:10.1073/pnas.57.4.1021
1417:Pacific Chinook salmon
1324:Bacillus thuringiensis
1276:Diamond v. Chakrabarty
1247:
1097:tumor suppressor genes
1056:
910:
862:
740:
660:
459:
446:History of agriculture
363:and technologies like
129:History and regulation
4624:James, Clive (1997).
4476:James, Clive (1996).
4261:10.1073/pnas.76.1.106
4210:MIT Technology Review
3288:10.1038/news030512-17
2699:Brownlee, C. (2004).
2529:Arnold, Paul (2009).
2207:Physiological Reviews
2198:Lederberg, J (1952).
2063:"The Bateson Lecture"
1312:Plant Genetic Systems
1270:in 1978. In 1980 the
1242:
1184:and other livestock.
1075:. The first recorded
1046:
1039:Research and medicine
900:
853:
724:
648:
559:first appears in the
453:
4984:History of bioethics
4665:10.3733/ca.v054n04p6
4587:. ncbe.reading.ac.uk
4578:Case Study: Chymosin
3998:10.1038/nbt1187-1183
3846:Nature Biotechnology
3799:Arabidopsis thaliana
3304:Nature Biotechnology
2045:Vries, H. de (1889)
1169:Arabidopsis thaliana
783:(PCR), developed by
469:artificial selection
292:StarLink corn recall
4979:History of genetics
4974:Genetic engineering
4908:2012Natur.489..484B
4517:1987Natur.328...33V
4432:1983PNAS...80.4803F
4335:on October 27, 2011
4252:1979PNAS...76..106G
4174:10.1038/nature13335
4165:2014Natur.509..291T
4116:10.1038/nature13314
4108:2014Natur.509..385M
4042:2010Sci...329...52G
3905:1985Natur.315..680H
3680:2000Sci...287..303Y
3587:10.1021/bp00018a001
3507:10.1038/cr.2011.164
3411:1998Natur.391..806F
3256:10.1101/gad.1583307
2955:1975PNAS...72.1981B
2908:1983Natur.304..184B
2815:1981Natur.294...92C
2772:1981Sci...214.1244G
2717:2004PNAS..10113982B
2633:1974PNAS...71.1250J
2566:1973PNAS...70.1293C
2474:1972PNAS...69.2904J
2293:1972PNAS...69.2110C
2157:1967PNAS...57.1021W
2098:2005PNAS..102.5905R
1750:2008PNAS..10511597Z
1691:2014PNAS..11117230M
1632:2012PNAS..109.8878L
1573:1972PNAS...69.2904J
1524:2015CBio...25.1515S
1409:AquAdvantage salmon
753:electrophoresis gel
749:restriction enzymes
700:George Wells Beadle
696:Edward Lawrie Tatum
665:Genetic inheritance
656:later showed to be
641:History of genetics
398:created in 1974 by
353:restriction enzymes
32:Genetic engineering
4732:The New York Times
4633:ISAAA Briefs No. 5
4583:2016-05-22 at the
4325:"Artificial Genes"
3622:Plant Cell Reports
3201:The New York Times
3171:www.agbioforum.org
3029:, Smyth S (2008).
2890:; Flavell, R. B.;
2348:10.1007/BF00332248
1965:10.1155/2007/82612
1272:U.S. Supreme Court
1248:
1057:
996:, California. The
955:Richard B. Flavell
939:radioactive probes
911:
905:created the first
863:
861:molecules in 1972.
857:created the first
741:
681:Frederick Griffith
661:
588:vegetative cloning
575:Selective breeding
460:
4956:978-0-19-954906-1
4610:978-1-4443-5782-0
4555:Los Angeles Times
4402:Los Angeles Times
3803:The Plant Journal
3764:Cornell Chronicle
3552:10.1111/tan.12002
3098:(123): 23302–50.
2766:(4526): 1244–46.
2711:(39): 13982–184.
2061:Creative Sponge.
1927:The New Scientist
1744:(33): 11597–604.
1685:(48): 17230–135.
1470:GEN Biotechnology
1435:went public with
1405:ultraviolet light
1294:became the first
1235:Commercialisation
1091:in 1989. In 1992
1081:Mario R. Capecchi
959:Mary-Dell Chilton
923:transgenic animal
877:with that of the
679:in 1905. In 1928
614:mitochondrial DNA
596:Triticum aestivum
584:natural selection
569:2nd millennium BC
502:of Western Asia,
333:
332:
297:He Jiankui affair
177:Molecular cloning
4991:
4960:
4930:
4929:
4919:
4887:
4881:
4880:
4852:
4846:
4834:
4828:
4827:
4825:
4824:
4818:
4811:
4802:
4796:
4795:
4784:
4778:
4777:
4749:
4743:
4742:
4740:
4738:
4723:
4717:
4711:
4705:
4702:Lawrence Journal
4695:
4689:
4688:
4676:
4670:
4669:
4667:
4643:
4637:
4636:
4630:
4621:
4615:
4614:
4594:
4588:
4574:
4568:
4567:
4565:
4563:
4546:
4537:
4536:
4525:10.1038/328033a0
4499:
4493:
4492:
4490:
4488:
4482:
4473:
4464:
4463:
4453:
4443:
4410:
4404:
4394:
4388:
4382:
4371:
4370:
4360:
4351:
4345:
4344:
4342:
4340:
4321:
4315:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4290:
4284:
4283:
4273:
4263:
4231:
4225:
4224:
4222:
4221:
4212:. Archived from
4201:
4195:
4194:
4176:
4159:(7500): 291–92.
