1154:, Tarso Tieroko and Ehi Yéy; the collapse of these structures formed the first calderas. This phase also saw the formation of the Bounaï lava dome and Tarso Voon. To the east, the lava flows formed the large plateaus of Tarso Emi Chi, Tarso Ahon and Tarso Mohi. Emi Koussi increased in height. The fourth phase saw the formation of Tarso Toussidé and the lava flows of Tarso Tôh in the west, the collapse of the caldera on the summit of Tarso Voon and associated ejecta deposits in the center, and the decline in lava production in the east, with the exception of Emi Koussi, which continued to rise. In the fifth phase, volcanic activity became much more localized and lava production continued to wane. Calderas formed on top of Tarso Toussidé and Emi Koussi, and the lava domes Ehi Sosso and Ehi Mousgou appeared. Finally, in the sixth phase, Pic Toussidé formed on the western rim of several pre-Trou au Natron calderas, along with new lava flows, including Timi on the northern slope of Tarso Toussidé. With scarce time for erosion, these lava flows have a dark, youthful appearance.
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772:
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1268:. For example, between 1957 and 1968, Bardaï, on the northern flank of the range, saw an average of 12 mm (0.47 in) of precipitation annually, yet some years were completely dry while others saw 60 mm (2.4 in) of rainfall. In general, the range receives less than 20 mm (0.79 in) of rainfall per year. However, precipitation increases with altitude; for example Trou au Natron 2,250 m (7,380 ft) receives 126 mm (5.0 in) annually. When the rainfall coincides with low temperatures, it can fall as snow. This occurs, on average, once every seven years.
871:. The water mainly originates from the storms that periodically rage over the mountains. Their flow is highly variable. For example, the largest wadi, named Bardagué (or Enneri Zoumeri on its upstream portion) and located in the northern part of the range, recorded a flow of 425 m/s (15,000 cu ft/s) in 1954, yet over the next nine years it experienced four years of total drought, four years of flow less than 5 m/s (180 cu ft/s) and one year where three different flow rates were measured: 4, 9 and 32 m/s (140, 320 and 1,130 cu ft/s).
662:
426:, the supply of which is highly variable from year-to-year and decade-to-decade. The plateaus are used to graze livestock in the winter and harvest grain in the summer. Temperatures are high, although the altitude ensures that the range is cooler than the surrounding desert. The Toubou, who were settled in the range by the 5th century BC, adapted to these conditions and turned the range into a large natural fortress. They arrived in several waves, taking refuge in times of conflict and dispersing in times of prosperity, although not without intense internal hostility at times.
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3147:
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167:
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1158:
2639:, from the Tomagra clan, although never from the same family consecutively. Historically, individual clans rarely had more than a thousand members and were quite dispersed throughout the Tibesti. In 2009, the population of the Tibesti was officially estimated at 21,000 inhabitants. As of 2017, that number has risen to 54,000 inhabitants. Yet the Toubou, in general, are semi-nomadic, moving between the mountains and other regions, and thus the Tibesti may have no more than 10,000 to 15,000 permanent residents.
49:
841:
760:
875:
654:(9,882 ft) Timi on its western side, the 2,972-meter (9,751 ft) Tarso Yega, the 2,925-meter (9,596 ft) Tarso Tieroko, the 2,849-meter (9,347 ft) Ehi Mousgou, the 2,845-meter (9,334 ft) Tarso Voon, the 2,820-meter (9,250 ft) Ehi Sunni, and the 2,774-meter (9,101 ft) Ehi Yéy near the center of the range. The 3,376-meter (11,076 ft) Mouskorbé is a peak notable for its height in the northeastern part of the mountain range. The 2,266-meter (7,434 ft)
2786:
Emmeouia) in the north. The
Tibesti then played the role of an impregnable mountain stronghold for the newcomers. Meanwhile, constant migration between the north and southwest of Chad, along with significant mixing of the populations, forged a significant degree of cohesion among the Toubou ethnicities. Periods of territorial expansion in the 10th and 13th centuries and periods of recession in the 15th and 16th centuries likely coincided with more or less pronounced wet and dry periods.
1997:
2147:
578:
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745:
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680:, which culminates in the peak of the same name. Several of these peaks are topped with large calderas. Tarso Yega has the largest caldera, with a diameter of 19 to 20 km (12 to 12 mi) and a depth of approximately 300 m (980 ft), while Tarso Voon has the deepest caldera, with a depth of approximately 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and a diameter of 12 to 13 km (7.5 to 8.1 mi). They are complemented by four large
3092:, at the request of Tombalbaye, intervened in an attempt to put an end to the rebellion. However, French General Edouard Cortadellas admitted their attempts to quell the Toubou were essentially hopeless, remarking, "I believe we should draw a line below and leave them to their stones. We can never subdue them." The French therefore focused their intervention on the center and east of the country, leaving the Tibesti region largely alone.
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3229:. In 2005, under pressure from Libya, the "most legitimate" MDJT faction signed a peace agreement with the Chadian government, yet the war continued, albeit at a lower intensity. From 2009 to 2010, the last of the MDJT rebels surrendered to the Chadian government. The legacy of decades of war continues to burden the Tibesti with a lack of government, a warrior culture, and a landscape strewn with thousands of landmines.
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3221:(ANT) were particularly violent between 1998 and 2002, resulting in the deaths of between 500 and 850 MDJT rebels and a comparable number of ANT soldiers at locales across northern Chad, including Bardaï. Although civilian casualties were relatively limited, many civilians were killed and injured by landmines, and the war resulted in the displacement of a large portion of the local population.
3178:(GUNT) forces. Goukouni then established a National Peace Government in Bardaï and proclaimed it the legitimate government of Chad. Habré attacked the GUNT in the Tibesti in both December 1982 and January 1983 but was repelled on both occasions. Although fighting intensified over the next several months, the mountains remained under the control of the GUNT and Libyan forces.
3694:. Around 200 engraving sites and 100 painting sites have been identified. Many date as early as the 6th millennium BC, long before the arrival of the Toubou. The art has suffered the effects of time, including weathering from sand blown by the wind. The earliest works often portray animals that have since died out in the region due to
3004:, a Senussi revolt forced the Italians to temporarily withdraw from the Fezzan and the northeastern part of the Tibesti. Likewise, fierce resistance from the Toubou forced the French troops to retreat southward from the Tibesti in 1916. After a period of internal disorder, the Tibesti was reconquered by the
1173:, and the formation of the Era Kohor crater are the most recent volcanic activities on Emi Koussi. Presently, there are reports of volcanic activity in various parts of the massif, including hot springs at the Soborom geothermal field and fumaroles on Tarso Voon, Yi Yerra near Emi Koussi and Pic Toussidé.
2601:
Aderké, or from the town of Aouzou via Irbi. These rough tracks extend southward towards Yebbi Souma and Yebbi Bou, and then follow the course of Enneri Misky. The eastern half of the
Tibesti is cut off from the western half, and the eastern village of Aozi is accessible from Libya via Ouri. Zouar has an
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were being raised in the range. Since the droughts of the 1970s and 1980s, dromedaries have come to dominate at the expense of cattle. Most animals spend the winter on the plateaus or in the high valleys. They descend into the lower valleys in
February, just after the sowing of wheat, and then return
3224:
Between 1998 and 2010 the MDJT had established a weak government in the
Tibesti region, functionally independent from that of Chad. In 2002, however, weakened by its isolation in the Tibesti and from a series of military defeats, the MDJT split into several factions following the death of its leader,
3127:
Another rift formed between
Goukouni and Habré, which by 1976 had spread to the Second Liberation Army, leaving one side commanded by Habré and the other commanded by Goukouni and supported by Libya. In June 1977, Goukouni's forces attacked the Chadian government stronghold in Bardaï. The rebels also
3038:
After many discussions during the 1920s, in 1935 the Franco-Italian
Agreement was signed between Benito Mussolini and Pierre Laval, which included a provision under which Italy would receive the Aouzou strip, which was to be added to Libya. France's other motivations in concluding this agreement with
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to the north of Emi Koussi, and the 1,200 km (460 sq mi) Tarso Mohi. In the center is Tarso Ourari at about 700 km (270 sq mi). To the west, in the vicinity of Tarso
Toussidé, is the aforementioned Tarso Tôh, a small plateau at just 490 km (190 sq mi), and
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who first entered the range in 1914 and took control of the area in 1929. The independent spirit of the Toubou and the geopolitics of the region has complicated the exploration of the range as well as the ascent of its peaks. Tensions continued after Chad and Libya gained independence in the mid-20th
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destined for Europe. Nevertheless, the gold discovery has benefited the impoverished region economically. Many
Tibesti residents have been able to purchase goods such as cars, televisions and satellite telephones that they could not otherwise afford. "If by the grace of God, gold had not appeared we
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By 1986, following a series of military defeats, the GUNT had begun to disintegrate along with relations between
Goukouni and Libya. In December, Goukouni was arrested by the Libyans, which spurred his troops to attack Libyan positions in the Tibesti, forcing the Libyans to withdraw. Libya sought to
3034:
The Aouzou strip was defined for the first time in the discussions between France and Italy after World War I, in relation to an award to Italy for the victory in that war. At the Paris Peace
Conference, 1919, the Kingdom of Italy did not receive any of the German colonies, but instead was given the
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The Toubou settled in the Tibesti in several waves. Generally, newcomers either killed or absorbed the previous clans after battles that were often both long-lasting and bloody. The Teda clans, considered indigenous to the area, were first established around Enneri Bardagué. Namely, these clans were
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The town of Bardaï, located on the northern flank of the mountains at an elevation of 1,020 m (3,350 ft), is the capital of the Tibesti region. It is connected to the town of Zouar, to the southwest, by a track that crosses Tarso Toussidé. The village of Omchi is accessible from Bardaï via
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Volcanic activity in the Tibesti took place in several phases. In the first phase, uplift and extension of the Precambrian basement occurred in the central area. The first structure to be formed was probably Tarso Abeki, followed by Tarso Tamertiou, Tarso Tieroko, Tarso Yega, Tarso Toon and Ehi Yéy.
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beds sometimes contain sequential pools of water that remain largely unexplored. The water is replenished several times a year during flooding, and salinity levels are low. The Mare de Zoui is a small permanent body of water 600 m (2,000 ft) above sea level, located in the northern part of
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after several days of soaking. As of the latest analysis, in 1992, Mare de Zoui and its surroundings were rarely visited, aside from a nearby oasis. However, there are numerous small oases on the plains of Borkou, near Emi Koussi, which are extensively exploited. This water is thought to be sourced
3190:
into the Tibesti. The offensive started successfully, expelling the GUNT from its key strongholds. The attack ultimately backfired, however, as it resulted in the prompt reaction of Habré, who sent 2,000 soldiers to support the GUNT forces. Although the Libyans were only partially repelled from the
3072:
imposed its administrative and judicial authority in the Tibesti. Mere days after the withdrawal of French troops from the region, rebellion erupted in Bardaï, followed by numerous small battles over subsequent months and a more significant battle in Bardaï in September. In response, the Tombalbaye
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in the southwest. These later Daza arrivals include the Arna Souinga in the south, Gouboda in the center-west, Tchioda and Dirsina in the west, Torama in the northwest and center-east, and the Derdekichia (literally, "descendants of the chief," the products of a union between an Arna Souinga and an
1060:
and, in places, to the Holocene. Due to the comparatively slow movement of the African Plate—roughly between 0 and 20 mm (0 and 0.8 in) per year since the Lower Miocene—there is no relationship between the age of the volcanoes and their dimensions, geographic distribution or alignment, in
3042:
This policy failed two years later after Italy drifted into the German orbit by concluding the Pact of Steel with Nazi Germany, leading to the "instruments of ratification" of the Mussolini-Laval Treaty never being exchanged with France. Despite this the new border was conventionally assumed to be
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Several clans with traditions similar to those of the Donzas of the Borkou region, south of the Tibesti, settled in the range in the 16th and 17th centuries. These include the Keressa and Odobaya in the west, Foctoa in the northwest and northeast, and Emmeouia in the north. Several other clans—the
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blocks. In the highlands, the buildings were built of stone, forming circles 1.5 m (5 ft) in diameter and one meter (3 ft) high, which served as shelters for goats, or as granaries, or as human shelters and defense structures. In other cases, the Toubou lived in tents that could be
684:
complexes, 1,300 to 2,000 m (4,300 to 6,600 ft) high and several km wide, all located in the central part of the mountain range: Tarso Tieroko; Ehi Yéy; Ehi Mousgou; and Tarso Abeki, which rises to 2,691 m (8,829 ft) above sea level. These volcanic complexes are now considered
2628:, one of the two ethnicities of the Toubou people. However, some clans are Daza, the other Toubou ethnicity, who left their traditional homes in the lowlands to the south and moved north to the Tibesti. The Toubou live primarily in northern Chad, but also in southern Libya and eastern Niger. The
644:
The range is 480 km (300 mi) in length, 350 km (220 mi) in width, and spans 100,000 km (39,000 sq mi). It draws a large triangle with sides of 400 km (250 mi) and vertices facing south, northwest and northeast in the heart of the Sahara, making it the
1271:
The average monthly maximum temperature is 28 °C (83 °F) in the central Tibesti Mountains, while the average monthly minimum is 12 °C (53 °F). Lows of −10 °C (14 °F) are not uncommon. Bardaï, located 1,020 m (3,350 ft) above sea level, experiences average
938:
The Yi Yerra hot springs is located on the southern flank of Emi Koussi at about 850 m (2,800 ft) elevation. Water emerges from the springs at 37 °C (99 °F). A dozen hot springs are also located at the Soborom geothermal field on the northwest side of Tarso Voon, where water
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and thus related to the Mogharba Arab tribes, although an alternative hypothesis is that they are of Bideyat origin. Following years of conflict, a branch of the Mahadena clan, the Fortena, withdrew to the western margin of the Tibesti. The Fortena Mado ("Red Fortena") settled there, while the
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crumbling rock wall and were forced to descend. Following this defeat, they took the opportunity to climb Emi Koussi, 19 years after its first ascent by Thesiger, and also Pic Woubou, a prominent spire located between Bardaï and Aouzou. Seven years later, in 1965, a team led by the Englishman
3365:
expedition that sought to conquer Tarso Tieroko, which Thesiger had described as "probably the most beautiful peak in Tibesti". After climbing two peaks situated on a ridge to the north, they attempted Tieroko, but just 60 m (200 ft) from the summit, they were faced with a vertical,
3321:
Although the Tibesti is one of the world's most significant examples of intracontinental volcanism, ongoing political instability and the presence of landmines means that, today, geologic research often must be conducted on the basis of satellite images and comparison with research on Martian
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was the first European to explore, albeit with great difficulty, the Tibesti in 1869. While Nachtigal provided an accurate description of the population, his expedition was fiercely opposed by the Toubou, and his account discouraged any new adventure into the Tibesti for over 40 years. Later
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Italy were to settle the status of the Italian Tunisian community in its protectorate of the country, to remove irredentist Italian claims to Nice, and to prevent Italy from growing closer to Nazi Germany by keeping it closely aligned with France and the United Kingdom (the Stresa Front).
653:
The highest peak in the Tibesti Mountains, as well as the highest point in Chad and the Sahara Desert, is the 3,415-meter (11,204 ft) Emi Koussi, located at the southern end of the range. Other prominent peaks include Pic Toussidé at 3,296 m (10,814 ft) and the 3,012-meter
721:
was an active volcano in the early Holocene. The volcanic area of the Tibesti Mountains is located entirely in Chad; it covers about a third of the total area of the Tibesti Mountains and is responsible for between 5,000 and 6,000 km (1,200 and 1,400 cu mi) of rock.
3642:. They include exposure to Toubou cultural traditions and to the Tibesti's rock and parietal art. Continuing civil unrest and the presence of landmines pose a danger to tourists, and, despite the occasional tour group, the Tibesti remains one of the most isolated places on Earth.
3119:
to negotiate with the rebels, but he was captured by the rebels and executed in April 1975. Marc Combe was able to escape in May 1975. The remaining hostages were released in January 1977 in Tripoli after France acceded to the rebel's ransom demand. The hostage incident, known as
1204:. The phases of erosion and sendimentation are indicative of the climate alternating between dry and wet conditions, the latter of which fostered vegetation in the Tibesti that was likely significantly denser than that which exists today. Furthermore, the discovery of calcified
3637:
As of 2017, there are essentially only two tour operators in Chad, run by Chadians and Italians and both based in N'Djamena, which offer all the tours that exist in Chad, including trips to the Tibesti. Tours are typically multi-week affairs, with tourists accommodated in
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or "hunters of well water"), and possibly the Ederguia, although the Ederguia's origin may be Zaghawa and only go back to the 17th century. These clans controlled the palm groves, and made a peace pact with the Tomagra, a nearby clan of camel herders who practiced
1272:
temperatures ranging between 4.6 and 23.7 °C (40.3 and 74.7 °F) in January, between 14.4 and 34 °C (57.9 and 93.2 °F) in April, and between 19.4 and 36.7 °C (66.9 and 98.1 °F) in August. The combination of high temperatures and low
3506:). The dates are harvested between late July and early August. In winter, when reserves are depleted, it is not uncommon for the cores of the dates and the fiber of the palms to be ground into a paste and consumed. Some native palm species remain, such as the
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Benda, Peter; Spitzenberger, Friederike; Hanák, Vladimír; Andreas, Michal; Reiter, Anontín; Ševčík, Martin; Šmíd, Jiří; Uhrin, Marcel (2014). "Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) of the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. Part 11. On the bat fauna of Libya II".
3745:, or traditional knives. Still others portray celebrations and scenes from everyday life. The walls of a canyon near Bardaï have engravings that measure over 2 meters (7 ft) in height, including that of the "man of Gonoa", Gonoa being the name of the
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Suayah, Ismail B.; Miller, Jonathan S.; Miller, Brent V.; Bayer, Tovah M.; Rogers, John J.W. (2006). "Tectonic significance of Late Neoproterozoic granites from the Tibesti massif in southern Libya inferred from Sr and Nd isotopes and U–Pb zircon data".
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Soulié-Märsche, Ingeborg; Bieda, Stephen; Lafond, R.; Maley, Jean; M'Baitoudji, Mathieu; Vincent, Pierre M.; Faure, Hugues (2010). "Charophytes as bio-indicators for lake level high stand at 'Trou au Natron', Tibesti, Chad, during the Late Pleistocene".
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There is evidence of early Daza settlements in the Tibesti; however, these early clans—the Goga, Kida, Terbouna and Obokina—were assimilated into later Daza clans, who arrived in the Tibesti between the 15th and 18th centuries, possibly having fled the
907:, as does Enneri Miski a little further to the east, along with other wadis such as the Enneri Korom and Enneri Aouei. Several rivers flow radially on the southern slopes of the Emi Koussi before seeping into the sands of Borkou and then reemerging at
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3601:
As the Sahara's highest mountain range, with geothermal features, a distinctive culture, and numerous rock and parietal artworks, the Tibesti has tourism potential. However, tourist accommodations are limited at best. In the early 2010s, the French
824:. After often-violent rains, they see the formation of ephemeral streams and flora. The southern, southwestern and eastern slopes of the mountain range have a gentle rise, while the northern slope of the range is a cliff overlooking the vast Libyan
7545:
Baseline Study C: Etude de l'état des instruments politiques, capacités institutionnelles et niveaux de sensibilisation en relation avec les changements climatiques et les aires protégées en Afrique de l'Ouest: Gambie, Mali, Sierra Leone, Tchad et
2829:
The Tuareg people intermixed with the Toubou clans, especially with the early Goga clan, which produced the Gouboda, and with the later Arna clan, which produced the Mormorea. In both instances, the new clans were placed under the authority of
1617:, a disjunct mountain range that also rises from the Sahara 650 km (400 mi) to the east. Most of the ecoregion remains unexplored due to its remoteness and persistent political instability, yet it is known to contain a number of
2977:, the Senussi allied with the Ottoman Empire and, at the request of the Derdé, the Turks established garrisons in Tibesti beginning in March 1911. These garrisons fell apart a few months later when the Toubou attacked the Turkish troops.
658:, the highest point in Libya, is nearby, on the other side of the border. The average elevation of the Tibesti Mountains is about 2,000 m (6,600 ft); sixty percent of its area exceeds 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in elevation.
902:
that runs from Tarso Tieroko in the west to Tarso Mohi in the east. The Enneri Tijitinga is the longest wadi in the range, flowing some 400 km (250 mi) southward. It forms in the west of the range and peters out in the
2057:
The vegetation above 2,600 meters (8,500 feet) consists of dwarf shrubs, which are generally limited to 20 to 60 cm (8 to 24 in) in height and do not exceed one meter (3 ft). The shrubbery consists of the species
8870:
Maley, Jean (2000). "Last Glacial Maximum lacustrine and fluviatile Formations in the Tibesti and other Saharan mountains, and large-scale climatic teleconnections linked to the activity of the Subtropical Jet Stream".