4144:
4138:
4137:
4127:
4102:(7500): 385–88.
4087:
4081:
4080:
4068:
4062:
4061:
4024:
4018:
4017:
3977:
3971:
3970:
3942:
3933:
3932:
3913:10.1038/315680a0
3899:(6021): 680–83.
3884:
3878:
3877:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3790:
3784:
3778:
3772:
3771:
3761:
3752:
3746:
3745:
3740:. Archived from
3733:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3722:
3717:on 16 March 2010
3713:. Archived from
3709:Peters, Pamela.
3706:
3700:
3699:
3674:(5451): 303–05.
3662:
3656:
3655:
3645:
3613:
3607:
3606:
3570:
3564:
3563:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3518:
3486:
3480:
3479:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3405:(6669): 806–11.
3383:
3377:
3376:
3366:
3342:
3336:
3335:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3258:
3234:
3225:
3224:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3207:
3192:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3182:
3173:. Archived from
3162:
3156:
3149:
3143:
3136:
3130:
3127:
3121:
3114:
3108:
3107:
3092:Federal Register
3087:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3050:
3023:
3014:
3013:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2976:
2966:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2916:10.1038/304184a0
2902:(5922): 184–87.
2884:
2878:
2877:
2849:
2843:
2842:
2823:10.1038/294092a0
2798:
2792:
2791:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2738:
2728:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2686:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2654:
2644:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2595:
2577:
2548:Escherichia coli
2541:
2535:
2534:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2495:
2485:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2436:
2413:The EMBO Journal
2404:
2398:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2385:. Archived from
2374:
2368:
2367:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2314:
2304:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2204:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2178:
2168:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2119:
2109:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2065:. Archived from
2058:
2052:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2026:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1977:
1967:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1933:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1906:. Archived from
1900:
1894:
1879:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1846:
1840:
1839:
1815:
1809:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1771:
1761:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1712:
1702:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1653:
1643:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1594:
1584:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1535:
1503:
1494:
1493:
1461:
1401:fluorescent gene
1386:World Food Prize
1316:Marc Van Montagu
1135:Further advances
1112:RNA interference
1049:laboratory mouse
998:Asilomar meeting
951:Michael W. Bevan
919:transgenic mouse
801:Escherichia coli
777:Frederick Sanger
745:Hamilton Smith's
500:Fertile Crescent
481:Fertile Crescent
325:
318:
311:
43:
18:
17:
4999:
4998:
4994:
4993:
4992:
4990:
4989:
4988:
4964:
4963:
4957:
4939:
4934:
4933:
4917:10.1038/489484a
4888:
4884:
4869:10.1038/461027a
4863:(7260): 27–32.
4853:
4849:
4835:
4831:
4822:
4820:
4816:
4809:
4803:
4799:
4786:
4785:
4781:
4750:
4746:
4736:
4734:
4724:
4720:
4712:
4708:
4696:
4692:
4677:
4673:
4644:
4640:
4628:
4622:
4618:
4611:
4595:
4591:
4585:Wayback Machine
4575:
4571:
4561:
4559:
4558:. 24 March 1990
4548:
4547:
4540:
4511:(6125): 33–37.
4500:
4496:
4486:
4484:
4480:
4474:
4467:
4426:(15): 4803–07.
4411:
4407:
4395:
4391:
4383:
4374:
4358:
4352:
4348:
4338:
4336:
4323:
4322:
4318:
4308:
4306:
4291:
4287:
4232:
4228:
4219:
4217:
4202:
4198:
4145:
4141:
4088:
4084:
4069:
4065:
4036:(5987): 52–56.
4025:
4021:
3992:(11): 1183–87.
3978:
3974:
3943:
3936:
3885:
3881:
3842:
3838:
3791:
3787:
3779:
3775:
3759:
3753:
3749:
3744:on May 1, 2008.
3734:
3730:
3720:
3718:
3707:
3703:
3663:
3659:
3614:
3610:
3571:
3567:
3540:Tissue Antigens
3536:
3532:
3487:
3483:
3468:
3450:Plant MicroRNAs
3446:
3442:
3384:
3380:
3343:
3339:
3299:
3295:
3276:
3272:
3249:(18): 2258–70.
3235:
3228:
3221:"Knockout Mice"
3219:
3218:
3214:
3205:
3203:
3193:
3189:
3180:
3178:
3163:
3159:
3150:
3146:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3115:
3111:
3088:
3084:
3076:
3068:
3064:
3024:
3017:
2994:
2990:
2935:
2931:
2885:
2881:
2850:
2846:
2809:(5836): 92–94.
2799:
2795:
2756:
2752:
2697:
2693:
2684:
2682:
2673:
2672:
2668:
2613:
2609:
2542:
2538:
2527:
2523:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2468:(10): 2904–09.
2454:
2450:
2419:(12): 2143–50.
2405:
2401:
2392:
2390:
2375:
2371:
2332:
2328:
2273:
2269:
2238:
2234:
2202:
2196:
2192:
2137:
2133:
2092:(17): 5905–08.
2078:
2074:
2059:
2055:
2044:
2040:
1995:
1991:
1944:
1940:
1931:
1929:
1919:
1915:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1880:
1867:
1859:
1855:
1847:
1843:
1836:
1816:
1812:
1801:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1730:
1726:
1671:
1667:
1626:(23): 8878–83.
1612:
1608:
1567:(10): 2904–09.
1553:
1549:
1518:(11): 1515–19.
1512:Current Biology
1504:
1497:
1462:
1458:
1453:
1429:
1237:
1149:micro-injection
1145:electroporation
1137:
1089:Oliver Smithies
1079:was created by
1061:model organisms
1041:
1025:model organisms
989:
983:
927:simian virus 40
915:Rudolf Jaenisch
903:Rudolf Jaenisch
871:recombinant DNA
859:recombinant DNA
848:
826:electroporation
823:
819:
814:bacteriophage λ
775:DNA sequences.
761:recombinant DNA
747:lab discovered
677:William Bateson
643:
637:
620:containing the
616:and the entire
448:
442:
400:Rudolf Jaenisch
329:
287:Séralini affair
182:Recombinant DNA
12:
11:
5:
4997:
4987:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4962:
4961:
4955:
4949:. OUP Oxford.
4938:
4935:
4932:
4931:
4882:
4847:
4829:
4797:
4779:
4760:(6): 1336–43.
4744:
4718:
4706:
4690:
4671:
4638:
4616:
4609:
4589:
4569:
4538:
4494:
4465:
4405:
4389:
4372:
4346:
4316:
4285:
4226:
4196:
4139:
4082:
4077:guardian.co.uk
4063:
4019:
3972:
3934:
3879:
3858:10.1038/nbt783
3836:
3785:
3773:
3747:
3728:
3701:
3657:
3628:(10): 711–20.
3608:
3565:
3546:(5): 393–403.
3530:
3481:
3466:
3440:
3378:
3337:
3316:10.1038/nbt830
3293:
3270:
3226:
3212:
3187:
3157:
3144:
3131:
3122:
3109:
3082:
3062:
3015:
3004:(6): 1435–50.
2988:
2949:(6): 1981–84.
2929:
2892:Chilton, M. D.
2879:
2844:
2793:
2750:
2691:
2679:Science | AAAS
2666:
2627:(4): 1250–54.
2607:
2560:(5): 1293–97.
2550:Transformants"
2536:
2521:
2507:
2448:
2399:
2369:
2326:
2287:(8): 2110–14.
2267:
2232:
2190:
2151:(4): 1021–28.
2131:
2072:
2069:on 2007-10-13.
2053:
2038:
1989:
1938:
1913:
1910:on 2013-01-28.
1895:
1865:
1853:
1841:
1835:978-1598749885
1834:
1810:
1808:, (2010-05-25)
1806:New York Times
1795:
1783:
1724:
1665:
1606:
1547:
1495:
1476:(6): 473–475.
1455:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1428:
1425:
1413:growth hormone
1256:Robert Swanson
1236:
1233:
1201:synthetic life
1178:tissue culture
1141:A. tumefaciens
1136:
1133:
1077:knockout mouse
1040:
1037:
985:Main article:
982:
979:
975:tissue culture
961:by creating a
931:Beatrice Mintz
892:Xenopus laevis
847:
844:
840:A. tumefaciens
821:
817:
792:transformation
725:The bacterium
702:developed the
639:Main article:
636:
633:
579:Charles Darwin
444:Main article:
441:
438:
410:, followed by
406:that produced
388:microinjection
373:Transformation
331:
330:
328:
327:
320:
313:
305:
302:
301:
300:
299:
294:
289:
284:
282:Pusztai affair
279:
274:
266:
265:
261:
260:
259:
258:
253:
248:
247:
246:
233:
232:
228:
227:
226:
225:
224:
223:
218:
211:Genome editing
208:
207:
206:
201:
196:
194:Transformation
186:
185:
184:
174:
166:
165:
161:
160:
159:
158:
157:
156:
151:
140:
139:
131:
130:
126:
125:
124:
123:
122:
121:
116:
111:
106:
95:
94:
93:
92:
87:
82:
71:
70:
65:
57:
56:
50:
49:
45:
44:
36:
35:
27:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4996:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4971:
4969:
4958:
4952:
4948:
4947:
4941:
4940:
4927:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4902:(7417): 484.