3249:. Violence has also arisen as a result of disputes between the miners themselves; for example, around 100 people were killed in May 2022 over a "banal dispute" between miners. The increased migration has also increased
771:
8859:
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in the Tibesti are limited. In 2006, various non-governmental working groups proposed a protected area to preserve the area's rhim gazelle and Barbary sheep populations. The protected area would be modeled after the
1867:, it has not been thoroughly studied. To the south and southwest of the range, between 1,600 and 2,300 m (5,200 and 7,500 ft) elevation, the wadis support woody species characteristic of the Sahel, such as
1142:
The product of this early volcanic activity has been completely obscured by later eruptions. In the second phase, the volcanic activity moved north and east, forming Tarso Ourari and the ignimbrite bases of the vast
3217:. Numbering around 1,000 fighters at its peak between 2000 and 2001, and financed by Libyan Teda clans and the Libyan government, the MDJT was able to take control of several towns in the Tibesti. Battles with the
454:
century, with hostage-taking and armed struggles occurring amid disputes over the allocation of natural resources. The geopolitical situation and the lack of infrastructure has hampered the development of tourism.
3191:
Tibesti, the broader campaign was a great strategic victory, as it transformed a civil war into a national war against a foreign invader, stimulating a sense of national unity never before seen in Chad. After a
2777:. It was upon the agreement to this pact at the end of the 16th century that power was consolidated under the Derdé, the principal regulator of the clans, whose appointment is always made from the Tomagra clan.
1633:, serving as a sort of refuge, allowing plants to grow untrammeled and animals to roam unmolested. Nevertheless, hunting is unregulated in the region, and vegetation has suffered from overgrazing in the past.
2632:
has two main dialects, Tedaga, spoken by the Teda, and Dazaga, spoken by the Daza. Despite their differences, the two Toubou groups generally identify as a single ethnic group. The Toubou elect a chief, the
3103:, a Daza leader, emerged from the Tibesti to form the Second Liberation Army. In April 1974, the Second Liberation Army captured Bardaï from the Chadian government and took hostage the French archeologist
9141:
2817:, their leader was initially rejected by the Daza clans and lived in isolation until winning the favor of a Dirsina woman. The Mahadena occupy the northeast quarter of the range and are likely from the
2711:, explored the territory of the Tibesti Mountains with, or under the charge of, the king of Garamantes. The Tibesti are suspected by modern historians to have been part of an unidentified country named
1169:
The Trou au Natron and Doon Kidimi craters have formed even more recently, with the former dissecting the earlier Toussidé calderas. Lava flows, minor pyroclastic deposits, and the appearance of small
860:
of Lake Chad. However, none of the rivers travel long distances, as the water evaporates in the desert heat or seeps into the ground, although the latter may flow great distances through subterranean
3170:, located in southern Chad and controlled by Habré. N'Djamena was toppled in December; however, under considerable international pressure, Libya withdrew from southern Chad in late 1981, and Habré's
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found throughout the range, which date back several millennia, even before the arrival of the Toubou. The isolation of the Tibesti has sparked the cultural imagination in both art and literature.
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retires early, before reaching the Tibesti, leaving its southern portion dry. In the arid northern Tibesti, where the monsoon has little influence, storms are caused by episodic Sahara-Sudanese
8988:
2084:) grows from moist crevices formed by early lava flows, while 24 different species of moss provide substrate for the tree heath. Various genera of mosses also grow around fumaroles, including
9369:
Rapport de mission: Prospections des zones prioritaires de conservation pour les Antilopes Sahélo-Sahariennes au Tchad, et identification de programmes de conservation/développement durable
8484:
Public sitting held on Friday 2 July 1993, at 10 a.m., at the Peace Palace, President Sir Robert Jennings presiding in the case concerning Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad)
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The Tibesti Mountains have inspired several contemporary works of art and literature. The volcanic spires of the Tibesti, along with a stylized sheep's head, were displayed on a 20
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began a campaign of territorial conquest across northern Africa from its regional headquarters in Libya, yet was unable to subdue the Tibesti. In 1890, to the chagrin of the Turks,
3128:
attacked Zouar. These battles resulted in the death of 300 government troops. Bardaï surrendered to the rebels on July 4, while Zouar was evacuated. The Chadian government, led by
8830:
9152:
Pegram, William J.; Register, Joseph K. Jr.; Fullagar, Paul D.; Ghuma, Mohamed A.; Rogers, John J. W. (1976). "Pan-African ages from a Tibesti Massif batholith, southern Libya".
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with broad bases whose diameter can reach 80 km (50 mi): Emi Koussi; Tarso Toon, which rises 2,575 m (8,448 ft) above sea level; Tarso Voon; Tarso Yega; and
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3626:, there was considerable hope that they would also open the gates for tourism in the Tibesti. For example, the Chadian government invested in a tourist camp along with walled
8850:
8212:
Geniez, Philippe; Padial, José M.; Crochet, Pierre-André (2011). "Systematics of north African Agama (Reptilia: Agamidae): a new species from the central Saharan mountains".
8058:(1964). "Note sur la datation de l'expédition de Julius Maternus au pays d''Agisymba'" [Note on the dating of Julius Maternus' expedition to the land of "Agisymba"].
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7659:
2688:, when denser paleovegetation facilitated human habitation. The Toubou were settled in the region by the 5th century BC and eventually established trade relations with the
399:
has shaped volcanic spires and carved an extensive network of canyons through which run rivers subject to highly irregular flows that are rapidly lost to the desert sands.
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Ferrari, Massimo; Tinazzi, Claudia; D’Erchia, Annalucia (2020). "New Foundation Cities". In Aste, Niccolò; Della Torre, Stefano; Talamo, Cinzia; Singh Adhikari, Rajendra;
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postage stamp issued by Republic of Chad in 1962. In 1989, French painter and sculptor Jean Vérame used the natural surroundings of the Tibesti to create multidimensional
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9439:
Schultze-Motel, Wolfram (1969). "Eine Moossammlung Aus Dem Tibesti-Gebirge (Nordafrika)" [A Collection of Bryophytes from the Tibesti Mountains (North Africa)].
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that runs through the valley. These primarily show hunting scenes. The Tibesti art is unique in the Sahara because of the absence of inscriptions, the relative lack of
3377:
ascended a peak in the massif of the Aiguilles of Sissé which, despite rising only 800 ft (240 m) above ground level, proved "very difficult". The Englishman
7533:
8079:
El Makkrouf, Ali Ahmed (1988). "Tectonic interpretation of Jabal Eghei area and its regional application to Tibesti orogenic belt, south central Libya (S.P.L.A.J.)".
7568:
3788:. In the story, a local guide offers to show a traveler the walls of a great city that is absent from the maps. The city is exceedingly opulent, yet exists in total
3241:. The arrival of migrants has led to violent conflicts with the Teda locals, a problem exacerbated by an influx of weaponry to the region due to the ongoing wars in
2953:
signed a declaration recognizing a French zone of influence in northern Africa from the Mediterranean Sea down to Lake Chad. In response, the Toubou allied with the
1730:
8590:
2010:
are found on the slopes, plateaus and the upper portions of the wadis at elevations between 1,800 and 2,700 m (5,900 and 8,900 ft). They are dominated by
732:
10525:
1921:
3132:
since Tombalbaye's overthrow in 1975, signed a peace agreement with Habré in 1978, although fighting with other rebel groups, many aligned with Libya, continued.
9128:
2018:
10515:
10201:
9856:
6664:
2050:
9367:
7902:
10485:
3659:
to the south. However, due to economic and political barriers, the project has not moved beyond the proposal stage. Nevertheless, the establishment of two
2066:
2024:
8602:
3162:, a 114,000-square-kilometer (44,000 sq mi) borderland between Chad and Libya that extends into the Tibesti Mountains and is rumored to contain
10211:
3111:
and Marc Combe, an assistant to Claustre's husband, and held them in the mountains. Staewen's wife and two soldiers of the Chadian army were killed. The
2060:
2038:
3081:. Kichidemi went into exile in Libya the following year and became a national symbol in Chad for opposition to the government. These events sparked the
3031:
the strip was occupied by french troops. Libya gained its independence from Italy in 1947, and was released from British and French oversight in 1951.
985:, which is about 130 to 140 km (81 to 87 mi) thick. This tectonic uplift may have been accompanied by the opening, and subsequent closure via
10377:
9074:
7279:
2072:
1224:, which increased precipitation and reduced evaporation due to lower temperatures. In fact, the Tibesti supplied a considerable amount of water to the
8476:
6843:
3585:
in June to allow harvest. Fishing is possible in the water holes. Traditionally, agricultural product was traded once a year in exchange for fabrics.
2794:
people who immigrated from the Ennedi Plateau, southeast of Tibesti, around the same time. The Mada, however, have since largely emigrated to Borkou,
10231:
10053:
8967:
8118:
3473:
The Soborom geothermal field, the name of which means "healing water", is known to locals for its medicinal qualities; its pools are rumored to cure
9295:
Roos, Christian; Knauf, Sascha; Chuma, Idrissa S.; Maille, Audrey; Callou, Cécile; Sabin, Richard; Portela Miguez, Roberto; Zinner, Dietmar (2021).
1688:, such as Enneri Yebige, which is virtually unexplored. These oases, which are more numerous to the north and west of the range, are scattered with
10357:
9023:
8774:
3498:
do not abound, they support several villages, such as Zouar where, by the 1950s, indigenous plant species had been largely replaced by some 56,000
3175:
10500:
8456:
8323:
7375:
3303:
10440:
8523:
8293:
8276:
8244:
7556:
7126:
5158:
335:, the highest peak in Libya, is located in the north of the range. The central third of the Tibesti is of volcanic origin and consists of five
9842:
10465:
10455:
10382:
2957:
Arabs of Libya and agreed that the southern half of the Tibesti could serve as a fallback base for the Senussi in their struggle against the
1610:
1244:, but rainfall events are highly variable from year to year. In the south of the range, this variation is largely due to oscillations of the
166:
94:
9808:
9563:
8291:
Gourgaud, Alain; Vincent, Pierre M. (2004). "Petrology of two continental alkaline intraplate series at Emi Koussi volcano, Tibesti, Chad".
8280:
217:
10046:
9934:
7122:
5128:
9341:
9027:
8811:
3298:, lived among the Teda of Tibesti between 1933 and 1935. Le Cœur was the first to closely study the Tibesti populace, but the outbreak of
1200:
and fine sand. This alternation highlights repeated changes in the dominant fluvial or wind patterns in the valleys of Tibesti during the
548:
precedes high plateaus and gently-sloping mountainsides. For example, the Ehi Mousgou is a 2,849-meter (9,347 ft) stratovolcano near
7663:
3852:
2950:
1657:
8820:
1146:, as well as Emi Koussi to the southeast. Thereafter, during the third phase, the outpouring of lava and ejecta deposits increased from
997:, although partially obscured by the volcanic product, has two distinct orientations: a NNE-SSW alignment that could be an extension of
552:. The name Toussidé means "that which killed the Tou," as in the Toubou, reflecting the danger of the still active volcano. The name of
3210:
9772:
7987:
3318:
research station in Bardaï; however, research was slowed due to the Chadian Civil War, and the station was ultimately closed in 1974.
9912:
9301:
8728:
7970:
7734:
7418:
2913:
9670:
3634:, the French government pressured tour operators to prevent French tourists from venturing into the Sahara, and the flights ended.
3358:, which scaled both the peak and needle of Botoum, at 2,400 m (7,900 ft) and 2,000 m (6,600 ft), respectively.
9877:
8675:
Kaiser, Karlheinz (1972). "Der känozoische Vulkanismus im Tibesti—Gebirge" [Cenozoic Volcanism in the Tibesti Mountains].
7667:
3656:
9012:
Ministère des Affaires étrangères et du Développement international, direction des Archives (pôle géographique) (December 2016).
6564:
759:
8452:
9674:
9035:
Musch, Tilman (2021). "Exploring Environments through Water: An Ethno-Hydrography of the Tibesti Mountains (Central Sahara)".
7345:
3174:(FAN) took control of the entirety of Chad with the exception of the Tibesti, where Goukouni retreated with his Libyan-backed
2992:
entered the Tibesti in early 1914 from Kaouar. The region was at the heart of a dispute between the colonial powers, with the
2790:
Mogode in the west, Terintere in the north, Tozoba in the center, and Tegua and Mada in the south—are originally clans of the
2715:, and Maternus's expedition may have been part of a broader military campaign by Garamantes against the populace of Agisymba.
9850:
9732:
9520:
9497:
9474:
9404:
9285:
9256:
9106:
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8408:
8252:
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7951:
7891:
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7237:
1605:
of the Tibesti Mountains is distinguishable from that of the surrounding desert. As such, the mountains lie within their own
8507:
7515:
3851:
It is unlikely that the earlier vegetation was significantly qualitatively different from that which exists today, although
10392:
8932:(1973). "Problems of vertical and horizontal arrangement in the high mountains of the extreme arid zone (central Sahara)".
7590:
7552:
4212:
2609:. Bardaï also has a hospital, although the medical supply is very much dependent upon the prevailing political situation.
10025:
9750:
9154:
8575:
6677:
1062:
701:, is 8 km (5.0 mi) in diameter and 768 m (2,520 ft) deep. On the northwest side of Tarso Voon is the
9251:
6818:
2898:
3996:
Although the plot of "Le Mura di Anagoor" takes place in the Tibesti, at least one English translation has moved it to
3166:
deposits. In 1980, Libya used the strip as a base from which stage an attack, led by Goukouni, on the Chadian capital,
331:, lies to the south at a height of 3,415 meters (11,204 ft) and is the highest point in both Chad and the Sahara.
9799:"Scientific Exploration of the Tibesti Mountains: Cologne Researcher Headed Mission to the Peaks of the Sahara Desert"
9738:
7460:
Baldur, Gabriel (2018). "Exploration of the Tibesti Mountains – Re-appraisal after 50 years". In Runge, Jürgen (ed.).
3391:
attempt. Due to the unstable political situation, mountaineering in the Tibesti remains a challenging endeavor today.
3277:
Due to its isolation and geopolitical situation, the Tibesti Mountains were long unexplored by scientists. The German
2883:
1768:) grow between elevations of 1,500 and 2,300 m (4,900 and 7,500 ft) in the western part of the range, while
894:, while Enneri Touaoul joins the south-flowing Enneri Ke to form Enneri Miski, which then disappears in the plains of
10793:
10613:
9724:
9594:
8911:
8081:
3204:
2654:
studies show Toubou, particularly around palm groves, living in primitive round huts built with stone walls bound by
1260:
that blows west or southwest from the Sahara Desert, and brings rainfall to southern Tibesti. However, sometimes the
3338:
Although not an alpine climb, Gustav Nachtigal ascended to 2,400 m (7,873 ft) elevation as he traversed a
2864:
1294:
10798:
9927:
9828:
8696:
Kappen, Josef (1973). "Chapter 10: Response to Extreme Environments". In Ahmadjian, Vernon; Hale, Mason E. (eds.).
8154:
7755:
3246:
890:
Other major rivers cut into the mountains: the Enneri Yebige flows northward until its riverbed disappears on the
9380:
3057:
2961:. As the Sennussis' influence moved southward, so did their headquarters, which in 1899 was moved to the town of
856:
Five rivers in the northern half of the Tibesti Mountains flow to Libya, while the southern half belongs to the
8612:
8586:
8491:
5159:"Climatic Research Unit (CRU) time-series datasets of variations in climate with variations in other phenomena"
3695:
1245:
1216:
fossils in Trou au Natron indicates the presence of a lake at least 300 m (1,000 ft) deep during the
1177:
deposits in the Trou au Natron and Era Kohor craters are also representative of more recent volcanic activity.
8514:
2809:
to the northeast. The Taïzera settled in the plateau in the center and west of the mass, probably fleeing the
8018:
3115:
government quickly paid the ransom and Staewen was released. The French government sent the military officer
1248:(ITCZ), which steadily moves northward toward northern Chad from November until August, accompanied by humid
9064:
8145:
7271:
3792:
and does not submit to higher authority. The traveler waits many years, in vain, to enter the Tibesti city.
3530:), which are collected in October to extract the bitter seeds which, after being washed, are ground to make
2848:
693:. Tarso Toussidé is an active volcano that has spewed lava over the past two millennia. Gases escaping from
9698:
Provisional map of the Tibesti region. Borkou, Erdi, Ennedi, (mission of the Institut de France, 1912–1917)
9098:
8495:
3187:
2708:
2557:
2506:
807:
deposits. The plateaus are larger and more numerous in the east: the 7,700 km (3,000 sq mi)
210:
87:
8729:"From Bardai to SFB 69: The Tibesti Research Station and Later Geoscientific Research in Northeast Africa"
8129:
6814:
10818:
9920:
9693:
Carte provisoire de la région Tibesti. Borkou, Erdi, Ennedi, (mission de l'Institut de France, 1912–1917)
9533:
8873:
8263:
8188:
7966:
7730:
7414:
3663:
in northern Chad in 2012 and 2016 has renewed hope that a similar feat might be achieved in the Tibesti.
3322:
volcanoes. Little public geologic research had been conducted in the Tibesti Mountains until the work of
3141:
1280:
rates, ranging from 129 mm (5 in) in January to 254 mm (10 in) in May, parching many
8766:
3928:
surrounding the Tibesti would have allowed chariots to pursue those who came to plunder the palm groves.
3741:
Other engravings portray warriors dressed in feathers or spiked ornaments and armed with bows, shields,
744:
10813:
10803:
10788:
10778:
10206:
9137:
8934:
7922:
7496:
2549:
9942:
8448:
5431:
3023:'s Libya in 1935, but it was not fully ratified by the french government. Italian troops settled in a
10808:
10583:
7855:
7695:
7529:
5166:
3311:
3171:
3035:
Oltre Giuba from Great Britain, and France agreed to give some Saharan territories to Italian Libya.
2313:
1661:
8999:
Mies, Bruno; Lösch, Rainer (1995). "Relative habitat constancy of lichens on the atlantic islands".
7360:
7118:
4701:
2742:
referred to the "country of the Berdoa", meaning Bardaï, the former associating the Toubou with the
10823:
10783:
9628:
8630:
8354:
8328:
7943:
7683:
7369:
4900:
4737:
4706:
4033:
3556:, but the crops are spotty and sometimes swept away by flooding. In the 1950s, in total, including
3426:
have also been found. The mountains and their surroundings could contain significant quantities of
3009:
2379:
450:
9723:(in French). Vol. I: Aux sources de l'agriculture africaine: de la Préhistoire au Moyen Âge.
3544:
is practiced on a small scale using traditional irrigation methods. The palm groves can also grow
816:
the even smaller Tarso Tamertiou at 98 km (38 sq mi). The plateaus are strewn with
811:, the 6,500 km (2,500 sq mi) Tarso Aozi, the 3,000 km (1,200 sq mi)
9798:
9189:
8267:
7442:
4905:
4742:
4711:
4038:
3362:
3082:
2321:
686:
17:
7468:. Paleoecology of Africa. Vol. 34: The African Neogene – Climate, Environments and People.
5132:
1005:; however, the relationship between these fault systems has not been conclusively demonstrated.
10603:
10573:
10304:
9824:
9355:
9277:
9013:
8791:
7704:
7355:
6847:
5435:
5162:
3482:
from the Tibesti Mountains, from where it flows underground before surfacing at these springs.
3387:
3005:
2530:
1587:
1220:. These phenomena are associated with various changes in climate, most notably during the last
1161:
Satellite image of the more recent lava rock, in black, with Toussidé volcano (center) and the
904:
446:
6762:
3730:
and sheep. Later works, dated less than 2000 years old, portray domesticated animals, such as
3069:
931:. Supplied by sources upstream of the wadi, in heavy rains it overflows and spills into small
10618:
10598:
10138:
9794:
9441:
9069:
3237:
Gold was discovered in the Tibesti Mountains in 2012, attracting prospectors from across the
1277:
9167:
3266:
3104:
1085:
formations that extend tens of kilometers and stack up to 300 m (1,000 ft) thick.
10269:
10226:
9637:
9603:
9542:
9198:
9163:
8882:
8639:
8553:
8363:
8302:
8090:
7850:
3607:
3422:
was long known to exist in small quantities, substantial deposits were discovered in 2012.
3385:, the highest peak in Libya at 2,266 m (7,434 ft), in 2005, capping a successful
2966:
2958:
2707:
based in present-day Libya. Between AD 83 and 92, a Roman traveler, likely a trader, named
2221:
2117:
1967:
1817:
1680:
or the Ennedi Plateau, although the vegetation's coverage is highly dependent on rainfall.
922:, wetlands that accumulate water mainly during storms. Above 2,000 m (6,600 ft),
713:
has stained the surrounding soil bright colors. Fumaroles are also present at the Yi Yerra
8751:
8628:
Jäkel, Dieter (1977). "The Work of the Field Station at Bardai in the Tibesti Mountains".
7962:
7726:
7410:
4438:
3518:
are collected, ground and consumed, despite their low nutritional value. The banks of the
799:), located between 1,000 and 2,800 m (3,300 and 9,200 ft) elevation, as well as
8:
10742:
10693:
10608:
10299:
10173:
10116:
9987:
9691:
8976:
8825:
8352:(1960). "Geomorphology of the Tibesti Region with Special Reference to Western Tibesti".
8349:
8125:
7910:
3660:
3651:
3355:
3354:, in 1938. In 1948, the Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research mounted an expedition under
2498:
2367:
2012:
2000:
1946:
1776:) grows at similar elevations in its northern part. Downstream, where the current of the
1094:
702:
254:
9641:
9607:
9546:
9202:
8886:
8643:
8367:
8306:
8094:
3326:; however, an expedition in 2015 sought to assess the feasibility of establishing a new
3226:
3209:
Following a decade of relative peace, in late 1997 the Tibesti saw the formation of the
3068:
Chad gained independence from France in 1960, and in 1965 the Chadian government led by
2273:
10757:
10727:
10678:
10673:
10490:
10279:
10216:
10158:
9867:
9701:
9653:
9450:
9328:
9226:
9214:
9052:
8951:
8709:
8663:
8607:
8379:
8200:
8176:
8067:
8043:
8035:
7777:
7699:
7646:
3917:
3875:
3378:
3108:
3100:
2997:
2989:
2782:
2719:
2592:
2446:
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2048:
dot this environment. On the sheltered upper slopes of Emi Koussi is the endemic grass
1876:
1717:
1009:
473:, have adapted to the mountains, yet the climate has not always been as harsh. Greater
266:
10563:
10038:
8894:
8762:
8314:
3466:
is present and was reportedly mined by the ancient Libyan civilization of Garamantes.
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9493:
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8963:
8943:
8915:
8743:
8713:
8655:
8527:
8435:
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8404:
8248:
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8166:
8102:
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7947:
7914:
7887:
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7807:
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7582:
7500:
7473:
7446:
7395:
3981:
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3623:
3614:, some 200 kilometers (120 mi) southeast of the Tibesti, and established direct
3078:
2974:
2403:
2395:
2213:
2109:
2108:, though rare in the dry climate of the Tibesti, also grow at these elevations, with
1900:
1793:
1229:
1201:
1134:
1074:
1045:
1002:
634:
364:
9900:
9830:
La Végétation de l'Afrique: Mémoire accompagnant la carte de végétation de l'Afrique
9554:
9218:
8449:
War since 1945 Seminar: Conflict in Chad, 1975 to Present: A Central African Tragedy
7517:
Du sable sec à la montagne humide, deux terrains à l'épreuve d'une même méthodologie
7062:
7060:
7058:
7056:
3839:
3253:, with the Tibesti lying along the trans-Saharan smuggling route for South American
2703:
Herodotus further remarked on a conflict between the Toubou and the civilization of
778:
661:
10653:
10628:
10623:
10294:
10274:
10221:
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10130:
10111:
10101:
9992:
9962:
9666:
9645:
9623:
9611:
9550:
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9206:
9171:
9124:
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8890:
8846:
8803:
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8647:
8562:
8558:
8371:
8310:
8223:
8158:
8098:
8027:
7860:
7759:
7713:
7709:
7691:
6545:
3951:
3912:, p. 36) reasons that these were the Toubou, as troglodytes are by definition
3866:
3603:
3347:
3315:
3278:
3270:
3218:
3195:
in northeastern Chad, Libyan forces withdrew fully from the Tibesti in March 1987.
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3020:
2689:
2655:
2643:
2577:
2514:
2297:
2289:
1954:
1836:
1709:
1217:
927:
the mountains in the wadi of the Enneri Bardagué, 10 km (6.2 mi) east of
792:
630:
10553:
9906:
9297:"New mitogenomic lineages in Papio baboons and their phylogeographic implications"
8566:
7299:
7297:
5081:
4828:
4756:
4511:
4499:
3282:
expeditions carried out between 1920 and 1970 yielded valuable information on the
3129:
1677:
402:
Tibesti, which means "place where the mountain people live", is the domain of the
10828:
10722:
10558:
10425:
10397:
10284:
10178:
10163:
10153:
10148:
10075:
9755:
9415:
9376:
9090:
8904:
Les enjeux géopolitiques et géostrategiques de l'exploitation du pétrole au Tchad
8537:
8472:
8432:
High mountain research: Tibesti-Central-Sahara work from the high mountain region
8114:
7827:
7636:
7391:
7053:
6977:
6975:
6973:
6763:"Expeditions supported by the SFAR: Swiss Expedition in Tibesti – Central Sahara"
4919:
3925:
3121:
3063:
2791:
2651:
2545:
2522:
2490:
2454:
2237:
2201:
1868:
1741:
1221:
1181:
1070:
994:
967:
899:
857:
825:
602:
533:
502:
9048:
8428:
Hochgebirgsforschung: Tibesti-Zentrale Sahara arbeiten aus der Hochgebirgsregion
8162:
5468:
5466:
5464:
5239:
5237:
5235:
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4670:
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939:
emerges at temperatures ranging between 22 and 88 °C (72 and 190 °F).
553:
10737:
10688:
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10643:
10545:
10520:
10342:
10289:
10264:
10259:
10254:
9571:
8929:
8770:
8400:
8393:
Sahara : paléomilieux et peuplement préhistorique au Pléistocène supérieur
8269:
Foxes, Wolves, Jackals, and Dogs: An Action Plan for the Conservation of Canids
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7883:
7831:
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7141:
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4368:
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557:
442:
312:
295:
31:
9431:
9210:
8397:
Sahara: paleoenvironments and prehistoric populations in the Upper Pleistocene
8227:
8016:(1984). "Representation and Knowledge in the Prehistoric Rock Art of Africa".
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6970:
4599:
4597:
3972:
At least one other source reports that the name instead means "boiling water".
3214:
3146:
2805:
The early 17th century also saw the arrival of three clans from the region of
2540:
The gueltas are flushed periodically each year by stormwater, maintaining low
10772:
10683:
10638:
10578:
10535:
10530:
10322:
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4584:
4582:
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summited the highest mountain in the range, the 3,415-meter (11,204 ft)
3339:
3242:
2751:
2739:
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2617:
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1614:
1309:
1296:
1261:
1241:
1225:
1053:
1041:
998:
979:
808:
706:
638:
622:
529:
490:
470:
403:
232:
219:
109:
96:
9467:
The Ogre: Biography of a Mountain and the Dramatic Story of the First Ascent
8807:
8548:
8418:
7586:
4931:
4840:
4804:
4653:
4651:
4365:
4343:
4341:
4339:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4331:
4329:
4167:
4165:
4163:
4161:
4159:
4157:
4122:
3924:
neighboring the Tassili n'Ajjer are unsuitable for chariots, while the flat
2838:
Tuareg, although they were eventually assimilated into the Toubou majority.
820:
and are separated by canyons that have been formed by the irregular flow of
10495:
10480:
10470:
10415:
10387:
10372:
10367:
10337:
10143:
10106:
10090:
10007:
9982:
9972:
9710:
9324:
8908:
The geopolitical and geostrategic issues of the exploitation of oil in Chad
8821:"The most beautiful country in the world that you're not supposed to visit"
8147:
Innovative Models for Sustainable Development in Emerging African Countries
8110:
7819:
7789:
7729:[Bardaï, village garrison in the heart of the desert] (in French).
7687:
6999:
6521:
6509:
6228:
6118:
6116:
6114:
6075:
4624:
4594:
4559:
4477:
4475:
4473:
4471:
4469:
4467:
4465:
4316:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4308:
4295:
4293:
4291:
4217:
4098:
3913:
3900:
near a "mound of salt, water and palm trees", being pursued by four-horsed
3785:
3707:
3611:
3541:
3523:
3515:
3299:
3250:
3167:
3159:
3151:
3016:
2970:
2875:
2799:
2301:
2181:
2100:
1929:
in the area. Other plants have more Mediterranean characteristics, such as
1892:
1812:
1673:
1650:
1240:
The Tibesti climate is substantially less dry than that of the surrounding
1078:
1066:
1029:
971:
960:
952:
610:
474:
466:
7965:[1974–1977 The Claustre affair and break with Habré] (in French).
6533:
5266:
4571:
4088:
4086:
4084:
4082:
2734:
described the Toubou in the 14th century. In the 15th and 16th centuries,
1157:
718:
10593:
10510:
10450:
10435:
10362:
10327:
9967:
9872:
9269:
9234:
8688:
7940:
In the Museum of Man: Race, Anthropology, and Empire in France, 1850–1950
6051:
4648:
4326:
4154:
3880:
3573:
3382:
3112:
3089:
3001:
2962:
2871:
2855:
2731:
2647:
2625:
2474:
2423:
2329:
2205:
1983:
1856:
1669:
1170:
1082:
1057:
1025:
982:
714:
655:
564:, which means "red pass," signifying the color of the mountains at dusk.
332:
48:
9835:
The Vegetation of Africa: Report accompanying a vegetation map of Africa
8204:
8071:
8039:
7650:
6587:
6342:
6185:
6111:
5650:
4994:
4852:
4462:
4450:
4305:
4288:
2757:
2684:
There is evidence of human occupation of the Tibesti dating back to the
2146:
1996:
677:
352:
10732:
10717:
10430:
10188:
9657:
9462:
9454:
9315:
9296:
9242:
8955:
8667:
8383:
8031:
7383:
7160:
6568:
6099:
6063:
5349:
4079:
3905:
3703:
3478:
3474:
3367:
3351:
3327:
3295:
3258:
would not even have anything to eat", remarked one Tibesti prospector.
3192:
2818:
2735:
2704:
2462:
2345:
2265:
2134:
2090:
1930:
1908:
1828:
1705:
1646:
1641:
1622:
1257:
1205:
1151:
1147:
1106:
986:
951:
Satellite image of the volcanic field on Tarso Tôh, which includes 150
908:
812:
800:
751:
697:
on Toussidé are visible when evaporation is low. The volcano's crater,
666:
549:
380:
348:
344:
340:
328:
287:
70:
9773:
Tubu Trouble: State and Statelessness in the Chad–Sudan–Libya Triangle
7489:
Anarchie et cohésion sociale chez les Toubou: les Daza Kéšerda (Niger)
7185:
7077:
7075:
6487:
6485:
6458:
6446:
6434:
5579:
5557:
5555:
5553:
3676:
3576:
can drink. In the 1950s, it was reported that goats and, more rarely,
2700:", and described them as having a language akin to the "cry of bats".
2642:
Traditional Toubou life is punctuated by the seasons, divided between
1803:
Around the edge of the Tibesti, where the canyons exit the range, are
840:
10752:
10747:
10708:
9120:
8487:
7803:
7752:
Across the Sahara: Tracks, Trade and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Libya
7522:
Dry sand to damp mountain, two sites tested with the same methodology
7469:
6652:
3893:
3770:
3619:
3564:
each year. On the plains of Borkou, some fields are irrigated, where
3534:. Women are customarily responsible for gathering wild grains on the
3507:
3499:
3470:
is mined today, and is an important source of income for the Toubou.
3463:
3447:
3408:
3287:
2924:
2822:
2697:
2693:
2685:
2411:
2359:
2337:
2007:
1989:
1977:
1844:
1804:
1725:
1253:
1213:
1209:
1174:
1049:
1037:
1033:
990:
817:
681:
626:
415:
376:
368:
360:
356:
259:
9649:
9063:
8651:
8375:
7066:
6611:
5844:
5526:
5256:
5254:
5252:
3182:
retake Bardaï and Zouar, and sent a task-force of 2,000 troops with
928:
898:. Their basins are separated by an 1,800-meter (5,900 ft) high
577:
54:
10445:
9512:
9489:
9396:
9187:(2007). "Volcanoes of the Tibesti massif (Chad, northern Africa)".
8701:
7641:
7466:
International Yearbook of Landscape Evolution and Paleoenvironments
7072:
6878:
6497:
6482:
6470:
6422:
6383:
6158:
5638:
5567:
5550:
5373:
4276:
3774:
3750:
3719:
3699:
3691:
3680:
3631:
3627:
3593:
3495:
3443:
3435:
3412:
2831:
2712:
2541:
1938:
1761:
1701:
1697:
1322:), approximately 1,200 m (3,900 ft) elevation, 1901–2009
1273:
1110:
1102:
1090:
1086:
738:
Satellite image of Tarso Toon (top right) and Ehi Yéy (bottom left)
694:
690:
478:
430:
384:
372:
299:
291:
279:
271:
9712:
Histoire de la recherche agricole en Afrique tropicale francophone
9391:
Salam, Mustafa J.; Hammuda, Omar S.; Eliagoubi, Bahlul A. (1991).
8551:(2006). "Agisymba". In Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.).
7493:
Anarchy and social cohesion among the Toubou: Daza Kešerda (Niger)
6844:"Fastest time to climb the highest peaks in all African countries"
6719:
6039:
6000:
3941:, p. 290), this populace was "in all probability" the Toubou.
3158:
In 1978, war broke out between Chad and Libya ostensibly over the
2635:
1780:
is slower and the riverbed is deeper, there are dense thickets of
9011:
8324:"Miracle in the Sahara: Oasis Sediments Archive Dramatic History"
8214:
6743:
6175:
6173:
5935:
5887:
5472:
5449:
5249:
3901:
3829:
Temperatures in the Tibesti can drop to −10 °C (14 °F).
3789:
3742:
3723:
3715:
3711:
3639:
3439:
3427:
3423:
3283:
3254:
3163:
3024:
2954:
2747:
2743:
2355:
2308:), found as recently as 1960, are now likely extirpated as well.
2245:
2157:
1863:
spp.) grows in the open water. Although the lake appears rich in
1625:
species. Indeed, the isolation of the region is a benefit to its
1618:
1602:
1249:
1017:
1013:
932:
861:
582:
438:
434:
396:
363:
sandstone. The volcanic activity was the result of a continental
336:
9365:
8984:
7918:
7147:
6929:
6410:
6400:
6398:
6361:
6359:
6357:
5947:
5662:
4982:
4399:
4397:
3622:. Although the flights mainly brought tourists destined for the
2296:) formerly roamed the range, although these populations are now
10420:
10246:
10126:
9065:"Nine extraordinary tours to Africa's unlikeliest destinations"
8506:
Hughes, Ralph H.; Hughes, Jane S.; Bernacsek, Garry M. (1992).
7189:
7164:
7020:
7018:
7016:
7014:
6895:
6893:
6330:
6306:
6294:
5626:
5400:
5361:
5327:
5325:
4208:
3897:
3817:
3727:
3684:
3581:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3549:
3459:
3074:
3008:
in 1929, and the region was placed under the administration of
2985:
2946:
2890:
2835:
2826:
Fortena Yasko ("Black Fortena") pushed further west to Kaouar.
2795:
2676:
2391:
2197:
2105:
1689:
1189:
1118:
1098:
1021:
975:
919:
895:
879:
874:
804:
710:
525:
423:
392:
388:
316:
283:
275:
77:
6669:
6667:
6170:
5726:
4535:
4428:
4426:
4424:
4422:
4420:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4412:
3916:, the only caves near the described location are those of the
3404:
3346:
during his exploration of the Tibesti in 1869. The Englishman
911:
up to 400 km (250 mi) south of the summit, near the
585:
satellite image of the Tibesti Mountains viewed from the south
9977:
9951:
9945:
8391:
Hagedorn, Horst (1997). "Tibesti". In Tillet, Thierry (ed.).
8139:
7351:
7303:
7220:
7218:
6695:
6395:
6354:
6087:
5911:
5716:
5714:
5604:
5602:
5600:
5598:
5596:
5594:
5283:
5173:
4394:
4110:
3997:
3758:
3754:
3735:
3577:
3553:
3545:
3531:
3491:
3238:
3124:", caused a rift between the French and Chadian governments.
2981:
2920:
2806:
2773:
2727:
2612:
2569:
2363:
2253:
2165:
2161:
1926:
1736:
1681:
1665:
1630:
1626:
1606:
618:
594:
462:
458:
419:
411:
324:
203:
9486:
Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia
9390:
9252:"Title to the Aouzou Strip: A Legal and Historical Analysis"
8505:
8237:
La Réserve Naturelle Nationale de l'Aïr et du Ténéré (Niger)
7321:
7011:
7005:
6981:
6890:
6017:
6015:
5322:
5277:
5243:
4768:
4688:
4676:
4657:
4642:
4630:
4603:
4588:
4565:
4517:
4347:
4171:
4104:
3896:
described "Aethiopian troglodytes", located "ten days" from
947:
10314:
9095:
Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad
7413:[The "captive of the desert" is dead] (in French).
6371:
6318:
5222:
5220:
5218:
5216:
5214:
5212:
4943:
4409:
3731:
3569:
3560:, the Tibesti produced 300 metric tons (330 short tons) of
3467:
3455:
3451:
3419:
3302:
prevented him from publishing his research. French Colonel
3183:
2965:
on the southeast flank of the range. The Senussi founded a
2928:
2810:
2659:
2442:
2431:
1972:
1693:
1197:
1193:
1185:
956:
845:
821:
590:
407:
320:
199:
9717:
History of agricultural research in French tropical Africa
7309:
7215:
6987:
6960:
6958:
6956:
6792:
6027:
5990:
5988:
5986:
5899:
5820:
5738:
5711:
5701:
5699:
5697:
5695:
5693:
5691:
5689:
5674:
5591:
4972:
4970:
4876:
4780:
4614:
4612:
4144:
4142:
1676:
and endemism levels are higher in the Tibesti than in the
1129:
1121:, viscous lavas could be a sign of a waning mantle plume.
10668:
9182:
8241:
The National Nature Reserve of the Aïr and Ténéré (Niger)
8109:
6782:
6780:
6713:
6348:
6284:
6282:
6267:
6234:
6206:
6204:
6202:
6200:
6191:
6133:
6131:
6122:
6105:
6081:
6069:
6057:
6012:
5971:
5959:
5923:
4937:
4925:
4870:
4858:
4846:
4834:
4822:
4810:
4762:
4505:
4493:
4481:
4456:
4444:
4376:
4320:
4299:
4182:
4180:
4133:
4092:
3580:
numbered 50,000 heads, while 8,000 dromedaries and 7,000
3431:
3028:
2309:
2233:
1811:). The banks of Mare de Zoui are home to dense stands of
477:
existed in the past, as evidenced by scenes portrayed in
8191:; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1987). "Nachtigal's Companions".
7043:
7041:
7039:
7037:
7035:
7033:
6642:
6640:
6638:
6565:"Around 100 dead in clashes between gold miners in Chad"
5796:
5337:
5209:
5104:
5092:
3780:
The Tibesti range was featured in the 1958 short story "
3073:
government imposed travel and trade restrictions on the
970:
that, according to contemporary theory, resulted from a
727:
The other four shield volcanoes of the Tibesti Mountains
10068:
7963:"1974–1977 L'affaire Claustre et la rupture avec Habré"
7859:(in French). Vol. 21. Édisud. pp. 3231–3234.
7099:
6953:
6905:
6623:
6148:
6146:
5983:
5875:
5865:
5863:
5861:
5859:
5686:
5390:
5388:
4967:
4955:
4609:
4266:
4264:
4139:
1611:
Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands ecoregion
1609:, the 82,000-square-kilometer (31,700 sq mi)
1093:
are also found in the volcanic layer. More recently in
781:
showing Pic Toussidé (the center of the dark spot) and
9866:
8261:
7347:
Document 10.2: Annex 6c: Uromastyx dispar Heyden, 1827
6917:
6777:
6279:
6245:
6243:
6216:
6197:
6164:
6128:
5832:
5808:
5769:
5759:
5757:
5755:
5753:
5538:
5514:
5502:
5355:
5312:
5310:
4547:
4382:
4177:
3963:
The two peaks are "The Imposter" and "Hadrian's Peak."
3838:
Pic Toussidé is the highest point on the high plateau
3261:
2936:
2312:
are heavily represented in the Tibesti, including the
1971:
is found around the wadis at these elevations, as are
613:
and 1,500 kilometers (930 mi) south-southeast of
9793:
9529:
7581:(in French). Centre national d'appui à la recherche.
7462:
The African Neogene: Climate, Environments and People
7252:
7030:
6941:
6866:
6725:
6635:
5614:
5412:
5295:
5197:
5035:
5033:
5000:
4792:
4239:
4237:
4235:
4057:
4055:
2663:
easily moved between the fields and the palm groves.
641:
lies 1,800 km (1,100 mi) to the southwest.
637:
is 1,900 km (1,200 mi) to the east and the
9770:
8290:
7081:
6884:
6683:
6617:
6599:
6593:
6551:
6539:
6527:
6515:
6503:
6491:
6476:
6464:
6452:
6440:
6143:
5856:
5656:
5644:
5585:
5573:
5561:
5532:
5490:
5385:
5185:
5018:
5006:
4282:
4261:
3323:
3077:
and voided the traditional power of the then Derdé,
1052:, although most of the volcanic rock dates from the
886:, 500 km (300 mi) southeast of the Tibesti
517:
roughly translates to "people of the mountains" and
9344:[The Tibesti, bastion of our Black Africa]
7203:
7119:"Safety and security – Chad travel advice – GOV.UK"
7087:
6824:
6255:
6240:
5786:
5784:
5750:
5307:
4523:
4353:
4249:
4067:
3784:" ("The Walls of Anagoor") by the Italian novelist
3213:(MDJT), a rebel group opposed to Chadian president
2596:
Map of the Tibesti and surrounding area (in French)
705:, which contains mud pools and fumaroles that vent
556:, the principal town in the range, means "cold" in
7433:
6731:
5455:
5139:
5030:
4232:
4052:
3820:communicate by whistling or because they run fast.
2761:Distribution of the clans of the Tibesti Mountains
2726:negroes", or camel herders, that had converted to
1656:The flora in the Tibesti is Saharomontane, mixing
8187:
7824:Restless Nights: Selected Stories of Dino Buzzati
7570:Pages d'histoire naturelle de la terre tchadienne
7343:
6658:
5478:
5406:
5129:"Climate Data for Latitude 21.25 Longitude 17.75"
3606:company Point-Afrique financed the repair of the
1073:seamount chains. This phenomenon is also seen in
1001:, and a NW-SE alignment that could extend to the
609:, around 1,000 kilometers (620 mi) north of
10770:
9771:Tubiana, Jérôme; Gramizzi, Claudio (June 2017).