4901:
4897:
4893:
4886:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4851:
4845:
4844:
4839:
4833:
4819:on 2021-03-08
4815:
4808:
4801:
4794:. 2019-04-25.
4793:
4789:
4783:
4775:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4748:
4733:
4729:
4722:
4715:
4710:
4703:
4699:
4694:
4686:
4685:New Scientist
4682:
4675:
4666:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4642:
4634:
4627:
4620:
4612:
4606:
4602:
4601:
4593:
4586:
4582:
4579:
4573:
4557:
4556:
4551:
4545:
4543:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4498:
4479:
4472:
4470:
4461:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4409:
4403:
4399:
4393:
4387:
4381:
4379:
4377:
4368:
4364:
4357:
4350:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4320:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4289:
4281:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4246:(1): 106–10.
4245:
4241:
4237:
4230:
4216:on 2017-11-05
4215:
4211:
4207:
4200:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4143:
4135:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4086:
4078:
4074:
4067:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4023:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3986:Biotechnology
3983:
3976:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3953:(3): 337–50.
3952:
3948:
3941:
3939:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3883:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3852:(2): 157–62.
3851:
3847:
3840:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3809:(6): 735–43.
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3795:Agrobacterium
3789:
3782:
3777:
3769:
3765:
3758:
3751:
3743:
3739:
3732:
3716:
3712:
3705:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3661:
3653:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3612:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3581:(6): 469–78.
3580:
3576:
3569:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3534:
3526:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3495:Cell Research
3492:
3485:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3467:9781603270045
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3444:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3419:10.1038/35888
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3382:
3374:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3357:(5): 843–54.
3356:
3352:
3348:
3341:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3310:(6): 645–51.
3309:
3305:
3297:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3274:
3266:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3233:
3231:
3222:
3216:
3202:
3198:
3191:
3177:on 2020-11-12
3176:
3172:
3168:
3161:
3154:
3148:
3141:
3135:
3126:
3119:
3113:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3086:
3075:
3074:
3066:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3022:
3020:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2992:
2984:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2933:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2883:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2848:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2797:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2754:
2746:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2695:
2680:
2676:
2670:
2662:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2611:
2603:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2549:
2540:
2532:
2525:
2517:
2511:
2503:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2444:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2403:
2389:on 2012-10-19
2388:
2384:
2382:
2381:Agrobacterium
2373:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2342:(1): 175–77.
2341:
2337:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2248:(1): 159–62.
2247:
2243:
2236:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2213:(4): 403–30.
2212:
2208:
2201:
2194:
2186:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2135:
2127:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2076:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2050:
2048:
2042:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2009:(2): 245–25.
2008:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1928:
1924:
1917:
1909:
1905:
1899:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1862:
1857:
1850:
1845:
1837:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1822:
1814:
1807:
1804:
1799:
1792:
1787:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1728:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1669:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1610:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1500:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1460:
1456:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1433:Arpad Pusztai
1424:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1378:Robert Fraley
1374:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1314:, founded by