9506:
8477:"The Reactions of Chad to the Libyan Occupation"
7749:
7276:Encyclopedie Audiovisuelle De L'art Contemporain
6935:
5781:
5163:University of East Anglia Climatic Research Unit
5123:
5121:
5119:
4403:
4116:
3630:in Bardaï. Yet, following the Libyan Crisis and
1588:University of East Anglia Climatic Research Unit
1291:Climate data for the central Tibesti Mountains (
9231:Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948-1991
7750:Braun, Klaus; Passon, Jacqueline, eds. (2020).
7603:Tibesti, carrefour de la préhistoire saharienne
7186:"Ennedi Massif: Natural and Cultural Landscape"
5131:. Global Species. July 28, 2011. Archived from
5082:"Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands"
2445:can be found in the Tibesti. These include the
765:False-color satellite image of Tarso Yega (top)
560:. In the Tedaga language, the town is known as
521:to the "place where the mountain people live".
9438:
9420:Smithsonian Herpetological Information Service
8998:
8769:(Interview). Interviewed by Frederike Müller.
8524:International Union for Conservation of Nature
8434:] (in German). Universitätsverlag Wagner.
8294:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
8277:International Union for Conservation of Nature
8245:International Union for Conservation of Nature
7600:
7543:
5732:
5331:
5289:
5260:
5179:
4203:
4201:
4199:
4197:
4195:
791:The rest of the Tibesti Mountains consists of
621:and located approximately halfway between the
422:grow. They harness the water that collects in
10054:
9928:
9907:Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands
9151:
7903:"Chad: Toubou and Daza: Nomads of the Sahara"
6557:
5116:
4774:
3690:The Tibesti Mountains are renowned for their
1601:Much like an island surrounded by ocean, the
540:precedes the names of peaks and rocky hills,
9342:"Le Tibesti, bastion de notre Afrique Noire"
8901:
7848:
7727:"Bardaï, village garnison au cœur du désert"
7621:
7344:Animals Committee (22nd) (July 7–13, 2006).
7123:Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office
6899:
5379:
5343:
3273:, the first European explorer of the Tibesti
2969:in Bardaï, which quickly promoted the total
2076:. At the highest elevations of the Tibesti,
2028:locally. In addition, shrubs represented by
1117:. This trend towards the production of more
524:Most of the mountain names are derived from
319:, primarily located in the extreme north of
9903:, University of Applied Sciences Burgenland
9843:Institut de recherche pour le développement
9294:
9089:
8858:. Translated by Mathlouthi, Othman. Tanit.
8078:
7725:Braquehais, Stéphanie (February 14, 2006).
7664:Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences
7374:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
6836:
6416:
6377:
6336:
6324:
6300:
6093:
5367:
4882:
4786:
4192:
3294:Charles le Cœur and his wife Marguerite, a
323:, with a small portion located in southern
10061:
10047:
9935:
9921:
9354:(in French). No. 5013. Archived from
8818:
7876:Nomades noirs du Sahara : les Toubous
7724:
7566:
7105:
7024:
6563:
5151:
4432:
4186:
4148:
3812:An alternative theory holds that the name
3494:to the west and north of the range. Where
3310:and their lifestyle in 1957. In 1965, the
3211:Movement for Democracy and Justice in Chad
3043:the southern boundary of Libya until 1955
2813:push into present-day Libya. According to
966:The Tibesti Mountains are a large area of
9507:Sola, M.A.; Worsley, David, eds. (2000).
9314:
9302:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
9249:
8446:
7864:
7658:Beudels, Marie-Odile (January 30, 2008).
7607:Tibesti, crossroads of Saharan prehistory
7408:
7359:
7230:
7111:
6312:
6273:
6179:
6137:
6045:
6021:
6006:
5977:
5965:
5929:
5917:
3624:Ounianga Lakes UNESCO World Heritage Site
3514:), from which the hard yet vaguely-sweet
3373:In 1963, an expedition under the Italian
2766:the Cerdegua, Zouia, Kossseda (nicknamed
1284:before they can exit the mountain range.
339:topped by large depressions: Emi Koussi,
9671:National Center for Atmospheric Research
9664:
9622:
9413:
8928:
8761:
8726:
8425:
8390:
8054:
7873:
7682:
7224:
7047:
6993:
6964:
6911:
6749:
6701:
6629:
6033:
5994:
5953:
5941:
5905:
5893:
5881:
5850:
5838:
5826:
5802:
5744:
5720:
5705:
5680:
5668:
5632:
5608:
5544:
5520:
5496:
5424:
5418:
5110:
5098:
4988:
4976:
4961:
4949:
4553:
4541:
4388:
4270:
3909:
3675:
3671:
3592:
3403:
3307:
3265:
3145:
2756:
2675:
2611:
2591:
2145:
1995:
1640:
1156:
1128:
946:
873:
839:
660:
589:The mountains lie on the border between
576:
544:precedes those of larger mountains, and
513:means "a person" or "dweller," and thus
489:The Tibesti Mountains are named for the
150:100,000 km (39,000 sq mi)
9751:"After Libya, a Rush for Gold and Guns"
9748:
9564:"A Note on Tieroko (Tibesti Mountains)"
9225:
8994:from the original on February 21, 2021.
8865:from the original on February 17, 2021.
8845:
8796:Le Globe. Revue genevoise de géographie
8767:"UNESCO Sites: An Opportunity for Chad"
8596:from the original on November 11, 2020.
8471:
7960:
7937:
7900:
7818:
7788:
7657:
7639:(1993). "Beyond the Modern Landscape".
7575:The Natural History of the Chadian Land
7409:Arsenault, Claire (September 6, 2006).
7327:
7315:
6673:
6605:
6428:
6404:
6389:
6365:
6210:
6152:
5869:
5508:
5316:
5076:
5074:
5072:
5070:
5068:
3795:
2973:of the Tibesti. At the outbreak of the
2696:mentioned the Toubou, whom he labeled "
2624:The vast majority of the population is
371:and continued in some places until the
359:have formed vast plateaus that overlie
14:
10771:
9789:from the original on October 23, 2020.
9708:
9626:(1939). "A Camel Journey to Tibesti".
9590:
9561:
9509:Geological Exploration in Murzuq Basin
9115:
9024:Ministry of Europe and Foreign Affairs
8833:from the original on November 11, 2020
8814:from the original on December 9, 2020.
8695:
8674:
8600:
8573:
8453:Marine Corps Command and Staff College
8321:
8234:
8211:
7880:Black nomads of the Sahara: the Toubou
7737:from the original on February 18, 2011
7635:
7513:
7486:
7459:
7382:
7282:from the original on November 28, 2020
7258:
7093:
6947:
6923:
6872:
6798:
6786:
6765:. Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research
6646:
6249:
6222:
5814:
5775:
5620:
5473:Ministère des Affaires étrangères 2016
5394:
5301:
5203:
5066:
5064:
5062:
5060:
5058:
5056:
5054:
5052:
5050:
5048:
5024:
4798:
4702:"Emi Koussi: Synonyms and Subfeatures"
4359:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4017:
4015:
3938:
645:largest mountain range of the desert.
429:The Toubou came into contact with the
10042:
9916:
9823:
9811:from the original on January 25, 2016
9749:Tubiana, Jérôme (February 24, 2016).
9689:
9677:from the original on January 28, 2021
9483:
9461:
9339:
9257:The Yale Journal of International Law
9147:from the original on August 26, 2020.
9034:
8869:
8819:Leadbeater, Chris (August 11, 2019).
8627:
8447:Henderson, David H. (April 2, 1984).
8348:
8012:
7421:from the original on January 30, 2011
7209:
7148:Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Project 2006
6854:from the original on October 17, 2020
6810:
6755:
6689:
5763:
5484:
5226:
5191:
5145:
5039:
5012:
4618:
4529:
4255:
4243:
4073:
3855:would have been somewhat more common.
3816:means "bird," because members of the
3666:
3657:Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve
10393:West and Central African Rift System
10021:
9862:from the original on August 4, 2019.
9744:from the original on April 20, 2021.
9665:Thompson, Greg (September 3, 2020).
9268:
9030:from the original on April 21, 2021.
8962:
8794:[Voyages of Dr. Nachtigal].
8459:from the original on August 28, 2020
7961:Correau, Laurent (August 18, 2008).
7625:Acta Societatis Zoologicae Bohemicae
7553:United Nations Environment Programme
7264:
6288:
6261:
4888:
4725:
4694:
4061:
3399:
3051:
2718:In the 12th century, the geographer
2680:A Toubou woman in traditional attire
2054:, named after the volcano's crater.
867:The wadis in the Tibesti are called
30:For the current region of Chad, see
10069:Major African geological formations
9880:from the original on April 15, 2019
9586:from the original on July 17, 2020.
9155:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
8677:Berliner geographische Abhandlungen
8547:
8336:from the original on March 13, 2018
8286:from the original on March 5, 2016.
8008:from the original on July 15, 2020.
7985:
7973:from the original on March 16, 2012
7238:"Timbre: Head of sheep and Tibesti"
6830:
5790:
5165:. February 14, 2017. Archived from
5045:
4012:
3333:
3262:Scientific exploration and research
2937:Regional relations and colonization
2671:
1252:air. Normally, the ITCZ repels the
597:, straddling the Chadian region of
406:. The Toubou live mainly along the
24:
9366:Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Project.
8789:
8777:from the original on July 31, 2020
8710:10.1016/B978-0-12-044950-7.50015-5
8601:Jacobs, Frank (November 7, 2011).
7601:Beck, Pierre; Huard, Paul (1969).
7539:from the original on July 2, 2013.
7411:"'La captive du désert' est morte"
7388:The A to Z of Civil Wars in Africa
7304:Ferrari, Tinazzi and D’Erchia 2020
7129:from the original on July 25, 2019
6737:
4207:
3085:, which lasted from 1965 to 1979.
2746:and the latter describing them as
2544:and supporting several species of
2188:) and a significant population of
1596:
1097:, volcanic activity has deposited
1081:. Early volcanic activity created
918:At the bottom of many canyons are
25:
10840:
9894:
9876:(in German). September 15, 1975.
9725:Food and Agriculture Organization
9595:Journal of African Earth Sciences
9127:; Oliver, Roland Anthony (eds.).
8912:Presses universitaires de Louvain
8117:; Kasara, Kimuli (July 7, 2006).
8082:Journal of African Earth Sciences
7006:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
6982:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
6575:from the original on May 30, 2022
5278:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
5244:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4689:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4677:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4658:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4643:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4631:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4604:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4589:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4566:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4518:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4447:, pp. 609, 615–616, 620–621.
4348:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4172:Hughes, Hughes and Bernacsek 1992
4105:Salam, Hammuda and Eliagoubi 1991
3597:A valley in the Tibesti Mountains
3046:
2362:, on the other hand, are sparse.
1752:) grows near these water basins.
1061:contrast to hotspots such as the
327:. The highest peak in the range,
10020:
9944:
9616:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.11.020
9416:"Amphibians of Northwest Africa"
9077:from the original on May 6, 2020
7866:10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.1810
7849:Camps-fabrer, Henriette (1999).
7718:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7534
7555:. September 2009. Archived from
7530:Université de Paris X - Nanterre
7178:
7153:
3990:
3975:
3966:
3957:
3944:
3931:
3887:
3753:, and the low representation of
2912:
2897:
2882:
2863:
2847:
2692:civilization. Around this time,
1133:Animation showing the phases of
1124:
1040:era, while the peaks consist of
770:
758:
743:
731:
509:means "rocks" or "mountain" and
501:, that inhabit the area. In the
172:
165:
47:
9555:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.05.004
9130:The Cambridge History of Africa
8516:A Directory of African Wetlands
8322:Grolle, Johann (May 25, 2013).
7336:
7067:"Nine extraordinary tours" 2019
3858:
3845:
3832:
3823:
3645:
3370:succeeded in climbing Tieroko.
3186:tanks and heavy support by the
2904:The Bideyat clans migrate from
2658:or clay, or built from clay or
1048:activity began as early as the
685:inactive, but according to the
173:
9393:The Geology of Libya, Volume 5
9250:Ricciardi, Matthew M. (1992).
8902:Maoundonodji, Gilbert (2009).
8727:Klitzsch, Eberhard H. (2004).
8587:British Mountaineering Council
8576:"Africa: Travel and Adventure"
8492:International Court of Justice
7792:(1958). "Les Murs d'Anagoor".
6714:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
6554:, pp. 10–11, 13, 132–133.
6349:Fearon, Laitin and Kasara 2006
6235:Fearon, Laitin and Kasara 2006
6192:Fearon, Laitin and Kasara 2006
6123:Fearon, Laitin and Kasara 2006
6106:Fearon, Laitin and Kasara 2006
6082:Fearon, Laitin and Kasara 2006
6070:Fearon, Laitin and Kasara 2006
6058:Fearon, Laitin and Kasara 2006
4938:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4926:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4871:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4859:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4847:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4835:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4823:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4811:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4763:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4506:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4494:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4482:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4457:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4445:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4377:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4321:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4300:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4134:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
4093:Permenter and Oppenheimer 2007
3806:
3764:
3761:until comparatively recently.
3485:
3135:
2576:, an endemic species) and the
2422:studies noted the presence of
1704:. Most gueltas are lined with
1246:Intertropical Convergence Zone
1012:of the Tibesti is composed of
13:
1:
8895:10.1016/S0921-8181(00)00039-4
8603:"The World's Largest Sandbox"
8567:10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e108180
8315:10.1016/S0377-0273(03)00277-4
8019:African Archaeological Review
7901:Collelo, Thomas, ed. (1990).
7694:; Bosworth, Clifford Edmund;
7439:Historical Dictionary of Chad
4006:
3864:Although usually ascribed to
3632:France's intervention in Mali
3205:Chadian Civil War (2005–2010)
2889:The Donza clans migrate from
2843:The settlement of the Tibesti
2587:
2288:) may also occupy the range.
1684:lie along the courses of the
1192:alternating with terraces of
648:
186:Location in Northwestern Chad
82:3,415 m (11,204 ft)
9340:Roure, Gil (April 1, 1939).
9176:10.1016/0012-821X(76)90014-5
9099:University of Virginia Press
8103:10.1016/0899-5362(88)90009-7
7609:] (in French). Arthaud.
3650:The resources available for
3361:In 1957, Peter Steele led a
3330:research station in Bardaï.
3324:Gourgaud and Vincent in 2004
3232:
3176:Government of National Unity
2941:In the mid-19th century the
2558:East African red-finned barb
2204:of mammals, and include the
2138:found on the highest peaks.
1276:results in potentially high
1208:(particularly of the family
835:
601:and the Libyan districts of
567:
27:Mountain range in the Sahara
7:
9534:Global and Planetary Change
9049:10.14237/ebl.12.1.2021.1709
8874:Global and Planetary Change
8189:Fisher, Alan George Bernard
8163:10.1007/978-3-030-33323-2_2
7986:Cox, A. D. M., ed. (1965).
7967:Radio France Internationale
7731:Radio France Internationale
7415:Radio France Internationale
5356:Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990
3714:. More recent art includes
3198:
3058:Chadian Civil War (1965–79)
2834:clans of the traditionally
2388:Leptotyphlops macrorhynchus
2153:are present in the Tibesti.
1511:Mean daily minimum °C (°F)
1371:Mean daily maximum °C (°F)
844:Satellite image of Tibesti
617:. The range is adjacent to
572:
484:
10:
10845:
10207:Central African Shear Zone
9414:Salvador, Alfredo (1996).
9138:Cambridge University Press
8935:Arctic and Alpine Research
8792:"Voyages du Dr Nachtigall"
7938:Conklin, Alice L. (2013).
7696:van Donzel, Emeri Johannes
7567:Beauvilain, Alain (1996).
7514:Baroin, Catherine (2003).
7497:Cambridge University Press
7487:Baroin, Catherine (1985).
6726:University of Cologne 2015
5001:Soulié-Märsche et al. 2010
3588:
3394:
3202:
3139:
3061:
3055:
2666:
2550:African sharptooth catfish
2352:) also populate the area.
1851:) and branched horsetail (
1585:
1580:
1290:
1235:
1024:, one of six exposures of
942:
29:
10707:
10584:Central Pangean Mountains
10544:
10406:
10313:
10245:
10237:Western Meseta Shear Zone
10187:
10125:
10074:
10016:
9958:
9870:[Makes You Cry].
9700:] (Map) (in French).
9562:Steele, Peter R. (1964).
9469:. Vertebrate Publishing.
9432:10.5479/si.23317515.109.1
9211:10.1007/s00445-006-0098-x
9022:] (Map) (in French).
8426:Hellmich, Walter (1972).
8228:10.11646/zootaxa.3098.1.3
7764:10.1007/978-3-030-00145-2
7684:Bosworth, Clifford Edmund
7437:; Decalo, Samuel (2018).
7082:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6885:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6618:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6594:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6552:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6540:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6528:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6516:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6504:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6492:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6477:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6465:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6453:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
6441:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
5657:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
5645:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
5586:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
5574:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
5562:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
5533:Tubiana and Gramizzi 2017
4837:, pp. 609, 616, 619.
4765:, pp. 611, 616, 619.
4508:, pp. 609, 611, 615.
4283:Gourgaud and Vincent 2004
3920:and the Tibesti, and the
3777:works by painting rocks.
3312:Free University of Berlin
3290:of the range. The French
3172:Armed Forces of the North
2919:Other clans migrate from
2507:Lichtenstein's sandgrouse
2314:Egyptian mouse-tailed bat
2200:are the most represented
1581:Source 1: Global Species
1510:
1440:
1370:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
581:False-color, exaggerated-
265:
253:
248:
209:
195:
159:
154:
146:
142:350 km (220 mi)
138:
134:480 km (300 mi)
130:
125:
86:
76:
66:
61:
46:
41:
10794:Mountain ranges of Libya
9629:The Geographical Journal
8631:The Geographical Journal
8355:The Geographical Journal
7944:Cornell University Press
7874:Chapelle, Jean (1982) .
7443:Rowman & Littlefield
6752:, pp. 434, 438–439.
6048:, pp. 364–365, 371.
6009:, pp. 346–347, 357.
5944:, pp. 61–64, 93–97.
5896:, pp. 41–44, 72–79.
4991:, pp. 268–270, 273.
4928:, pp. 615, 617–619.
4901:Global Volcanism Program
4738:Global Volcanism Program
4707:Global Volcanism Program
4034:Global Volcanism Program
3800:
3010:French Equatorial Africa
2562:Enteromius apleurogramma
2511:Pterocles lichtensteinii
2384:Myriopholis macrorhyncha
2244:) and, more rarely, the
2141:
2114:Xanthoparmelia conspersa
1636:
1137:in the Tibesti Mountains
1032:. These are overlaid by
703:Soborom geothermal field
672:The range includes five
10799:Mountain ranges of Chad
9484:Shoup, John A. (2011).
9274:Placenames of the World
9190:Bulletin of Volcanology
9168:1976E&PSL..30..123P
8808:10.3406/globe.1876.4503
8574:Ingram, Stuart (2001).
5956:, pp. 64, 96, 107.
5456:Azevedo and Decalo 2018
5382:, pp. 10, 34, 126.
4906:Smithsonian Institution
4743:Smithsonian Institution
4712:Smithsonian Institution
4039:Smithsonian Institution
3904:of the civilization of
3363:University of Cambridge
3142:Chadian–Libyan conflict
3083:First Chadian Civil War
2722:spoke of a "country of
2322:Egyptian slit-faced bat
2256:species, including the
2164:include the endangered
2160:abound in the Tibesti.
1945:) or the more tropical
1833:Scirpoides holoschoenus
1731:Oxyrrhynchium speciosum
993:. A system of regional
689:were active during the
687:Smithsonian Institution
10604:Eastern Rift mountains
10526:Tanzania Coastal Basin
10305:Terra Australis Orogen
9117:Oliver, Roland Anthony
8969:Libya: A Country Study
8543:on September 24, 2012.
8235:Giazzi, Frank (1996).
7705:Encyclopaedia of Islam
7700:Heinrichs, Wolfhart P.
7686:(2012). "Tibesti". In
7551:(Report) (in French).
7528:(Thesis) (in French).
6848:Guinness World Records
6659:Fisher and Fisher 1987
6530:, pp. 9, 152–154.
6518:, pp. 37, 48, 52.
5635:, pp. 2, 38, 407.
5436:BirdLife International
5407:Animals Committee 2006
5088:. World Wildlife Fund.
5086:Terrestrial Ecoregions
4544:, pp. 68–70, 184.
4520:, pp. 1–2, 18–20.
3687:
3598:
3415:
3388:Guinness World Records
3274:
3155:
3154:between Chad and Libya
3027:'s fort there. During
3006:French colonial empire
2762:
2681:
2621:
2597:
2531:white-crowned wheatear
2252:), as well as several
2154:
2003:
1922:Chrysopogon plumulosus
1722:Equisetum ramosissimum
1653:
1166:
1138:
963:
887:
853:
669:
586:
367:that arose during the
10619:Great Karas Mountains
10599:Eastern Arc Mountains
10139:Arabian-Nubian Shield
9909:, World Wildlife Fund
9901:The Tibesti Mountains
9795:University of Cologne
9709:Tourte, René (2005).
9183:Permenter, Jason L.;
9073:. November 18, 2019.
8852:Uncharted Ethnicities
8262:Ginsberg, Joshua R.;
7907:Chad: A Country Study
6936:Braun and Passon 2020
6542:, pp. 10, 78–79.
4404:Braun and Passon 2020
4117:Sola and Worsley 2000
3692:rock and parietal art
3679:
3672:Rock and parietal art
3596:
3528:Citrullus colocynthis
3490:There are accessible
3407:
3269:
3219:Chadian National Army
3149:
3099:, a Teda leader, and
3000:to the south. During
2760:
2679:
2615:
2595:
2527:Bucanetes githagineus
2519:Ptyonoprogne obsoleta
2380:long-nosed worm snake
2372:Platyceps rhodorachis
2226:Dipodillus campestris
2149:
2019:Aristida caerulescens
1999:
1968:Plagiochasma rupestre
1644:
1165:crater (bottom right)
1160:
1132:
950:
877:
843:
785:crater (bottom right)
664:
580:
479:rock and parietal art
10516:Somali Coastal Basin
10227:Mwembeshi Shear Zone
9690:Tilho, Jean (1920).
9579:(308–309): 268–270.
9037:Ethnobiology Letters
8689:10.23689/fidgeo-2849
8350:Grove, Alfred Thomas
8135:on October 22, 2016.
8001:(310–311): 120–132.
7925:on February 28, 2013
7856:Encyclopédie berbère
7802:] (in Italian).
7670:on November 27, 2007
6704:, pp. 245, 247.
6419:, pp. 230, 245.
5370:, pp. 410, 415.
4873:, pp. 611, 619.
4825:, pp. 611, 616.
4496:, pp. 611, 614.
4136:, pp. 615, 619.
3796:Notes and references
3661:World Heritage Sites
3379:Eamon "Ginge" Fullen
3308:a book on the Toubou
3019:was assigned to the
2959:French Colonial Army
2650:. Twentieth-century
2620:population in Africa
2605:, as does Bardaï at
2566:Barbus apleurogramma
2548:. These include the
2418:). Mid-20th-century
2366:species include the
2232:). Also present are
2230:Gerbillus campestris
2222:North African gerbil
2118:scrambled-egg lichen
1873:Balanites aegyptiaca
1818:Phragmites australis
1184:has revealed coarse
1028:crystalline rock in
629:, just south of the
536:languages. The term
465:, which include the
53:The Tibesti east of
10694:Teffedest Mountains
10609:Ethiopian Highlands
10300:Pan-African orogens
10270:East African Orogen
10202:Broodkop Shear Zone
10174:West African Craton
10117:Victoria Microplate
9642:1939GeogJ..94..433T
9608:2006JAfES..44..561S
9547:2010GPC....72..334S
9227:Pollack, Kenneth M.
9203:2007BVol...69..609P
9125:Clark, John Desmond
9091:Nolutshungu, Sam C.
8977:Library of Congress
8910:] (in French).
8887:2000GPC....26..121M
8644:1977GeogJ.143...61J
8399:] (in French).
8368:1960GeogJ.126...18G
8307:2004JVGR..129..261G
8264:Macdonald, David W.
8243:] (in French).
8126:Stanford University
8095:1988JAfES...7..945E
7911:Library of Congress
7882:] (in French).
7853:[Cheetah].
7495:] (in French).
7161:"Lakes of Ounianga"
6801:, pp. 268–270.
6716:, pp. 609–610.
6661:, pp. 236–237.
6596:, pp. 131–132.
6339:, pp. 213–214.
5920:, pp. 338–339.
5733:Beck and Huard 1969
5659:, pp. 32, 106.
5332:Baseline Study 2009
5290:Mies and Lösch 1995
5263:, pp. 218–219.
5261:Schultze-Motel 1969
5229:, pp. 243–244.
5180:Mies and Lösch 1995
5003:, pp. 334–335.
4952:, pp. 267–268.
4940:, pp. 617–619.
4849:, pp. 619–620.
4813:, pp. 611–612.
4645:, pp. 1–2, 18.
4379:, pp. 615–616.
3874:may in fact be the
3853:Mediterranean flora
3504:Phoenix dactylifera
3356:Edouard Wyss-Dunant
3070:François Tombalbaye
2874:clans migrate from
2499:greater hoopoe-lark
2459:Ammomanes cincturus
2451:Pterocles coronatus
2408:Tarentola annularis
2376:Coluber rhodorachis
2170:Addax nasomaculatus
2051:Eragrostis kohorica
2034:Anabasis articulata
2013:Stipagrostis obtusa
2001:Sweet Indian mallow
1963:Rhynchosia memnonia
1951:Abutilon fruticosum
1947:sweet Indian mallow
1943:Lavandula pubescens
1925:is the most common
1441:Daily mean °C (°F)
1306: /
959:and several basalt
777:Satellite image of
750:Satellite image of
665:Satellite image of
229: /
106: /
10819:Inactive volcanoes
10758:List of inselbergs
10728:Jugurtha Tableland
10679:Sankwala Mountains
10674:Rwenzori Mountains
10491:Ouled Abdoun Basin
10486:Orange River Basin
10408:Sedimentary basins
10217:Foumban Shear Zone
10159:Saharan Metacraton
9702:Institut de France
9316:10.1002/ajpa.24186
9185:Oppenheimer, Clive
9001:Cryptogamic Botany
8964:Metz, Helen Chapin
8615:on October 6, 2019
8608:The New York Times
8589:. pp. 37–39.
8032:10.1007/BF01117224
7318:, pp. XI, 27.
6431:, locs. 5457–5462.
6392:, locs. 5452–5457.
6303:, p. 186–188.
5853:, chpt. 2 sect. 1.
5169:on April 30, 2017.
5135:on March 23, 2017.
4775:Pegram et al. 1976
4621:, pp. 23, 25.
3782:Le Mura di Anagoor
3688:
3667:Art and literature
3599:
3416:
3275:
3156:
3122:L'affaire Claustre
3109:Christophe Staewen
3105:Françoise Claustre
2998:French West Africa
2783:Kanem-Bornu Empire
2763:
2720:Muhammad al-Idrisi
2682:
2622:
2598:
2554:Clarias gariepinus
2535:Oenanthe leucopyga
2471:Cercomela melanura
2447:crowned sandgrouse
2218:Sekeetamys calurus
2186:Gazella leptoceros
2155:
2126:sunken disk lichen
2067:Artemisia tilhoana
2025:Eragrostis papposa
2004:
1877:grey-leaved cordia
1790:Tamarix articulata
1746:Vachellia nilotica
1718:branched horsetail
1714:Cyperus laevigatus
1654:
1167:
1139:
1044:. The continental
964:
888:
854:
670:
587:
457:The Saharomontane
62:Highest point
10814:Dormant volcanoes
10804:Volcanoes of Chad
10789:Hotspot volcanoes
10779:Tibesti Mountains
10766:
10765:
10699:Tibesti Mountains
10659:Mitumba Mountains
10649:Mandara Mountains
10634:Imatong Mountains
10589:Chaillu Mountains
10569:Bambouk Mountains
10506:Rio del Rey Basin
10476:Niger Delta Basin
10461:Iullemmeden Basin
10353:Gulf of Suez Rift
10348:East African Rift
10333:Bahr el Arab rift
10280:Gondwanide Orogen
10212:Chuan Shear Zones
10036:
10035:
9852:978-2-7099-0832-0
9780:Small Arms Survey
9734:978-92-5-205407-8
9624:Thesiger, Wilfred
9522:978-0-08-053246-2
9499:978-1-59884-362-0
9476:978-1-911342-80-9
9406:978-0-444-88844-0
9361:on March 3, 2016.
9287:978-0-7864-2248-7
9108:978-0-8139-1628-6
8921:978-2-87463-171-9
8847:Mahjoub, A. Monem
8719:978-0-12-044950-7
8554:Brill's New Pauly
8533:978-2-88032-949-5
8501:on July 27, 2001.
8410:978-2-7384-6086-8
8254:978-2-8317-0249-0
8172:978-3-030-33323-2
7953:978-0-8014-6903-9
7893:978-2-296-28368-8
7841:978-0-85635-488-5
7795:Sessanta racconti
7773:978-3-030-00145-2
7692:Bianquis, Thierry
7506:978-0-521-30476-4
7479:978-1-1380-6212-2
7452:978-1-5381-1437-7
7435:Azevedo, Mario J.
7401:978-0-8108-7048-2
7306:, pp. 13–14.
7227:, pp. 27–28.
7027:, pp. 21–24.
6996:, pp. 69–70.
6984:, pp. 19–20.
6900:Maoundonodji 2009
6819:"'climb Tieroko'"
6467:, pp. 37–38.
6455:, pp. 36–37.
6443:, pp. 34–36.
6291:, pp. 55–56.
6237:, pp. 10–11.
6165:"Zum Weinen" 1975
6096:, pp. 62–63.
6084:, pp. 4, 12.
6036:, pp. 2, 64.
5908:, pp. 79–81.
5829:, pp. 8, 54.
5747:, pp. 35–36.
5723:, pp. 33–36.
5683:, pp. 30–31.
5611:, pp. 72–79.
5588:, pp. 66–67.
5380:Benda et al. 2014
5358:, pp. 17–18.
5344:Camps-fabrer 1999
5246:, pp. 18–20.
4691:, pp. 3, 18.
4679:, pp. 18–19.
4435:, pp. 15–20.
3982:Lakes of Ounianga
3954:in Italy in 1944.
3618:between Faya and
3512:Hyphaene thebaica
3400:Natural resources
3193:series of defeats
3079:Oueddei Kichidemi
3052:Chadian Civil War
2996:to the north and
2975:Italo-Turkish War
2750:relatives of the
2503:Alaemon alaudipes
2479:Ammomanes deserti
2467:Oenanthe melanura
2404:ringed wall gecko
2350:Procavia capensis
2326:Nycteris thebaica
2318:Rhinopoma cystops
2290:African wild dogs
2278:Vulpes rueppellii
2214:bushy-tailed jird
2194:Ammotragus lervia
2172:) along with the
2135:Squamarina crassa
2122:Fulgensia fulgens
2110:green rock shield
2061:Pentzia monodiana
2039:Fagonia flamandii
1965:). The liverwort
1959:Rhynchosia minima
1935:Globularia alypum
1809:Hyphaene thebaica
1798:Salvadora persica
1613:, along with the
1593:
1592:
1310:21.250°N 17.750°E
1230:5th millennium BC
1202:Quaternary Period
1135:volcanic activity
1075:Martian volcanoes
1003:Great Rift Valley
905:Bodélé Depression
793:volcanic plateaus
635:East African Rift
449:, as well as the
309:Tibesti Mountains
305:
304:
211:Range coordinates
16:(Redirected from
10836:
10809:Saharan rock art
10654:Marrah Mountains
10629:Hoggar Mountains
10624:Guinea Highlands
10614:Great Escarpment
10378:Sangha Aulacogen
10295:Mauritanide Belt
10222:Kandi Fault Zone
10197:Aswa Dislocation
10112:Seychelles Plate
10102:Madagascar Plate
10063:
10056:
10049:
10040:
10039:
10024:
10023:
9949:
9948:
9937:
9930:
9923:
9914:
9913:
9889:
9887:
9885:
9863:
9861:
9840:
9820:
9818:
9816:
9797:(June 2, 2015).
9790:
9788:
9777:
9767:
9765:
9763:
9745:
9743:
9722:
9705:
9686:
9684:
9682:
9661:
9619:
9602:(4–5): 561–570.
9587:
9585:
9568:
9558:
9526:
9503:
9480:
9458:
9435:
9410:
9387:
9386:on May 21, 2013.
9385:
9379:. Archived from
9374:
9362:
9360:
9347:
9336:
9318:
9291:
9276:(2nd ed.).
9265:
9246:
9222:
9179:
9148:
9146:
9135:
9112:
9086:
9084:
9082:
9060:
9031:
9008:
8995:
8993:
8974:
8959:
8942:(3): A139–A147.
8925:
8898:
8881:(1–3): 121–136.
8866:
8864:
8857:
8842:
8840:
8838:
8815:
8786:
8784:
8782:
8765:(July 4, 2017).
8763:Kröpelin, Stefan
8758:
8757:on May 26, 2013.
8756:
8750:. Archived from
8742:(3–4): 245–266.
8733:
8723:
8692:
8671:
8624:
8622:
8620:
8611:. Archived from
8597:
8595:
8580:
8570:
8544:
8542:
8536:. Archived from
8521:
8512:
8502:
8500:
8494:. Archived from
8481:
8475:(July 2, 1993).
8473:Higgins, Rosalyn
8468:
8466:
8464:
8443:
8422:
8387:
8345:
8343:
8341:
8318:
8287:
8285:
8274:
8258:
8231:
8208:
8184:
8152:
8136:
8134:
8128:. Archived from
8123:
8106:
8089:(7–8): 945–967.
8075:
8051:
8009:
8007:
7992:
7982:
7980:
7978:
7957:
7934:
7932:
7930:
7921:. Archived from
7897:
7870:
7868:
7845:
7828:Venuti, Lawrence
7826:. Translated by
7815:
7785:
7746:
7744:
7742:
7721:
7688:Bearman, Peri J.
7679:
7677:
7675:
7666:. Archived from
7654:
7637:Berque, Augustin
7632:
7618:
7597:
7596:on July 8, 2018.
7595:
7589:. Archived from
7580:
7563:
7562:on May 21, 2013.
7561:
7550:
7540:
7538:
7527:
7510:
7483:
7456:
7430:
7428:
7426:
7405:
7379:
7373:
7365:
7363:
7331:
7325:
7319:
7313:
7307:
7301:
7292:
7291:
7289:
7287:
7268:
7262:
7256:
7250:
7249:
7247:
7245:
7234:
7228:
7222:
7213:
7207:
7201:
7200:
7198:
7196:
7182:
7176:
7175:
7173:
7171:
7157:
7151:
7145:
7139:
7138:
7136:
7134:
7115:
7109:
7103:
7097:
7091:
7085:
7079:
7070:
7064:
7051:
7045:
7028:
7022:
7009:
7003:
6997:
6991:
6985:
6979:
6968:
6962:
6951:
6945:
6939:
6933:
6927:
6921:
6915:
6909:
6903:
6897:
6888:
6882:
6876:
6870:
6864:
6863:
6861:
6859:
6840:
6834:
6828:
6822:
6808:
6802:
6796:
6790:
6784:
6775:
6774:
6772:
6770:
6759:
6753:
6747:
6741:
6735:
6729:
6723:
6717:
6711:
6705:
6699:
6693:
6687:
6681:
6671:
6662:
6656:
6650:
6644:
6633:
6627:
6621:
6615:
6609:
6603:
6597:
6591:
6585:
6584:
6582:
6580:
6571:. May 30, 2022.
6561:
6555:
6549:
6543:
6537:
6531:
6525:
6519:
6513:
6507:
6501:
6495:
6489:
6480:
6474:
6468:
6462:
6456:
6450:
6444:
6438:
6432:
6426:
6420:
6417:Nolutshungu 1995
6414:
6408:
6402:
6393:
6387:
6381:
6378:Nolutshungu 1995
6375:
6369:
6363:
6352:
6346:
6340:
6337:Nolutshungu 1995
6334:
6328:
6325:Nolutshungu 1995
6322:
6316:
6310:
6304:
6301:Nolutshungu 1995
6298:
6292:
6286:
6277:
6271:
6265:
6259:
6253:
6247:
6238:
6232:
6226:
6220:
6214:
6208:
6195:
6189:
6183:
6177:
6168:
6162:
6156:
6150:
6141:
6135:
6126:
6120:
6109:
6103:
6097:
6094:Nolutshungu 1995
6091:
6085:
6079:
6073:
6067:
6061:
6055:
6049:
6043:
6037:
6031:
6025:
6019:
6010:
6004:
5998:
5992:
5981:
5975:
5969:
5963:
5957:
5951:
5945:
5939:
5933:
5927:
5921:
5915:
5909:
5903:
5897:
5891:
5885:
5879:
5873:
5867:
5854:
5848:
5842:
5836:
5830:
5824:
5818:
5812:
5806:
5800:
5794:
5788:
5779:
5773:
5767:
5761:
5748:
5742:
5736:
5730:
5724:
5718:
5709:
5703:
5684:
5678:
5672:
5666:
5660:
5654:
5648:
5642:
5636:
5630:
5624:
5618:
5612:
5606:
5589:
5583:
5577:
5571:
5565:
5559:
5548:
5542:
5536:
5530:
5524:
5518:
5512:
5506:
5500:
5494:
5488:
5482:
5476:
5470:
5459:
5453:
5447:
5446:
5444:
5442:
5432:"Tibesti Massif"
5428:
5422:
5416:
5410:
5404:
5398:
5392:
5383:
5377:
5371:
5368:Roos et al. 2021
5365:
5359:
5353:
5347:
5341:
5335:
5329:
5320:
5314:
5305:
5299:
5293:
5287:
5281:
5275:
5264:
5258:
5247:
5241:
5230:
5224:
5207:
5201:
5195:
5189:
5183:
5177:
5171:
5170:
5155:
5149:
5143:
5137:
5136:
5125:
5114:
5108:
5102:
5096:
5090:
5089:
5078:
5043:
5037:
5028:
5022:
5016:
5010:
5004:
4998:
4992:
4986:
4980:
4974:
4965:
4959:
4953:
4947:
4941:
4935:
4929:
4923:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4912:
4896:"Tarso Toussidé"
4892:
4886:
4883:El Makkrouf 1988
4880:
4874:
4868:
4862:
4856:
4850:
4844:
4838:
4832:
4826:
4820:
4814:
4808:
4802:
4796:
4790:
4787:El Makkrouf 1988
4784:
4778:
4772:
4766:
4760:
4754:
4753:
4751:
4749:
4729:
4723:
4722:
4720:
4718:
4698:
4692:
4686:
4680:
4674:
4661:
4655:
4646:
4640:
4634:
4628:
4622:
4616:
4607:
4601:
4592:
4586:
4569:
4563:
4557:
4551:
4545:
4539:
4533:
4527:
4521:
4515:
4509:
4503:
4497:
4491:
4485:
4479:
4460:
4454:
4448:
4442:
4436:
4430:
4407:
4401:
4392:
4386:
4380:
4374:
4363:
4357:
4351:
4345:
4324:
4318:
4303:
4297:
4286:
4280:
4274:
4268:
4259:
4253:
4247:
4241:
4230:
4229:
4227:
4225:
4205:
4190:
4184:
4175:
4169:
4152:
4146:
4137:
4131:
4120:
4114:
4108:
4102:
4096:
4090:
4077:
4071:
4065:
4059:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4045:
4025:
4001:
3994:
3988:
3979:
3973:
3970:
3964:
3961:
3955:
3952:killed in action
3948:
3942:
3935:
3929:
3891:
3885:
3862:
3856:
3849:
3843:
3836:
3830:
3827:
3821:
3810:
3604:adventure travel
3348:Wilfred Thesiger
3334:Climbing history
3316:geomorphological
3279:Gustav Nachtigal
3271:Gustav Nachtigal
3227:Youssouf Togoïmi
3188:Libyan Air Force
3150:Map showing the
3107:, German doctor
3097:Goukouni Oueddei
3021:Kingdom of Italy
2916:
2901:
2886:
2867:
2851:
2730:. The historian
2672:Human settlement
2644:animal husbandry
2578:redbelly tilapia
2515:pale crag martin
2416:Uromastyx dispar
2400:Agama impalearis
2250:Acinonyx jubatus
2073:Ephedra tilhoana
1955:least snout-bean
1841:Juncus maritimus
1774:Tamarix nilotica
1710:smooth flatsedge
1321:
1320:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1311:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1299:
1288:
1287:
1218:Late Pleistocene
1182:fluvial terraces
1063:Hawaiian–Emperor
774:
762:
747:
735:
674:shield volcanoes
631:Tropic of Cancer
451:French colonists
387:and deposits of
244:
243:
241:
240:
239:
234:
233:20.783°N 18.05°E
230:
227:
226:
225:
222:
176:
175:
169:
121:
120:
118:
117:
116:
111:
107:
104:
103:
102:
99:
51:
39:
38:
21:
10844:
10843:
10839:
10838:
10837:
10835:
10834:
10833:
10824:Volcanic groups
10784:Stratovolcanoes
10769:
10768:
10767:
10762:
10723:Mount Gorongosa
10703:
10564:Aurès Mountains
10559:Atlas Mountains
10546:Mountain ranges
10540:
10426:Blue Nile Basin
10402:
10398:White Nile rift
10309:
10275:Eburnean Orogen
10241:
10232:Todi Shear Zone
10183:
10179:Zimbabwe Craton
10164:Tanzania Craton
10154:Kalahari Craton
10149:Kaapvaal Craton
10121:
10070:
10067:
10037:
10032:
10012:
9954:
9943:
9941:
9897:
9892:
9883:
9881:
9859:
9853:
9838:
9814:
9812:
9786:
9775:
9761:
9759:
9756:Foreign Affairs
9741:
9735:
9720:
9680:
9678:
9650:10.2307/1787293
9583:
9566:
9523:
9500:
9477:
9407:
9383:
9377:Bonn Convention
9372:
9358:
9345:
9288:
9144:
9136:. Vol. 2.