1313:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1245:
1244:Herbert Boyer
1241:
1232:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1174:Agrobacterium
1171:
1170:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1120:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1102:
1101:Knockout rats
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1036:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
988:
978:
976:
972:
971:Agrobacterium
968:
967:Agrobacterium
964:
963:chimeric gene
960:
956:
952:
947:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
908:
904:
899:
895:
893:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
860:
856:
852:
843:
841:
837:
833:
832:
827:
815:
811:
807:
806:Morton Mandel
804:in 1970 when
803:
802:
797:
793:
788:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
738:
734:
730:
729:
723:
719:
717:
716:Francis Crick
713:
709:
705:
704:central dogma
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
682:
678:
674:
673:Hugo de Vries
670:
669:Gregor Mendel
666:
659:
655:
651:
647:
642:
632:
630:
629:mutate plants
625:
623:
619:
615:
611:
608:can transfer
607:
603:
601:
600:allopolyploid
597:
591:
589:
585:
580:
576:
572:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
529:einkorn wheat
526:
522:
518:
514:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
492:einkorn wheat
489:
484:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
465:domestication
457:
452:
447:
437:
435:
431:
430:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
383:
382:Agrobacterium
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
345:Stanley Cohen
342:
341:Herbert Boyer
338:
326:
321:
319:
314:
312:
307:
306:
304:
303:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
269:
268:
267:
264:Controversies
263:
262:
257:
256:Designer baby
254:
252:
249:
245:
242:
241:
240:
237:
236:
235:
234:
230:
229:
222:
219:
217:
214:
213:
212:
209:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
191:
190:
189:Gene delivery
187:
183:
180:
179:
178:
175:
173:
170:
169:
168:
167:
163:
162:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
145:
142:
141:
138:
135:
134:
133:
132:
128:
127:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
101:
100:
97:
96:
91:
88:
86:
83:
81:
78:
77:
76:
73:
72:
69:
66:
64:
61:
60:
59:
58:
55:
52:
51:
47:
46:
42:
38:
37:
34:
33:
29:
28:
24:
20:
19:
16:
4945:
4899:
4895:
4885:
4860:
4856:
4850:
4843:The Guardian
4841:
4832:
4821:. Retrieved
4814:the original
4800:
4791:
4782:
4757:
4753:
4747:
4735:. Retrieved
4731:
4721:
4709:
4704:(6 May 1995)
4701:
4693:
4684:
4674:
4655:
4651:
4641:
4632:
4619:
4599:
4592:
4572:
4560:. Retrieved
4553:
4508:
4504:
4497:
4485:. Retrieved
4423:
4419:
4408:
4401:
4392:
4366:
4362:
4349:
4337:. Retrieved
4333:the original
4328:
4319:
4307:. Retrieved
4302:
4298:
4288:
4243:
4239:
4229:
4218:. Retrieved
4214:the original
4209:
4199:
4156:
4152:
4142:
4099:
4095:
4085:
4076:
4066:
4033:
4029:
4022:
3989:
3985:
3975:
3950:
3946:
3896:
3892:
3882:
3849:
3845:
3839:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3788:
3776:
3767:
3763:
3750:
3742:the original
3731:
3719:. Retrieved
3715:the original
3704:
3671:
3667:
3660:
3625:
3621:
3611:
3578:
3574:
3568:
3543:
3539:
3533:
3498:
3494:
3484:
3449:
3443:
3402:
3398:
3391:Mello, C. C.
3381:
3354:
3350:
3340:
3307:
3303:
3296:
3279:
3273:
3246:
3242:
3215:
3204:. Retrieved
3200:
3190:
3179:. Retrieved
3175:the original
3170:
3160:
3147:
3134:
3125:
3112:
3095:
3091:
3085:
3072:
3065:
3038:
3034:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2946:
2942:
2932:
2899:
2895:
2888:Bevan, M. W.
2882:
2857:
2853:
2847:
2806:
2802:
2796:
2763:
2759:
2753:
2708:
2704:
2694:
2683:. Retrieved
2681:. 2016-11-02
2678:
2669:
2624:
2620:
2610:
2557:
2553:
2547:
2539:
2524:
2510:
2465:
2461:
2451:
2416:
2412:
2402:
2391:. Retrieved
2387:the original
2380:
2372:
2339:
2335:
2329:
2284:
2280:
2270:
2245:
2241:
2235:
2210:
2206:
2193:
2148:
2144:
2134:
2089:
2085:
2075:
2067:the original
2056:
2046:
2041:
2006:
2002:
1992:
1955:
1951:
1941:
1930:. Retrieved
1926:
1916:
1908:the original
1898:
1863:, p. 6.
1856:
1851:, p. 5.
1844:
1820:
1813:
1805:
1798:
1793:, p. 1.
1786:
1741:
1737:
1727:
1682:
1678:
1668:
1623:
1619:
1609:
1564:
1560:
1550:
1515:
1511:
1473:
1469:
1459:
1430:
1390:
1375:
1355:cheese curds
1332:
1301:
1291:
1287:
1263:
1260:somatostatin
1249:
1221:
1205:
1186:
1182:
1173:
1167:
1165:
1157:chloroplasts
1140:
1138:
1121:
1105:
1085:Martin Evans
1058:
1033:
1019:In 1982 the
1018:
990:
970:
966:
948:
935:chimera mice
912:
879:lambda virus
864:
839:
829:
799:
789:
742:
726:
712:James Watson
708:double helix
662:
626:
618:cell nucleus
610:chloroplasts
604:
592:
573:
565:Chalcolithic
557:Horticulture
545:bitter vetch
485:
461:
428:
408:somatostatin
390:. The first
381:
334:
251:Gene therapy
231:Applications
204:Transduction
199:Transfection
136:
30:
15:
4857:Nature News
3151:WHO (1995)
3138:WHO (1993)
3116:WHO (1987)
3041:(1): 2–12.
2860:: 771–812.