9133:
9109:
9080:
9078:
8991:
8972:
8930:Messerli, Bruno
8922:
8862:
8855:
8836:
8834:
8790:L., A. (1876).
8780:
8778:
8754:
8731:
8720:
8652:10.2307/1796675
8618:
8616:
8593:
8578:
8540:
8534:
8519:
8510:
8498:
8479:
8462:
8460:
8411:
8376:10.2307/1790425
8339:
8337:
8283:
8272:
8255:
8173:
8150:
8132:
8121:
8056:Desanges, Jehan
8005:
7990:
7976:
7974:
7954:
7928:
7926:
7894:
7842:
7774:
7740:
7738:
7673:
7671:
7593:
7578:
7559:
7548:
7536:
7525:
7507:
7480:
7453:
7424:
7422:
7402:
7392:Scarecrow Press
7370:cite conference
7367:
7366:
7361:10.1.1.490.4004
7339:
7334:
7326:
7322:
7314:
7310:
7302:
7295:
7285:
7283:
7270:
7269:
7265:
7257:
7253:
7243:
7241:
7236:
7235:
7231:
7223:
7216:
7208:
7204:
7194:
7192:
7184:
7183:
7179:
7169:
7167:
7159:
7158:
7154:
7146:
7142:
7132:
7130:
7117:
7116:
7112:
7106:Leadbeater 2019
7104:
7100:
7092:
7088:
7080:
7073:
7065:
7054:
7046:
7031:
7025:Beauvilain 1996
7023:
7012:
7004:
7000:
6992:
6988:
6980:
6971:
6963:
6954:
6946:
6942:
6934:
6930:
6922:
6918:
6910:
6906:
6898:
6891:
6883:
6879:
6871:
6867:
6857:
6855:
6842:
6841:
6837:
6829:
6825:
6809:
6805:
6797:
6793:
6785:
6778:
6768:
6766:
6761:
6760:
6756:
6748:
6744:
6736:
6732:
6724:
6720:
6712:
6708:
6700:
6696:
6688:
6684:
6678:"Le Cœur Italy"
6672:
6665:
6657:
6653:
6645:
6636:
6628:
6624:
6616:
6612:
6604:
6600:
6592:
6588:
6578:
6576:
6562:
6558:
6550:
6546:
6538:
6534:
6526:
6522:
6514:
6510:
6502:
6498:
6490:
6483:
6475:
6471:
6463:
6459:
6451:
6447:
6439:
6435:
6427:
6423:
6415:
6411:
6403:
6396:
6388:
6384:
6376:
6372:
6364:
6355:
6347:
6343:
6335:
6331:
6323:
6319:
6311:
6307:
6299:
6295:
6287:
6280:
6272:
6268:
6260:
6256:
6248:
6241:
6233:
6229:
6221:
6217:
6209:
6198:
6190:
6186:
6178:
6171:
6163:
6159:
6151:
6144:
6136:
6129:
6121:
6112:
6104:
6100:
6092:
6088:
6080:
6076:
6068:
6064:
6060:, pp. 3–4.
6056:
6052:
6044:
6040:
6032:
6028:
6020:
6013:
6005:
6001:
5993:
5984:
5976:
5972:
5964:
5960:
5952:
5948:
5940:
5936:
5928:
5924:
5916:
5912:
5904:
5900:
5892:
5888:
5880:
5876:
5868:
5857:
5849:
5845:
5837:
5833:
5825:
5821:
5813:
5809:
5801:
5797:
5789:
5782:
5774:
5770:
5762:
5751:
5743:
5739:
5731:
5727:
5719:
5712:
5704:
5687:
5679:
5675:
5667:
5663:
5655:
5651:
5643:
5639:
5631:
5627:
5619:
5615:
5607:
5592:
5584:
5580:
5572:
5568:
5560:
5551:
5543:
5539:
5531:
5527:
5519:
5515:
5507:
5503:
5495:
5491:
5483:
5479:
5471:
5462:
5454:
5450:
5440:
5438:
5430:
5429:
5425:
5417:
5413:
5405:
5401:
5393:
5386:
5378:
5374:
5366:
5362:
5354:
5350:
5342:
5338:
5330:
5323:
5315:
5308:
5300:
5296:
5288:
5284:
5276:
5267:
5259:
5250:
5242:
5233:
5225:
5210:
5202:
5198:
5190:
5186:
5178:
5174:
5157:
5156:
5152:
5144:
5140:
5127:
5126:
5117:
5113:, p. A140.
5109:
5105:
5101:, p. A143.
5097:
5093:
5080:
5079:
5046:
5038:
5031:
5023:
5019:
5011:
5007:
4999:
4995:
4987:
4983:
4975:
4968:
4960:
4956:
4948:
4944:
4936:
4932:
4924:
4920:
4910:
4908:
4894:
4893:
4889:
4881:
4877:
4869:
4865:
4857:
4853:
4845:
4841:
4833:
4829:
4821:
4817:
4809:
4805:
4797:
4793:
4785:
4781:
4773:
4769:
4761:
4757:
4747:
4745:
4731:
4730:
4726:
4716:
4714:
4700:
4699:
4695:
4687:
4683:
4675:
4664:
4656:
4649:
4641:
4637:
4633:, pp. 1–3.
4629:
4625:
4617:
4610:
4606:, pp. 2–3.
4602:
4595:
4587:
4572:
4568:, pp. 1–2.
4564:
4560:
4552:
4548:
4540:
4536:
4528:
4524:
4516:
4512:
4504:
4500:
4492:
4488:
4480:
4463:
4455:
4451:
4443:
4439:
4433:Beauvilain 1996
4431:
4410:
4402:
4395:
4387:
4383:
4375:
4366:
4358:
4354:
4346:
4327:
4319:
4306:
4298:
4289:
4281:
4277:
4269:
4262:
4254:
4250:
4242:
4233:
4223:
4221:
4206:
4193:
4187:Braquehais 2006
4185:
4178:
4170:
4155:
4149:Beauvilain 1996
4147:
4140:
4132:
4123:
4115:
4111:
4107:, p. 1155.
4103:
4099:
4091:
4080:
4072:
4068:
4060:
4053:
4043:
4041:
4027:
4026:
4013:
4009:
4004:
3995:
3991:
3980:
3976:
3971:
3967:
3962:
3958:
3949:
3945:
3936:
3932:
3918:Tassili n'Ajjer
3892:
3888:
3863:
3859:
3850:
3846:
3837:
3833:
3828:
3824:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3798:
3767:
3674:
3669:
3648:
3616:charter flights
3591:
3488:
3402:
3397:
3336:
3264:
3235:
3207:
3201:
3144:
3138:
3066:
3064:Claustre Affair
3060:
3054:
3049:
2939:
2934:
2931:
2917:
2908:
2902:
2893:
2887:
2878:
2868:
2859:
2854:The indigenous
2852:
2709:Julius Maternus
2674:
2669:
2652:anthropological
2630:Toubou language
2590:
2582:Coptodon zillii
2546:freshwater fish
2523:trumpeter finch
2491:fulvous babbler
2455:bar-tailed lark
2412:Sudan mastigure
2334:Asellia tridens
2238:African wildcat
2144:
2022:, as well some
1913:Senegalia laeta
1881:Cordia sinensis
1869:Egyptian balsam
1853:E. ramosissimum
1849:Juncus bufonius
1786:Tamarix aphylla
1766:Nerium oleander
1758:Myrtus nivellei
1750:Acacia nilotica
1742:Egyptian acacia
1734:and species of
1639:
1599:
1597:Flora and fauna
1594:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1314:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1292:
1266:weather systems
1238:
1222:glacial maximum
1127:
1077:, particularly
968:tectonic uplift
945:
858:endorheic basin
838:
826:desert pavement
818:volcanic spires
789:
786:
775:
766:
763:
754:
748:
739:
736:
717:on Emi Koussi.
651:
575:
570:
528:as well as the
503:Kanuri language
493:, also written
487:
315:in the central
237:
235:
231:
228:
223:
220:
218:
216:
215:
191:
190:
189:
188:
187:
184:
183:
182:
181:
177:
114:
112:
108:
105:
100:
97:
95:
93:
92:
57:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10842:
10832:
10831:
10826:
10821:
10816:
10811:
10806:
10801:
10796:
10791:
10786:
10781:
10764:
10763:
10761:
10760:
10755:
10750:
10745:
10743:Mont Niénokoué
10740:
10738:Mulanje Massif
10735:
10730:
10725:
10720:
10714:
10712:
10705:
10704:
10702:
10701:
10696:
10691:
10689:Serra da Chela
10686:
10681:
10676:
10671:
10666:
10664:Nuba Mountains
10661:
10656:
10651:
10646:
10644:Loma Mountains
10641:
10636:
10631:
10626:
10621:
10616:
10611:
10606:
10601:
10596:
10591:
10586:
10581:
10576:
10574:Blue Mountains
10571:
10566:
10561:
10556:
10550:
10548:
10542:
10541:
10539:
10538:
10533:
10528:
10523:
10521:Taoudeni Basin
10518:
10513:
10508:
10503:
10498:
10493:
10488:
10483:
10478:
10473:
10468:
10463:
10458:
10453:
10448:
10443:
10438:
10433:
10428:
10423:
10418:
10412:
10410:
10404:
10403:
10401:
10400:
10395:
10390:
10385:
10380:
10375:
10370:
10365:
10360:
10358:Lamu Embayment
10355:
10350:
10345:
10343:Blue Nile rift
10340:
10335:
10330:
10325:
10319:
10317:
10311:
10310:
10308:
10307:
10302:
10297:
10292:
10287:
10285:Kibaran Orogen
10282:
10277:
10272:
10267:
10262:
10260:Cape Fold Belt
10257:
10251:
10249:
10243:
10242:
10240:
10239:
10234:
10229:
10224:
10219:
10214:
10209:
10204:
10199:
10193:
10191:
10185:
10184:
10182:
10181:
10176:
10171:
10166:
10161:
10156:
10151:
10146:
10141:
10135:
10133:
10123:
10122:
10120:
10119:
10114:
10109:
10104:
10099:
10093:
10089:Minor plates:
10087:
10083:Major plates:
10080:
10078:
10072:
10071:
10066:
10065:
10058:
10051:
10043:
10034:
10033:
10031:
10030:
10017:
10014:
10013:
10011:
10010:
10005:
10000:
9995:
9990:
9985:
9980:
9975:
9970:
9965:
9959:
9956:
9955:
9940:
9939:
9932:
9925:
9917:
9911:
9910:
9904:
9896:
9895:External links
9893:
9891:
9890:
9864:
9851:
9821:
9791:
9768:
9746:
9733:
9706:
9687:
9662:
9636:(6): 433–446.
9620:
9588:
9572:Alpine Journal
9559:
9541:(4): 334–340.
9527:
9521:
9504:
9498:
9481:
9475:
9459:
9449:(2): 217–220.
9436:
9411:
9405:
9388:
9363:
9351:L'Illustration
9337:
9309:(3): 407–417.
9292:
9286:
9266:
9247:
9223:
9197:(6): 609–626.
9180:
9162:(1): 123–128.
9149:
9113:
9107:
9087:
9061:
9032:
9009:
8996:
8960:
8926:
8920:
8899:
8867:
8843:
8816:
8787:
8771:Deutsche Welle
8759:
8724:
8718:
8693:
8672:
8625:
8598:
8571:
8545:
8532:
8503:
8469:
8444:
8423:
8409:
8388:
8346:
8319:
8301:(4): 261–290.
8288:
8259:
8253:
8232:
8209:
8185:
8171:
8142:Rossi, Corinna
8137:
8107:
8076:
8066:(4): 713–725.
8052:
8014:Davis, Whitney
8010:
7995:Alpine Journal
7983:
7958:
7952:
7935:
7898:
7892:
7871:
7846:
7840:
7832:Carcanet Press
7816:
7786:
7772:
7747:
7722:
7680:
7655:
7633:
7619:
7598:
7564:
7541:
7511:
7505:
7484:
7478:
7457:
7451:
7431:
7406:
7400:
7380:
7354:. Lima, Peru.
7340:
7338:
7335:
7333:
7332:
7320:
7308:
7293:
7263:
7251:
7229:
7214:
7202:
7177:
7152:
7140:
7110:
7098:
7086:
7071:
7052:
7029:
7010:
6998:
6986:
6969:
6952:
6940:
6938:, p. 144.
6928:
6926:, p. 564.
6916:
6904:
6902:, p. 258.
6889:
6877:
6865:
6835:
6833:, p. 126.
6823:
6803:
6791:
6789:, p. 268.
6776:
6754:
6742:
6740:, p. 169.
6730:
6718:
6706:
6694:
6682:
6663:
6651:
6634:
6622:
6620:, p. 102.
6610:
6598:
6586:
6556:
6544:
6532:
6520:
6508:
6496:
6481:
6469:
6457:
6445:
6433:
6421:
6409:
6394:
6382:
6380:, p. xii.
6370:
6353:
6341:
6329:
6327:, p. 188.
6317:
6313:Henderson 1984
6305:
6293:
6278:
6276:, p. 305.
6274:Ricciardi 1992
6266:
6254:
6239:
6227:
6225:, p. 286.
6215:
6196:
6184:
6180:Henderson 1984
6169:
6157:
6142:
6138:Arsenault 2006
6127:
6110:
6098:
6086:
6074:
6062:
6050:
6046:Ricciardi 1992
6038:
6026:
6024:, p. 358.
6022:Ricciardi 1992
6011:
6007:Ricciardi 1992
5999:
5982:
5980:, p. 341.
5978:Ricciardi 1992
5970:
5968:, p. 342.
5966:Ricciardi 1992
5958:
5946:
5934:
5932:, p. 334.
5930:Ricciardi 1992
5922:
5918:Ricciardi 1992
5910:
5898:
5886:
5874:
5855:
5843:
5831:
5819:
5817:, p. 290.
5807:
5805:, p. 713.
5795:
5780:
5778:, p. 286.
5768:
5749:
5737:
5735:, p. 228.
5725:
5710:
5685:
5673:
5671:, chpts. 4, 5.
5661:
5649:
5637:
5625:
5613:
5590:
5578:
5566:
5549:
5537:
5535:, p. 106.
5525:
5513:
5501:
5489:
5477:
5460:
5458:, p. 495.
5448:
5423:
5411:
5399:
5384:
5372:
5360:
5348:
5336:
5321:
5306:
5304:, p. 311.
5294:
5292:, p. 196.
5282:
5265:
5248:
5231:
5208:
5206:, p. 179.
5196:
5194:, p. 243.
5184:
5182:, p. 192.
5172:
5150:
5138:
5115:
5103:
5091:
5044:
5029:
5017:
5015:, p. 121.
5005:
4993:
4981:
4979:, p. 273.
4966:
4964:, p. 267.
4954:
4942:
4930:
4918:
4887:
4885:, p. 951.
4875:
4863:
4861:, p. 621.
4851:
4839:
4827:
4815:
4803:
4801:, p. 568.
4791:
4789:, p. 964.
4779:
4777:, p. 127.
4767:
4755:
4724:
4693:
4681:
4662:
4647:
4635:
4623:
4608:
4593:
4570:
4558:
4546:
4534:
4522:
4510:
4498:
4486:
4484:, p. 619.
4461:
4459:, p. 615.
4449:
4437:
4408:
4393:
4381:
4364:
4352:
4325:
4323:, p. 610.
4304:
4302:, p. 609.
4287:
4285:, p. 261.
4275:
4260:
4248:
4231:
4213:"Google Earth"
4191:
4176:
4153:
4138:
4121:
4109:
4097:
4095:, p. 611.
4078:
4076:, p. 284.
4066:
4064:, p. 375.
4051:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4002:
3989:
3986:Ennedi Plateau
3974:
3965:
3956:
3943:
3930:
3910:Chapelle (1982
3886:
3870:, the Tibesti
3857:
3844:
3840:Tarso Toussidé
3831:
3822:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3766:
3763:
3696:climate change
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3647:
3644:
3590:
3587:
3487:
3484:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3335:
3332:
3292:anthropologist
3263:
3260:
3234:
3231:
3200:
3197:
3137:
3134:
3117:Pierre Galopin
3056:Main article:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3047:Modern history
3045:
2994:Italian Empire
2943:Ottoman Empire
2938:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2918:
2911:
2909:
2903:
2896:
2894:
2888:
2881:
2879:
2869:
2862:
2860:
2853:
2846:
2844:
2840:
2815:oral tradition
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2589:
2586:
2574:Labeo tibestii
2487:Passer simplex
2483:desert sparrow
2441:Many resident
2420:herpetological
2396:Bibron's agama
2342:Lepus capensis
2178:Gazella dorcas
2174:dorcas gazelle
2151:Golden jackals
2143:
2140:
2030:jointed anabis
2006:Saharomontane
1975:of the genera
1905:F. salicifolia
1885:red-leaved fig
1827:), along with
1824:Typha capensis
1782:Athel tamarisk
1754:Saharan myrtle
1638:
1635:
1598:
1595:
1591:
1590:
1583:
1582:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1315:21.250; 17.750
1286:
1237:
1234:
1226:Paleolake Chad
1163:Trou au Natron
1126:
1123:
1115:trachyandesite
944:
941:
913:Ennedi Plateau
884:Ennedi Plateau
837:
834:
788:
787:
783:Trou au Natron
779:Tarso Toussidé
776:
769:
767:
764:
757:
755:
749:
742:
740:
737:
730:
728:
724:
699:Trou au Natron
678:Tarso Toussidé
650:
647:
574:
571:
569:
566:
558:Chadian Arabic
486:
483:
313:mountain range
303:
302:
296:Trachyandesite
269:
263:
262:
257:
251:
250:
246:
245:
213:
207:
206:
197:
193:
192:
185:
179:
178:
171:
170:
164:
163:
162:
161:
160:
157:
156:
152:
151:
148:
144:
143:
140:
136:
135:
132:
128:
127:
123:
122:
110:19.8°N 18.53°E
90:
84:
83:
80:
74:
73:
68:
64:
63:
59:
58:
52:
44:
43:
32:Tibesti Region
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10841:
10830:
10827:
10825:
10822:
10820:
10817:
10815:
10812:
10810:
10807:
10805:
10802:
10800:
10797:
10795:
10792:
10790:
10787:
10785:
10782:
10780:
10777:
10776:
10774:
10759:
10756:
10754:
10751:
10749:
10746:
10744:
10741:
10739:
10736:
10734:
10731:
10729:
10726:
10724:
10721:
10719:
10716:
10715:
10713:
10710:
10706:
10700:
10697:
10695:
10692:
10690:
10687:
10685:
10684:Serra da Leba
10682:
10680:
10677:
10675:
10672:
10670:
10669:Rif Mountains
10667:
10665:
10662:
10660:
10657:
10655:
10652:
10650:
10647:
10645:
10642:
10640:
10639:Jebel Uweinat
10637:
10635:
10632:
10630:
10627:
10625:
10622:
10620:
10617:
10615:
10612:
10610:
10607:
10605:
10602:
10600:
10597:
10595:
10592:
10590:
10587:
10585:
10582:
10580:
10579:Cameroon line
10577:
10575:
10572:
10570:
10567:
10565:
10562:
10560:
10557:
10555:
10554:Aïr Mountains
10552:
10551:
10549:
10547:
10543:
10537:
10536:Turkana Basin
10534:
10532:
10531:Tindouf Basin
10529:
10527:
10524:
10522:
10519:
10517:
10514:
10512:
10509:
10507:
10504:
10502:
10501:Reggane Basin
10499:
10497:
10494:
10492:
10489:
10487:
10484:
10482:
10479:
10477:
10474:
10472:
10469:
10467:
10464:
10462:
10459:
10457:
10454:
10452:
10449:
10447:
10444:
10442:
10439:
10437:
10434:
10432:
10429:
10427:
10424:
10422:
10419:
10417:
10414:
10413:
10411:
10409:
10405:
10399:
10396:
10394:
10391:
10389:
10386:
10384:
10381:
10379:
10376:
10374:
10371:
10369:
10366:
10364:
10361:
10359:
10356:
10354:
10351:
10349:
10346:
10344:
10341:
10339:
10336:
10334:
10331:
10329:
10326:
10324:
10323:Afar Triangle
10321:
10320:
10318:
10316:
10312:
10306:
10303:
10301:
10298:
10296:
10293:
10291:
10290:Kuunga Orogen
10288:
10286:
10283:
10281:
10278:
10276:
10273:
10271:
10268:
10266:
10265:Damara Orogen
10263:
10261:
10258:
10256:
10255:Alpine Orogen
10253:
10252:
10250:
10248:
10244:
10238:
10235:
10233:
10230:
10228:
10225:
10223:
10220:
10218:
10215:
10213:
10210:
10208:
10205:
10203:
10200:
10198:
10195:
10194:
10192:
10190:
10186:
10180:
10177:
10175:
10172:
10170:
10169:Tuareg Shield
10167:
10165:
10162:
10160:
10157:
10155:
10152:
10150:
10147:
10145:
10142:
10140:
10137:
10136:
10134:
10132:
10128:
10124:
10118:
10115:
10113:
10110:
10108:
10105:
10103:
10100:
10098:
10097:Lwandle Plate
10095:Microplates:
10094:
10092:
10088:
10086:
10085:African Plate
10082:
10081:
10079:
10077:
10073:
10064:
10059:
10057:
10052:
10050:
10045:
10044:
10041:
10029:
10028:
10019:
10018:
10015:
10009:
10006:
10004:
10001:
9999:
9996:
9994:
9991:
9989:
9986:
9984:
9981:
9979:
9976:
9974:
9971:
9969:
9966:
9964:
9961:
9960:
9957:
9953:
9950:Mountains of
9947:
9938:
9933:
9931:
9926:
9924:
9919:
9918:
9915:
9908:
9905:
9902:
9899:
9898:
9879:
9875:
9874:
9869:
9865:
9858:
9854:
9848:
9844:
9841:(in French).