1320:Jeff Schell
1292:P. syringae
1288:P. syringae
1216:nucleotides
1161:chloroplast
1129:golden rice
1073:knocked out
1053:knocked out
785:Kary Mullis
773:replicating
757:DNA ligases
563:during the
525:emmer wheat
440:Agriculture
434:golden rice
432:introduced
357:DNA ligases
4968:Categories
4823:2016-01-21
4658:(4): 6–7.
4220:2016-03-08
3721:28 January
3501:(1): 3–5.
3206:2016-01-21
3181:2016-01-21
3027:McHughen A
2685:2016-12-02
2393:2012-10-05
1958:(7): 1–2.
1932:2016-07-11
1891:0226437051
1451:References
1427:Opposition
1421:ocean pout
1397:Zebra fish
1367:bromoxynil
1363:Flavr Savr
1326:(Bt) into
1310:. In 1987
1308:herbicides
1127:-enriched
1012:(EPA) and
981:Regulation
917:created a
836:Ti plasmid
810:Akiko Higa
549:chick peas
517:New Guinea
424:Flavr Savr
377:biolistics
369:sequencing
172:Techniques
144:Regulation
104:Maize/corn
4079:. London.
1490:2768-1572
1252:Genentech
1212:base pair
1125:Vitamin A
1110:in 1993,
1069:oncogenes
943:transgene
907:GM animal
887:kanamycin
867:Paul Berg
855:Paul Berg
494:found in
477:grey wolf
456:grey wolf
4926:23018942
4877:19727179
4774:22361646
4581:Archived
4183:24805244
4134:24805238
4058:20488990
3967:10819519
3874:45925486
3866:12548290
3823:10069079
3770:(33): 3.
3696:10634784
3652:14997337
3603:11674368
3560:23020307
3525:22025251
3476:19802590
3393:(1998).
3387:Fire, A.
3332:32611710
3324:12754522
3302:assay".
3265:17875663
3104:11655807
3057:17956539
3010:11661661
2924:28713537
2874:18284373
2745:15383657
2443:16453482
2364:25214157
2227:13003535
2126:15840723
2003:Genetics
1984:18273413
1778:18697943
1719:25385592
1660:22615366
1542:26004765
1437:research
1382:Monsanto
1351:bacteria
1343:chymosin
1250:In 1976
1222:In 2015
1153:gene gun
1116:nematode
1108:microRNA
1093:oncomice
1008:(USDA),
994:Asilomar
913:In 1974
901:In 1974
865:In 1972
765:Plasmids
731:inserts
718:in 1953.
650:Griffith
635:Genetics
606:Grafting
422:was the
361:plasmids
63:Bacteria
23:a series
21:Part of
4937:Sources
4904:Bibcode
4737:20 June
4533:4310501
4513:Bibcode
4487:17 July
4460:6308651
4428:Bibcode
4339:17 July
4309:17 July
4248:Bibcode
4191:4399670
4161:Bibcode
4125:4058825
4104:Bibcode
4038:Bibcode
4030:Science
4014:3261903
4006:1422049
3929:4354002
3921:3892305
3901:Bibcode
3676:Bibcode
3668:Science
3643:7079917
3595:1369033
3516:3351922
3435:4355692
3427:9486653
3407:Bibcode
3373:8252621
2951:Bibcode
2904:Bibcode
2839:4371351
2831:6945481
2811:Bibcode
2788:6272397
2768:Bibcode
2760:Science
2713:Bibcode
2661:4364530
2629:Bibcode
2602:4576014
2562:Bibcode
2502:4342968
2470:Bibcode
2356:2659971
2321:4559594
2289:Bibcode
2262:4922220
2185:5340583
2153:Bibcode
2117:1087929
2094:Bibcode
2033:1644269
2024:1205000
1975:2218926
1769:2575338
1746:Bibcode
1710:4260561
1687:Bibcode
1651:3384140
1628:Bibcode
1601:4342968
1569:Bibcode
1520:Bibcode
1399:with a
1393:GloFish
1359:Calgene
1328:tobacco
1280:humulin
1274:in the
1268:insulin
1208:plasmid
1197:Synthia
541:lentils
429:Science
412:insulin
164:Process
137:History
114:Soybean
90:Insects
80:Mammals
75:Animals
68:Viruses
4953:
4924:
4896:Nature
4875:
4772:
4607:
4531:
4505:Nature
4458:
4451:384133
4448:
4369:: 393.
4299:Jastia
4278:
4271:382885
4268:
4189:
4181:
4153:Nature
4132:
4122:
4096:Nature
4056:
4012:
4004:
3965:
3927:
3919:
3893:Nature
3872:
3864:
3831:410286
3829:
3821:
3694:
3650:
3640:
3601:
3593:
3558:
3523:
3513:
3474:
3464:
3433:
3425:
3399:Nature
3371:
3330:
3322:
3280:Nature
3263:
3102:
3055:
3008:
2983:806076
2981:
2974:432675
2971:
2922:
2896:Nature
2872:
2837:
2829:
2803:Nature
2786:
2743:
2736:521108
2733:
2659:
2652:388203
2649:
2600:
2593:433482
2590:
2582:
2500:
2493:389671
2490:
2441:
2434:555426
2431:
2362:
2354:
2319:
2312:426879
2309:
2260:
2225:
2183:
2176:224649
2173:
2124:
2114:
2031:
2021:
1982:
1972:
1889:
1832:
1776:
1766:
1717:
1707:
1658:
1648:
1599:
1592:389671
1589:
1540:
1488:
1347:rennet
1264:E.coli
1228:TALENs
1224:CRISPR
1203:form.
1193:genome
883:pSC101
737:genome
684:proved
622:genome
561:Levant
533:barley
506:, and
471:. The
394:was a
349:genome
221:CRISPR
119:Potato
99:Plants
48:
4817:(PDF)
4810:(PDF)
4635:: 31.
4629:(PDF)
4562:1 May
4529:S2CID
4481:(PDF)
4359:(PDF)
4280:85300
4187:S2CID
4010:S2CID
3925:S2CID
3870:S2CID
3827:S2CID
3760:(PDF)
3599:S2CID
3431:S2CID
3328:S2CID
3077:(PDF)
2920:S2CID
2835:S2CID
2584:62105
2580:JSTOR
2360:S2CID
2203:(PDF)
1262:) in
1095:with
769:tools
733:T-DNA
513:Sahel
508:India
504:Egypt
488:emmer
396:mouse
216:TALEN
4951:ISBN
4922:PMID
4873:PMID
4770:PMID
4739:2013
4605:ISBN
4564:2014
4489:2010
4456:PMID
4341:2010
4329:Time
4311:2010
4276:PMID
4179:PMID
4130:PMID
4054:PMID
4002:PMID
3963:PMID
3917:PMID
3862:PMID
3819:PMID
3723:2010
3692:PMID
3648:PMID
3591:PMID
3556:PMID
3521:PMID
3472:PMID
3462:ISBN
3423:PMID
3369:PMID
3351:Cell
3320:PMID
3261:PMID
3100:PMID
3053:PMID
3006:PMID
2979:PMID
2870:PMID
2827:PMID
2784:PMID
2741:PMID
2657:PMID
2598:PMID
2498:PMID
2439:PMID
2352:PMID
2317:PMID
2258:PMID
2223:PMID
2181:PMID
2122:PMID
2029:PMID
1980:PMID
1956:2007
1887:ISBN
1830:ISBN
1774:PMID
1715:PMID
1656:PMID
1597:PMID
1561:PNAS
1538:PMID
1486:ISSN
1441:2013
1395:, a
1318:and
1226:and
1087:and
957:and
875:SV40
808:and
714:and
698:and
553:flax
551:and
537:peas
490:and
386:and
367:and
355:and
343:and
244:food
109:Rice
85:Fish
4912:doi
4900:489
4865:doi
4861:461
4792:FDA
4762:doi
4660:doi
4521:doi
4509:328
4446:PMC
4436:doi
4303:447
4266:PMC
4256:doi
4169:doi
4157:509
4120:PMC
4112:doi
4100:509
4046:doi
4034:329
3994:doi
3955:doi
3909:doi
3897:315
3854:doi
3811:doi
3801:".
3684:doi
3672:287
3638:PMC
3630:doi
3583:doi
3548:doi
3511:PMC
3503:doi
3454:doi
3415:doi
3403:391
3359:doi
3312:doi
3284:doi
3251:doi
3043:doi
2969:PMC
2959:doi
2912:doi
2900:304
2862:doi
2819:doi
2807:294
2776:doi
2764:214
2731:PMC
2721:doi
2709:101
2647:PMC
2637:doi
2588:PMC
2570:doi
2488:PMC
2478:doi
2429:PMC
2421:doi
2344:doi
2340:216
2307:PMC
2297:doi
2250:doi
2215:doi
2171:PMC
2161:doi
2112:PMC
2102:doi
2090:102
2019:PMC
2011:doi
2007:131
1970:PMC
1960:doi
1764:PMC
1754:doi
1742:105
1705:PMC
1695:doi
1683:111
1646:PMC
1636:doi
1624:109
1587:PMC
1577:doi
1528:doi
1478:doi
692:DNA
658:DNA
473:dog
4970::
4920:.
4910:.
4898:.
4894:.
4871:.
4859:.
4840:.
4790:.
4768:.
4758:30
4730:.
4700:.
4683:.
4656:54
4654:.
4650:.
4631:.
4552:.
4541:^
4527:.
4519:.
4507:.
4468:^
4454:.
4444:.
4434:.
4424:80
4422:.
4418:.
4400:.
4375:^
4367:16
4365:.