9836:
9832:
9831:
9826:
9822:
9810:
9806:
9805:
9804:Science Daily
9800:
9796:
9792:
9785:
9781:
9774:
9769:
9758:
9757:
9752:
9747:
9740:
9736:
9730:
9726:
9718:
9714:
9713:
9707:
9703:
9699:
9695:
9694:
9688:
9676:
9672:
9668:
9663:
9659:
9655:
9651:
9647:
9643:
9639:
9635:
9631:
9630:
9625:
9621:
9617:
9613:
9609:
9605:
9601:
9597:
9596:
9589:
9582:
9578:
9574:
9573:
9565:
9560:
9556:
9552:
9548:
9544:
9540:
9536:
9535:
9528:
9524:
9518:
9514:
9510:
9505:
9501:
9495:
9491:
9487:
9482:
9478:
9472:
9468:
9464:
9460:
9456:
9452:
9448:
9445:(in German).
9444:
9443:
9437:
9433:
9429:
9426:(109): 1–43.
9425:
9421:
9417:
9412:
9408:
9402:
9398:
9394:
9389:
9382:
9378:
9375:(in French).
9371:
9370:
9364:
9357:
9353:
9352:
9343:
9338:
9334:
9330:
9326:
9322:
9317:
9312:
9308:
9304:
9303:
9298:
9293:
9289:
9283:
9279:
9275:
9271:
9267:
9264:(2): 301–488.
9263:
9259:
9258:
9253:
9248:
9244:
9240:
9236:
9232:
9228:
9224:
9220:
9216:
9212:
9208:
9204:
9200:
9196:
9192:
9191:
9186:
9181:
9177:
9173:
9169:
9165:
9161:
9157:
9156:
9150:
9143:
9139:
9132:
9131:
9126:
9122:
9121:Fage, John D.
9118:
9114:
9110:
9104:
9100:
9096:
9092:
9088:
9076:
9072:
9071:
9066:
9062:
9058:
9054:
9050:
9046:
9042:
9038:
9033:
9029:
9025:
9021:
9017:
9016:
9010:
9006:
9002:
8997:
8990:
8986:
8982:
8978:
8971:
8970:
8965:
8961:
8957:
8953:
8949:
8945:
8941:
8937:
8936:
8931:
8927:
8923:
8917:
8913:
8909:
8905:
8900:
8896:
8892:
8888:
8884:
8880:
8876:
8875:
8868:
8861:
8854:
8853:
8848:
8844:
8832:
8828:
8827:
8826:The Telegraph
8822:
8817:
8813:
8809:
8805:
8801:
8798:(in French).
8797:
8793:
8788:
8776:
8772:
8768:
8764:
8760:
8753:
8749:
8745:
8741:
8737:
8730:
8725:
8721:
8715:
8711:
8707:
8703:
8699:
8694:
8690:
8686:
8682:
8679:(in German).
8678:
8673:
8669:
8665:
8661:
8657:
8653:
8649:
8645:
8641:
8637:
8633:
8632:
8626:
8614:
8610:
8609:
8604:
8599:
8592:
8588:
8584:
8577:
8572:
8568:
8564:
8560:
8556:
8555:
8550:
8546:
8539:
8535:
8529:
8525:
8518:
8517:
8509:
8504:
8497:
8493:
8489:
8485:
8478:
8474:
8470:
8458:
8454:
8450:
8445:
8441:
8437:
8433:
8429:
8424:
8420:
8416:
8412:
8406:
8402:
8398:
8394:
8389:
8385:
8381:
8377:
8373:
8369:
8365:
8361:
8357:
8356:
8351:
8347:
8335:
8331:
8330:
8325:
8320:
8316:
8312:
8308:
8304:
8300:
8296:
8295:
8289:
8282:
8278:
8271:
8270:
8265:
8260:
8256:
8250:
8246:
8242:
8238:
8233:
8229:
8225:
8221:
8217:
8216:
8210:
8206:
8202:
8198:
8194:
8190:
8186:
8182:
8178:
8174:
8168:
8164:
8160:
8156:
8149:
8148:
8143:
8138:
8131:
8127:
8120:
8116:
8115:Laitin, David
8112:
8111:Fearon, James
8108:
8104:
8100:
8096:
8092:
8088:
8084:
8083:
8077:
8073:
8069:
8065:
8062:(in French).
8061:
8057:
8053:
8049:
8045:
8041:
8037:
8033:
8029:
8025:
8021:
8020:
8015:
8011:
8004:
8000:
7996:
7989:
7988:"Expeditions"
7984:
7972:
7968:
7964:
7959:
7955:
7949:
7945:
7941:
7936:
7924:
7920:
7916:
7912:
7908:
7904:
7899:
7895:
7889:
7885:
7881:
7877:
7872:
7867:
7862:
7858:
7857:
7852:
7847:
7843:
7837:
7833:
7829:
7825:
7821:
7820:Buzzati, Dino
7817:
7813:
7809:
7805:
7801:
7800:Sixty stories
7797:
7796:
7791:
7790:Buzzati, Dino
7787:
7783:
7779:
7775:
7769:
7765:
7761:
7757:
7753:
7748:
7736:
7732:
7728:
7723:
7719:
7715:
7711:
7707:
7706:
7701:
7697:
7693:
7689:
7685:
7681:
7669:
7665:
7661:
7656:
7652:
7648:
7645:(25): 33–37.
7644:
7643:
7638:
7634:
7630:
7626:
7620:
7616:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7599:
7592:
7588:
7584:
7576:
7572:
7571:
7565:
7558:
7554:
7547:
7542:
7535:
7531:
7523:
7519:
7518:
7512:
7508:
7502:
7498:
7494:
7490:
7485:
7481:
7475:
7471:
7467:
7463:
7458:
7454:
7448:
7444:
7440:
7436:
7432:
7420:
7416:
7412:
7407:
7403:
7397:
7393:
7389:
7385:
7381:
7377:
7371:
7362:
7357:
7353:
7349:
7348:
7342:
7341:
7329:
7324:
7317:
7312:
7305:
7300:
7298:
7281:
7278:(in French).
7277:
7273:
7272:"Jean Vérame"
7267:
7261:, p. 35.
7260:
7255:
7240:. Colnect.com
7239:
7233:
7226:
7225:Chapelle 1982
7221:
7219:
7211:
7206:
7191:
7187:
7181:
7166:
7162:
7156:
7150:, p. 11.
7149:
7144:
7128:
7124:
7120:
7114:
7107:
7102:
7095:
7090:
7084:, p. 71.
7083:
7078:
7076:
7068:
7063:
7061:
7059:
7057:
7049:
7048:Kröpelin 2017
7044:
7042:
7040:
7038:
7036:
7034:
7026:
7021:
7019:
7017:
7015:
7008:, p. 20.
7007:
7002:
6995:
6994:Chapelle 1982
6990:
6983:
6978:
6976:
6974:
6967:, p. 69.
6966:
6965:Chapelle 1982
6961:
6959:
6957:
6950:, p. 17.
6949:
6944:
6937:
6932:
6925:
6920:
6914:, p. 32.
6913:
6912:Chapelle 1982
6908:
6901:
6896:
6894:
6887:, p. 78.
6886:
6881:
6875:, p. 39.
6874:
6869:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6839:
6832:
6827:
6820:
6816:
6812:
6807:
6800:
6795:
6788:
6783:
6781:
6764:
6758:
6751:
6750:Thesiger 1939
6746:
6739:
6734:
6727:
6722:
6715:
6710:
6703:
6702:Klitzsch 2004
6698:
6692:, p. 61.
6691:
6686:
6679:
6675:
6670:
6668:
6660:
6655:
6649:, p. 11.
6648:
6643:
6641:
6639:
6632:, p. 10.
6631:
6630:Chapelle 1982
6626:
6619:
6614:
6607:
6602:
6595:
6590:
6574:
6570:
6566:
6560:
6553:
6548:
6541:
6536:
6529:
6524:
6517:
6512:
6506:, p. 47.
6505:
6500:
6494:, p. 43.
6493:
6488:
6486:
6479:, p. 38.
6478:
6473:
6466:
6461:
6454:
6449:
6442:
6437:
6430:
6425:
6418:
6413:
6406:
6401:
6399:
6391:
6386:
6379:
6374:
6367:
6362:
6360:
6358:
6351:, p. 13.
6350:
6345:
6338:
6333:
6326:
6321:
6314:
6309:
6302:
6297:
6290:
6285:
6283:
6275:
6270:
6264:, p. 55.
6263:
6258:
6251:
6246:
6244:
6236:
6231:
6224:
6219:
6213:, p. 18.
6212:
6207:
6205:
6203:
6201:
6194:, p. 11.
6193:
6188:
6181:
6176:
6174:
6166:
6161:
6154:
6149:
6147:
6139:
6134:
6132:
6125:, p. 10.
6124:
6119:
6117:
6115:
6107:
6102:
6095:
6090:
6083:
6078:
6071:
6066:
6059:
6054:
6047:
6042:
6035:
6034:Chapelle 1982
6030:
6023:
6018:
6016:
6008:
6003:
5997:, p. 64.
5996:
5995:Chapelle 1982
5991:
5989:
5987:
5979:
5974:
5967:
5962:
5955:
5954:Chapelle 1982
5950:
5943:
5942:Chapelle 1982
5938:
5931:
5926:
5919:
5914:
5907:
5906:Chapelle 1982
5902:
5895:
5894:Chapelle 1982
5890:
5884:, p. 41.
5883:
5882:Chapelle 1982
5878:
5871:
5866:
5864:
5862:
5860:
5852:
5851:Chapelle 1982
5847:
5840:
5839:Chapelle 1982
5835:
5828:
5827:Chapelle 1982
5823:
5816:
5811:
5804:
5803:Desanges 1964
5799:
5792:
5787:
5785:
5777:
5772:
5765:
5760:
5758:
5756:
5754:
5746:
5745:Chapelle 1982
5741:
5734:
5729:
5722:
5721:Chapelle 1982
5717:
5715:
5708:, p. 70.
5707:
5706:Chapelle 1982
5702:
5700:
5698:
5696:
5694:
5692:
5690:
5682:
5681:Chapelle 1982
5677:
5670:
5669:Chapelle 1982
5665:
5658:
5653:
5647:, p. 32.
5646:
5641:
5634:
5633:Chapelle 1982
5629:
5623:, p. 75.
5622:
5617:
5610:
5609:Chapelle 1982
5605:
5603:
5601:
5599:
5597:
5595:
5587:
5582:
5576:, p. 29.
5575:
5570:
5564:, p. 30.
5563:
5558:
5556:
5554:
5546:
5545:Chapelle 1982
5541:
5534:
5529:
5522:
5521:Chapelle 1982
5517:
5511:, p. 19.
5510:
5505:
5498:
5497:Thompson 2020
5493:
5486:
5481:
5474:
5469:
5467:
5465:
5457:
5452:
5437:
5433:
5427:
5420:
5419:Salvador 1996
5415:
5409:, p. 69.
5408:
5403:
5397:, p. 27.
5396:
5391:
5389:
5381:
5376:
5369:
5364:
5357:
5352:
5345:
5340:
5334:, p. 13.
5333:
5328:
5326:
5318:
5313:
5311:
5303:
5298:
5291:
5286:
5280:, p. 19.
5279:
5274:
5272:
5270:
5262:
5257:
5255:
5253:
5245:
5240:
5238:
5236:
5228:
5223:
5221:
5219:
5217:
5215:
5213:
5205:
5200:
5193:
5188:
5181:
5176:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5154:
5147:
5142:
5134:
5130:
5124:
5122:
5120:
5112:
5111:Messerli 1973
5107:
5100:
5099:Messerli 1973
5095:
5087:
5083:
5077:
5075:
5073:
5071:
5069:
5067:
5065:
5063:
5061:
5059:
5057:
5055:
5053:
5051:
5049:
5041:
5036:
5034:
5027:, p. 11.
5026:
5021:
5014:
5009:
5002:
4997:
4990:
4989:Hagedorn 1997
4985:
4978:
4977:Hagedorn 1997
4973:
4971:
4963:
4962:Hagedorn 1997
4958:
4951:
4950:Hagedorn 1997
4946:
4939:
4934:
4927:
4922:
4907:
4903:
4902:
4897:
4891:
4884:
4879:
4872:
4867:
4860:
4855:
4848:
4843:
4836:
4831:
4824:
4819:
4812:
4807:
4800:
4795:
4788:
4783:
4776:
4771:
4764:
4759:
4744:
4740:
4739:
4734:
4728:
4713:
4709:
4708:
4703:
4697:
4690:
4685:
4678:
4673:
4671:
4669:
4667:
4659:
4654:
4652:
4644:
4639:
4632:
4627:
4620:
4615:
4613:
4605:
4600:
4598:
4591:, p. 18.
4590:
4585:
4583:
4581:
4579:
4577:
4575:
4567:
4562:
4556:, p. 67.
4555:
4554:Chapelle 1982
4550:
4543:
4542:Chapelle 1982
4538:
4532:, p. 23.
4531:
4526:
4519:
4514:
4507:
4502:
4495:
4490:
4483:
4478:
4476:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4468:
4466:
4458:
4453:
4446:
4441:
4434:
4429:
4427:
4425:
4423:
4421:
4419:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4405:
4400:
4398:
4391:, p. 10.
4390:
4389:Hellmich 1972
4385:
4378:
4373:
4371:
4369:
4361:
4356:
4349:
4344:
4342:
4340:
4338:
4336:
4334:
4332:
4330:
4322:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4301:
4296:
4294:
4292:
4284:
4279:
4272:
4271:Bosworth 2012
4267:
4265:
4258:, p. 18.
4257:
4252:
4245:
4240:
4238:
4236:
4220:
4219:
4214:
4210:
4204:
4202:
4200:
4198:
4196:
4188:
4183:
4181:
4173:
4168:
4166:
4164:
4162:
4160:
4158:
4151:, p. 20.
4150:
4145:
4143:
4135:
4130:
4128:
4126:
4119:, p. xi.
4118:
4113:
4106:
4101:
4094:
4089:
4087:
4085:
4083:
4075:
4070:
4063:
4058:
4056:
4040:
4036:
4035:
4030:
4024:
4022:
4020:
4018:
4016:
4011:
3999:
3993:
3987:
3983:
3978:
3969:
3960:
3953:
3947:
3940:
3937:According to
3934:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3914:cave dwellers
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3890:
3883:
3882:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3868:
3867:A. impalearis
3861:
3854:
3848:
3841:
3835:
3826:
3819:
3815:
3809:
3805:
3793:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3778:
3776:
3772:
3762:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3739:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3664:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3643:
3641:
3635:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3595:
3586:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3483:
3480:
3476:
3471:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3392:
3390:
3389:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3375:Guido Monzino
3371:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3329:
3325:
3319:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3304:Jean Chapelle
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3280:
3272:
3268:
3259:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3230:
3228:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3206:
3196:
3194:
3189:
3185:
3179:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3133:
3131:
3130:Félix Malloum
3125:
3123:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3101:Hissène Habré
3098:
3093:
3091:
3088:In 1968, the
3086:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3065:
3059:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2984:occupied the
2983:
2978:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2951:Great Britain
2948:
2944:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2915:
2910:
2907:
2900:
2895:
2892:
2885:
2880:
2877:
2873:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2850:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2833:
2827:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2803:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2787:
2784:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2769:
2759:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2740:Leo Africanus
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2716:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2678:
2664:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2638:
2637:
2631:
2627:
2619:
2614:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2594:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2390:). Among the
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2302:Olive baboons
2299:
2295:
2294:Lycaon pictus
2291:
2287:
2286:Hyaena hyaena
2283:
2282:striped hyena
2279:
2275:
2274:Rüppell's fox
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2258:golden jackal
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2190:Barbary sheep
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2148:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2082:Erica arborea
2079:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2062:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2046:
2045:Zilla spinosa
2041:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1986:
1985:
1980:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1865:phytoplankton
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1819:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1770:Nile tamarisk
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1738:
1733:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1678:Aïr Mountains
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1658:Mediterranean
1652:
1648:
1643:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1615:Jebel Uweinat
1612:
1608:
1604:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1369:
1325:
1319:
1289:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1242:Sahara Desert
1233:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1180:The study of
1178:
1176:
1172:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1136:
1131:
1125:Geomorphology
1122:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1109:, as well as
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1095:geologic time
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1054:Lower Miocene
1051:
1047:
1043:
1042:volcanic rock
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1004:
1000:
999:Cameroon line
996:
992:
988:
984:
981:
980:African Plate
977:
973:
969:
962:
961:lava channels
958:
954:
949:
940:
936:
934:
930:
925:
921:
916:
914:
910:
906:
901:
897:
893:
892:Serir Tibesti
885:
881:
876:
872:
870:
865:
863:
859:
851:
847:
842:
833:
831:
830:Serir Tibesti
828:known as the
827:
823:
819:
814:
810:
809:Tarso Emi Chi
806:
802:
798:
794:
784:
780:
773:
768:
761:
756:
753:
746:
741:
734:
729:
726:
725:
723:
720:
716:
712:
708:
707:sulfuric acid
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
683:
679:
675:
668:
663:
659:
657:
646:
642:
640:
639:Cameroon line
636:
632:
628:
624:
623:Gulf of Sidra
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
584:
579:
565:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
522:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
491:Toubou people
482:
480:
476:
472:
471:Barbary sheep
468:
464:
460:
455:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
431:Carthaginians
427:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
404:Toubou people
400:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
270:
268:
264:
261:
258:
256:
252:
247:
242:
238:20.783; 18.05
214:
212:
208:
205:
201:
198:
194:
168:
158:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
124:
119:
91:
89:
85:
81:
79:
75:
72:
69:
65:
60:
56:
50:
45:
40:
37:
33:
19:
10711:(aka koppie)
10698:
10496:Owambo Basin
10481:Ogaden Basin
10471:Murzuq Basin
10441:Douala Basin
10416:Angola Basin
10388:Urema Valley
10373:Red Sea Rift
10368:Muglad Basin
10338:Benue Trough
10144:Congo Craton
10107:Rovuma Plate
10091:Somali Plate
10026:
10008:Waw an Namus
9997:
9988:Jebel Akhdar
9884:February 23,
9882:. Retrieved
9871:
9868:"Zum Weinen"
9834:
9829:
9825:White, Frank
9813:. Retrieved
9802:
9762:February 12,
9760:. Retrieved
9754:
9716:
9711:
9697:
9692:
9681:February 23,
9679:. Retrieved
9633:
9627:
9599:
9593:
9576:
9570:
9538:
9532:
9508:
9485:
9466:
9446:
9440:
9423:
9419:
9392:
9381:the original
9368:
9356:the original
9349:
9306:
9300:
9273:
9270:Room, Adrian
9261:
9255:
9230:
9194:
9188:
9159:
9153:
9129:
9094:
9081:February 23,
9079:. Retrieved
9068:
9040:
9036:
9019:
9014:
9004:
9000:
8968:
8939:
8933:
8907:
8903:
8878:
8872:
8851:
8837:February 23,
8835:. Retrieved
8824:
8799:
8795:
8781:February 12,
8779:. Retrieved
8752:the original
8739:
8735:
8697:
8680:
8676:
8638:(1): 61–72.
8635:
8629:
8619:February 15,
8617:. Retrieved
8613:the original
8606:
8582:
8552:
8538:the original
8515:
8496:the original
8483:
8461:. Retrieved
8431:
8427:
8396:
8392:
8362:(1): 18–27.
8359:
8353:
8340:February 23,
8338:. Retrieved
8327:
8298:
8292:
8268:
8240:
8236:
8222:(1): 26–56.
8219:
8213:
8196:
8192:
8146:
8130:the original
8086:
8080:
8063:
8059:
8023:
8017:
7998:
7994:
7977:February 23,
7975:. Retrieved
7939:
7929:November 21,
7927:. Retrieved
7923:the original
7906:
7879:
7875:
7854:
7823:
7799:
7793:
7751:
7741:February 23,
7739:. Retrieved
7703:
7674:February 23,
7672:. Retrieved
7668:the original
7640:
7628:
7624:
7606:
7602:
7591:the original
7574:
7569:
7557:the original
7521:
7516:
7492:
7488:
7465:
7461:
7438:
7425:February 23,
7423:. Retrieved
7387:
7346:
7337:Bibliography
7328:Buzzati 1958
7323:
7316:Buzzati 1984
7311:
7284:. Retrieved
7275:
7266:
7254:
7244:February 14,
7242:. Retrieved
7232:
7212:, p. 8.
7205:
7195:February 14,
7193:. Retrieved
7180:
7170:February 14,
7168:. Retrieved
7155:
7143:
7133:February 23,
7131:. Retrieved
7113:
7101:
7089:
7001:
6989:
6943:
6931:
6919:
6907:
6880:
6868:
6858:February 23,
6856:. Retrieved
6838:
6826:
6806:
6794:
6767:. Retrieved
6757:
6745:
6733:
6721:
6709:
6697:
6685:
6674:Conklin 2013
6654:
6625:
6613:
6606:Tubiana 2016
6601:
6589:
6577:. Retrieved
6559:
6547:
6535:
6523:
6511:
6499:
6472:
6460:
6448:
6436:
6429:Pollack 2004
6424:
6412:
6407:, loc. 5457.