4361:.
4327:.
4301:.
4297:.
4274:.
4264:.
4254:.
4244:76
4242:.
4238:.
4208:.
4185:.
4177:.
4167:.
4155:.
4151:.
4128:.
4118:.
4110:.
4098:.
4094:.
4075:.
4052:.
4044:.
4032:.
4008:.
4000:.
3988:.
3984:.
3961:.
3949:.
3937:^
3923:.
3915:.
3907:.
3895:.
3891:.
3868:.
3860:.
3850:21
3848:.
3825:.
3817:.
3807:16
3805:.
3768:18
3766:.
3762:.
3690:.
3682:.
3670:.
3646:.
3636:.
3626:22
3624:.
3620:.
3597:.
3589:.
3577:.
3554:.
3544:80
3542:.
3519:.
3509:.
3499:22
3497:.
3493:.
3470:.
3460:.
3429:.
3421:.
3413:.
3401:.
3397:.
3367:.
3355:75
3353:.
3349:.
3326:.
3318:.
3308:21
3306:.
3282:.
3259:.
3247:21
3245:.
3241:.
3229:^
3199:.
3169:.
3096:51
3094:.
3051:.
3037:.
3033:.
3018:^
3002:51
3000:.
2977:.
2967:.
2957:.
2947:72
2945:.
2941:.
2918:.
2910:.
2898:.
2868:.
2858:59
2856:.
2833:.
2825:.
2817:.
2805:.
2782:.
2774:.
2762:.
2739:.
2729:.
2719:.
2707:.
2703:.
2677:.
2655:.
2645:.
2635:.
2625:71
2623:.
2619:.
2596:.
2586:.
2578:.
2568:.
2558:70
2556:.
2552:.
2496:.
2486:.
2476:.
2466:69
2464:.
2460:.
2437:.
2427:.
2415:.
2411:.
2358:.
2350:.
2338:.
2315:.
2305:.
2295:.
2285:69
2283:.
2279:.
2256:.
2246:53
2244:.
2221:.
2211:32
2209:.
2205:.
2179:.
2169:.
2159:.
2149:57
2147:.
2143:.
2120:.
2110:.
2100:.
2088:.
2084:.
2027:.
2017:.
2005:.
2001:.
1978:.
1968:.
1954:.
1950:.
1925:.
1868:^
1828:.
1826:40
1772:.
1762:.
1752:.
1740:.
1736:.
1713:.
1703:.
1693:.
1681:.
1677:.
1654:.
1644:.
1634:.
1622:.
1618:.
1595:.
1585:.
1575:.
1565:69
1563:.
1559:.
1536:.
1526:.
1516:25
1514:.
1510:.
1498:^
1484:.
1472:.
1468:.
1447:.
1330:.
1163:.
1147:,
1083:,
1047:A
953:,
763:.
694:.
612:,
571:.
547:,
543:,
539:,
535:,
531:,
527:,
515:,
483:.
379:,
371:.
25:on
4959:.
4928:.
4914::
4906::
4879:.
4867::
4826:.
4776:.
4764::
4741:.
4687:.
4668:.
4662::
4613:.
4566:.
4535:.
4523::
4515::
4491:.
4462:.
4438::
4430::
4343:.
4313:.
4282:.
4258::
4250::
4223:.
4193:.
4171::
4163::
4136:.
4114::
4106::
4060:.
4048::
4040::
4016:.
3996::
3990:5
3969:.
3957::
3951:3
3931:.
3911::
3903::
3876:.
3856::
3833:.
3813::
3725:.
3698:.
3686::
3678::
3654:.
3632::
3605:.
3585::
3579:8
3562:.
3550::
3527:.
3505::
3478:.
3456::
3437:.
3417::
3409::
3375:.
3361::
3334:.
3314::
3290:.
3286::
3267:.
3253::
3209:.
3184:.
3106:.
3059:.
3045::
3039:6
3012:.
2985:.
2961::
2953::
2926:.
2914::
2906::
2876:.
2864::
2841:.
2821::
2813::
2790:.
2778::
2770::
2747:.
2723::
2715::
2688:.
2663:.
2639::
2631::
2604:.
2572::
2564::
2533:.
2504:.
2480::
2472::
2445:.
2423::
2417:2
2396:.
2379:"
2366:.
2346::
2323:.
2299::
2291::
2264:.
2252::
2229:.
2217::
2187:.
2163::
2155::
2128:.
2104::
2096::
2035:.
2013::
1986:.
1962::
1935:.
1893:.
1838:.
1780:.
1756::
1748::
1721:.
1697::
1689::
1662:.
1638::
1630::
1603:.
1579::
1571::
1544:.
1530::
1522::
1492:.
1480::
1474:2
1380:(
909:.
822:2
818:2
739:.
523:(
458:.
324:e
317:t
310:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