6405:Pollack 2004
6390:Pollack 2004
6385:
6373:
6368:, loc. 5452.
6366:Pollack 2004
6344:
6332:
6320:
6315:, Chpt. III.
6308:
6296:
6269:
6257:
6230:
6218:
6211:Higgins 1993
6187:
6160:
6153:Correau 2008
6108:, p. 6.
6101:
6089:
6077:
6072:, p. 4.
6065:
6053:
6041:
6029:
6002:
5973:
5961:
5949:
5937:
5925:
5913:
5901:
5889:
5877:
5870:Collelo 1990
5846:
5841:, p. 9.
5834:
5822:
5810:
5798:
5771:
5766:, p. 2.
5740:
5728:
5676:
5664:
5652:
5640:
5628:
5616:
5581:
5569:
5547:, p. 7.
5540:
5528:
5523:, p. 6.
5516:
5509:Mahjoub 2015
5504:
5492:
5480:
5451:
5441:February 15,
5439:. Retrieved
5426:
5421:, p. 1.
5414:
5402:
5375:
5363:
5351:
5339:
5317:Beudels 2008
5297:
5285:
5199:
5187:
5175:
5167:the original
5153:
5148:, p. 3.
5141:
5133:the original
5106:
5094:
5085:
5042:, p. 2.
5020:
5008:
4996:
4984:
4957:
4945:
4933:
4921:
4911:February 12,
4909:. Retrieved
4899:
4890:
4878:
4866:
4854:
4842:
4830:
4818:
4806:
4794:
4782:
4770:
4758:
4746:. Retrieved
4736:
4727:
4717:September 7,
4715:. Retrieved
4705:
4696:
4684:
4660:, p. 2.
4638:
4626:
4561:
4549:
4537:
4525:
4513:
4501:
4489:
4452:
4440:
4406:, p. 1.
4384:
4362:, p. 9.
4355:
4350:, p. 1.
4278:
4251:
4246:, p. 1.
4222:. Retrieved
4218:Google Earth
4216:
4174:, p. 3.
4112:
4100:
4069:
4044:September 7,
4042:. Retrieved
4032:
4029:"Emi Koussi"
3992:
3977:
3968:
3959:
3950:Le Cœur was
3946:
3939:Oliver (1975
3933:
3889:
3879:
3876:Afrotropical
3865:
3860:
3847:
3834:
3825:
3813:
3808:
3786:Dino Buzzati
3779:
3768:
3746:
3740:
3708:hippopotamus
3698:, including
3689:
3652:conservation
3649:
3646:Conservation
3636:
3612:Faya-Largeau
3600:
3542:Horticulture
3540:
3535:
3527:
3524:desert gourd
3519:
3511:
3503:
3489:
3472:
3417:
3386:
3372:
3360:
3344:Pic Toussidé
3337:
3320:
3300:World War II
3276:
3251:drug traffic
3236:
3223:
3208:
3180:
3160:Aouzou Strip
3157:
3152:Aouzou Strip
3126:
3094:
3087:
3067:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3017:Aouzou Strip
3014:
2979:
2971:Islamization
2940:
2828:
2804:
2788:
2779:
2772:
2767:
2764:
2717:
2702:
2690:Carthaginian
2683:
2641:
2634:
2623:
2599:
2581:
2573:
2565:
2561:
2553:
2539:
2534:
2526:
2518:
2510:
2502:
2494:
2486:
2478:
2470:
2466:
2458:
2450:
2440:
2435:
2427:
2415:
2407:
2399:
2387:
2383:
2375:
2371:
2354:
2349:
2341:
2333:
2325:
2317:
2306:Papio anubis
2305:
2293:
2285:
2277:
2270:Vulpes zerda
2269:
2262:Canis aureus
2261:
2249:
2242:Felis lybica
2241:
2236:such as the
2229:
2225:
2217:
2209:
2193:
2185:
2182:rhim gazelle
2177:
2169:
2156:
2133:
2129:
2121:
2113:
2101:Trichostomum
2099:
2095:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2071:
2065:
2059:
2056:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2033:
2023:
2017:
2011:
2005:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1950:
1942:
1934:
1920:
1917:Acacia laeta
1916:
1912:
1904:
1897:F. sycomorus
1896:
1893:sycamore fig
1889:Ficus ingens
1888:
1880:
1872:
1860:
1852:
1848:
1840:
1832:
1822:
1816:
1808:
1802:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1777:
1773:
1765:
1757:
1749:
1745:
1735:
1729:
1721:
1713:
1685:
1674:Biodiversity
1672:vegetation.
1655:
1651:Burkina Faso
1600:
1281:
1270:
1239:
1179:
1171:cinder cones
1168:
1143:
1140:
1079:Elysium Mons
1030:North Africa
1007:
972:mantle plume
965:
953:cinder cones
937:
923:
917:
891:
889:
868:
866:
855:
849:
829:
796:
790:
671:
652:
643:
588:
561:
545:
541:
537:
523:
518:
514:
510:
506:
498:
494:
488:
475:biodiversity
467:rhim gazelle
456:
428:
418:and limited
401:
308:
306:
267:Type of rock
36:
10594:Drakensberg
10511:Sirte Basin
10466:Kufra Basin
10456:Gabon Basin
10451:Karoo Basin
10436:Congo Basin
10383:Atbara rift
10363:Melut Basin
10328:Anza trough
10189:Shear zones
9968:Bikku Bitti
9873:Der Spiegel
9815:January 17,
9463:Scott, Doug
9442:Willdenowia
9235:Bison Books
9043:(1): 1–11.
8802:: 167–178.
8698:The Lichens
8549:Huß, Werner
8401:L'Harmattan
8199:: 231–262.
7884:L'Harmattan
7384:Arnold, Guy
7330:, chpt. 39.
7259:Berque 1993
7094:Grolle 2013
6948:Kaiser 1972
6924:Suayah 2006
6873:Ingram 2001
6799:Steele 1964
6787:Steele 1964
6647:Baroin 2003
6250:Jacobs 2011
6223:Arnold 2009
6182:, chpt. II.
5815:Oliver 1975
5776:Oliver 1975
5621:Baroin 1985
5395:Geniez 2011
5302:Kappen 1973
5204:Giazzi 1996
5025:Tourte 2005
4799:Suayah 2006
4733:"Tarso Tôh"
4360:Baldur 2018
3765:Other works
3574:dromedaries
3538:in August.
3516:fruit rinds
3486:Agriculture
3383:Bikku Bitti
3215:Idriss Déby
3136:Tibesti War
3113:West German
3090:French Army
3002:World War I
2988:, a French
2732:Ibn Khaldun
2698:Aethiopians
2648:agriculture
2616:Map of the
2568:), Tibesti
2495:Argya fulva
2475:desert lark
2424:brown frogs
2368:braid snake
2330:trident bat
2206:spiny mouse
2096:Gymnostomum
1984:Gymnostomum
1861:Potamogeton
1728:—including
1708:—including
1706:macrophytes
1670:Afromontane
1313: /
1278:evaporation
1083:trap basalt
1058:Pleistocene
1026:Precambrian
983:lithosphere
909:escarpments
801:lava fields
715:hot springs
656:Bikku Bitti
381:hot springs
375:, creating
333:Bikku Bitti
255:Age of rock
236: /
115:19.8; 18.53
113: /
88:Coordinates
10773:Categories
10733:Mount Mabu
10718:Anti-Atlas
10709:Inselbergs
10431:Chad Basin
10003:Al Uweinat
9778:(Report).
9667:"Stations"
9243:B003NHSEK0
9070:Wanderlust
9007:: 192–198.
8451:(Report).
7210:Davis 1984
6811:Scott 2017
6690:Jäkel 1977
6569:Africanews
5764:Roure 1939
5485:Tilho 1920
5227:White 1998
5192:White 1998
5146:Musch 2021
5040:Musch 2021
5013:Maley 2000
4619:Grove 1960
4530:Grove 1960
4256:Grove 1960
4244:Roure 1939
4074:Shoup 2011
4007:References
3906:Garamantes
3704:rhinoceros
3500:date palms
3496:mosquitoes
3479:rheumatism
3475:dermatitis
3368:Doug Scott
3352:Emi Koussi
3328:geoscience
3306:published
3296:geographer
3203:See also:
3140:See also:
3062:See also:
2980:While the
2819:Jalo oasis
2736:Al-Maqrizi
2705:Garamantes
2588:Population
2529:) and the
2463:blackstart
2432:true toads
2410:) and the
2378:) and the
2360:amphibians
2346:rock hyrax
2344:) and the
2328:) and the
2298:extirpated
2266:fennec fox
2220:) and the
2132:spp.) and
2091:Campylopus
2078:tree heath
2008:grasslands
1931:globularia
1909:gay acacia
1901:wonderboom
1805:doum palms
1726:bryophytes
1647:gay acacia
1623:endangered
1586:Source 2:
1258:trade wind
1228:until the
1206:charophyta
1152:Tarso Toon
1148:Tarso Yega
1107:ignimbrite
987:subduction
813:Tarso Ahon
752:Tarso Voon
667:Emi Koussi
649:Topography
550:Tarso Voon
416:palm trees
410:, on rare
357:lava flows
349:Tarso Yega
345:Tarso Voon
341:Tarso Toon
329:Emi Koussi
288:Ignimbrite
224:18°03′00″E
221:20°46′59″N
126:Dimensions
71:Emi Koussi
10753:Zuma Rock
10748:Wase Rock
9827:(1998) .
9333:227182800
9278:McFarland
9057:231814001
8948:0004-0851
8748:0013-9998
8660:0016-7398
8488:The Hague
8463:March 21,
8440:174113929
8181:213102386
8048:144539970
7851:"Guépard"
7812:459008523
7804:Mondadori
7782:177517883
7615:919879871
7470:CRC Press
7356:CiteSeerX
7286:March 21,
6815:"Tibesti"
6813:, search
6769:April 20,
6676:, search
6289:Metz 1989
6262:Metz 1989
4748:March 20,
4224:April 19,
4062:Room 2006
3894:Herodotus
3771:CFA franc
3720:antelopes
3716:ostriches
3700:elephants
3628:pavilions
3620:Marseille
3508:doum palm
3464:Amazonite
3448:beryllium
3418:Although
3409:Amazonite
3342:abutting
3314:opened a
3288:petrology
3233:Gold rush
3168:N'Djamena
3095:In 1969,
2925:Cyrenaica
2823:Cyrenaica
2694:Herodotus
2686:Stone Age
2430:sp.) and
2338:Cape hare
2130:Aspicilia
2086:Fissidens
1990:Timmiella
1978:Fissidens
1855:), while
1845:toad rush
1702:tamarisks
1254:Harmattan
1250:monsoonal
1214:gastropod
1210:Characeae
1175:Carbonate
1050:Oligocene
1038:Paleozoic
1034:sandstone
991:rift zone
900:watershed
836:Hydrology
719:Tarso Tôh
695:fumaroles
682:lava dome
627:Lake Chad
611:N'djamena
568:Geography
385:mud pools
377:fumaroles
369:Oligocene
361:Paleozoic
337:volcanoes
260:Oligocene
196:Countries
155:Geography
78:Elevation
10446:El Djouf
9878:Archived
9857:Archived
9809:Archived
9784:Archived
9739:Archived
9675:Archived
9581:Archived
9513:Elsevier
9490:ABC-CLIO
9465:(2017).
9397:Elsevier
9325:33244782
9272:(2006).
9229:(2004).
9219:53463999
9142:Archived
9119:(1975).
9093:(1995).
9075:Archived
9028:Archived
8989:Archived
8985:88600480
8966:(1989).
8860:Archived
8849:(2015).
8831:Archived
8812:Archived
8775:Archived
8736:Die Erde
8702:Elsevier
8683:: 9–34.
8591:Archived
8457:Archived
8419:39372160
8334:Archived
8329:ABC News
8281:Archived
8266:(1990).
8205:41409917
8193:Paideuma
8155:Springer
8144:(eds.).
8072:41523030
8040:25130436
8026:: 7–35.
8003:Archived
7971:Archived
7919:89600373
7822:(1984).
7756:Springer
7735:Archived
7702:(eds.).
7651:29543834
7642:AA Files
7631:: 1–162.
7587:54307645
7534:Archived
7419:Archived
7386:(2009).
7280:Archived
7127:Archived
6852:Archived
6831:Cox 1965
6579:June 17,
6573:Archived
5791:Huß 2006
3984:and the
3902:chariots
3881:A. agama
3878:species
3775:land art
3751:chariots
3724:gazelles
3712:giraffes
3681:Rock art
3444:tantalum
3436:tungsten
3424:Diamonds
3413:Ethiopia
3199:MDJT War
2982:Italians
2832:suzerain
2748:Numidian
2713:Agisymba
2542:salinity
2356:Reptiles
1939:lavender
1857:pondweed
1837:sea rush
1762:oleander
1274:humidity
1256:, a dry
1111:trachyte
1103:rhyolite
1091:andesite
1087:Basanite
1010:basement
933:wetlands
862:aquifers
691:Holocene
573:Location
485:Toponymy
445:and the
443:Ottomans
373:Holocene
355:. Major
353:Toussidé
300:Trachyte
292:Rhyolite
280:Basanite
272:Andesite
10247:Orogens
10131:shields
10127:Cratons
10027:Commons
9998:Tibesti
9658:1787293
9638:Bibcode
9604:Bibcode
9543:Bibcode
9455:3995401
9199:Bibcode
9164:Bibcode
8956:1550163
8883:Bibcode
8668:1796675
8640:Bibcode
8384:1790425
8364:Bibcode
8303:Bibcode
8215:Zootaxa
8091:Bibcode
8060:Latomus
6738:L. 1876
4215:(Map).
3790:autarky
3743:assegai
3728:baboons
3683:in the
3608:airport
3589:Tourism
3582:donkeys
3562:cereals
3520:enneris
3440:niobium
3428:uranium
3395:Economy
3381:scaled
3284:geology
3255:cocaine
3164:uranium
3025:Tibesti
2955:Senussi
2792:Bideyat
2744:Berbers
2724:Zaghawa
2667:History
2603:airport
2402:), the
2392:lizards
2336:). The
2280:). The
2246:cheetah
2212:spp.),
2198:Rodents
2158:Mammals
2106:Lichens
1778:enneris
1686:enneris
1619:endemic
1603:ecology
1576:(53.3)
1571:(39.7)
1566:(45.4)
1561:(55.3)
1556:(62.8)
1551:(65.5)
1546:(65.8)
1541:(65.1)
1536:(61.7)
1531:(54.3)
1526:(46.5)
1521:(40.3)
1516:(36.7)
1506:(67.9)
1501:(52.8)
1496:(59.1)
1491:(69.3)
1486:(77.1)
1481:(79.7)
1471:(81.2)
1466:(77.6)
1456:(61.7)
1451:(55.1)
1446:(50.5)
1436:(82.7)
1431:(65.8)
1426:(72.9)
1421:(83.5)
1416:(91.5)
1406:(96.3)
1401:(97.2)
1396:(93.5)
1391:(85.7)
1376:(64.5)
1301:17°45′E
1298:21°15′N
1282:enneris
1236:Climate
1071:Austral
1056:to the
1046:hotspot
1036:of the
1018:diorite
1014:granite
989:, of a
978:of the
974:in the
943:Geology
920:gueltas
882:on the
869:enneris
850:enneris
615:Tripoli
599:Tibesti
562:Goumodi
519:Tibesti
439:Tuaregs
435:Berbers
424:gueltas
397:Erosion
365:hotspot
249:Geology
180:Tibesti
101:18°32′E
98:19°48′N
42:Tibesti
18:Tibesti
10829:Sahara
10421:Aoukar
10076:Plates
9993:Nafusa
9983:Arkanu
9973:Sherif
9963:Acacus
9849:
9837:]
9731:
9719:]
9656:
9519:
9496:
9473:
9453:
9403:
9331:
9323:
9284:
9241:
9217:
9105:
9055:
8983:
8954:
8946:
8918:
8746:
8716:
8666:
8658:
8583:Summit
8530:
8508:"Chad"
8438:
8417:
8407:
8382:
8251:
8203:
8179:
8169:
8119:"Chad"
8070:
8046:
8038:
7950:
7917:
7890:
7838:
7810:
7780:
7770:
7660:"Chad"
7649:
7613:
7585:
7577:]
7524:]
7503:
7476:
7449:
7398:
7358:
7190:UNESCO
7165:UNESCO
4209:Google
3898:Awjila
3818:Toubou
3814:Toubou
3759:horses
3755:camels
3747:enneri
3736:camels
3685:Fezzan
3566:cattle
3558:barley
3550:millet
3536:tarsos
3460:copper
3243:Darfur
3075:Toubou
2990:column
2986:Fezzan
2967:Zawiya
2947:France
2906:Ennedi
2891:Borkou
2836:feudal
2796:Kaouar
2752:Tuareg
2656:mortar
2618:Toubou
2607:Zougra
2438:sp.).
2272:) and
2254:canine
2210:Acomys
2162:Bovids
1973:mosses
1953:) and
1937:) and
1907:) and
1829:sedges
1792:) and
1760:) and
1724:)—and
1716:) and
1690:acacia
1662:Sahara
1327:Month
1212:) and
1190:gravel
1144:tarsos
1119:felsic
1099:dacite
1022:schist
995:faults
976:craton
955:, two
929:Bardaï
924:enneri
896:Borkou
880:guelta
805:ejecta
797:tarsos
711:sulfur
709:. The
633:. The
603:Murzuq
583:relief
554:Bardaï
534:Dazaga
530:Tedaga
526:Arabic
515:Toubou
420:grains
414:where
393:sulfur
389:natron
317:Sahara
311:are a
284:Dacite
276:Basalt
131:Length
55:Bardaï
10315:Rifts
9978:Haruj
9952:Libya
9860:(PDF)
9839:(PDF)
9833:[
9787:(PDF)
9776:(PDF)
9742:(PDF)
9721:(PDF)
9715:[
9696:[
9654:JSTOR
9584:(PDF)
9567:(PDF)
9451:JSTOR
9384:(PDF)
9373:(PDF)
9359:(PDF)
9346:(PDF)
9329:S2CID
9215:S2CID
9145:(PDF)
9134:(PDF)
9053:S2CID
9018:[
9015:Tchad
8992:(PDF)
8973:(PDF)
8952:JSTOR
8906:[
8863:(PDF)
8856:(PDF)
8755:(PDF)
8732:(PDF)
8664:JSTOR
8594:(PDF)
8579:(PDF)
8559:Brill
8541:(PDF)
8520:(PDF)
8511:(PDF)
8499:(PDF)
8480:(PDF)
8430:[
8395:[
8380:JSTOR
8284:(PDF)
8273:(PDF)
8239:[
8201:JSTOR
8177:S2CID
8151:(PDF)
8133:(PDF)
8122:(PDF)
8068:JSTOR
8044:S2CID
8036:JSTOR
8006:(PDF)
7991:(PDF)
7878:[
7798:[
7778:S2CID
7710:Brill
7647:JSTOR
7605:[
7594:(PDF)
7579:(PDF)
7573:[
7560:(PDF)
7549:(PDF)
7537:(PDF)
7526:(PDF)
7520:[
7491:[
7352:CITES
3998:Tibet
3872:agama
3801:Notes
3640:tents
3578:sheep
3570:goats
3554:maize
3546:wheat
3532:flour
3522:grow
3492:oases
3411:from
3247:Libya
3239:Sahel
2963:Gouro
2921:Kufra
2876:Kanem
2858:clans
2807:Kufra
2800:Kanem
2774:Ghazw
2768:yobat
2728:Islam
2636:Derdé
2570:labeo
2564:syn.
2469:syn.
2443:birds
2386:syn.
2374:syn.
2364:Snake
2228:syn.
2202:order
2166:addax
2142:Fauna
1961:syn.
1927:grass
1915:syn.
1813:reeds
1788:syn.
1748:syn.
1737:Bryum
1698:palms
1682:Oases
1666:Sahel
1637:Flora
1631:fauna
1627:flora
1607:biome
1476:(81)
1461:(70)
1411:(94)
1386:(77)
1381:(70)
1366:Year
1262:front
957:maars
846:wadis
822:wadis
619:Niger
607:Kufra
595:Libya
546:tarso
463:fauna
459:flora
447:Arabs
412:oases
408:wadis
325:Libya
204:Libya
139:Width
10129:and
9886:2021
9847:ISBN
9817:2016
9764:2021
9729:ISBN
9683:2021
9517:ISBN
9494:ISBN
9471:ISBN
9401:ISBN
9321:PMID
9282:ISBN
9239:ASIN
9103:ISBN
9083:2021
9020:Chad
8981:LCCN
8944:ISSN
8916:ISBN
8839:2021
8783:2021
8744:ISSN
8714:ISBN
8656:ISSN
8621:2021
8528:ISBN
8465:2021
8436:OCLC
8415:OCLC
8405:ISBN
8342:2021
8249:ISBN
8220:3098
8167:ISBN
7979:2021
7948:ISBN
7931:2021
7915:LCCN
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