2983:
2290:
2978:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{}\\{\ce {^{232}_{92}U -> ^{228}_{90}Th}}\ &\mathrm {(68.9\ years)} \\{\ce {^{228}_{90}Th -> ^{224}_{88}Ra}}\ &\mathrm {(1.9\ year)} \\{\ce {^{224}_{88}Ra -> ^{220}_{86}Rn}}\ &\mathrm {(3.6\ day,\ 0.24\ MeV)} \\{\ce {^{220}_{86}Rn -> ^{216}_{84}Po}}\ &\mathrm {(55\ s,\ 0.54\ MeV)} \\{\ce {^{216}_{84}Po -> ^{212}_{82}Pb}}\ &\mathrm {(0.15\ s)} \\{\ce {^{212}_{82}Pb -> ^{212}_{83}Bi}}\ &\mathrm {(10.64\ h)} \\{\ce {^{212}_{83}Bi -> ^{208}_{81}Tl}}\ &\mathrm {(61\ m,\ 0.78\ MeV)} \\{\ce {^{208}_{81}Tl -> ^{208}_{82}Pb}}\ &\mathrm {(3\ m,\ 2.6\ MeV)} \\{}\end{aligned}}}
5140:
4707:
2213:
2088:
4299:
4683:
4213:
5174:
4942:
4889:
4857:
4621:
4570:
4517:
4456:
4353:
1565:
20:
4699:
5214:
5081:
4817:
4760:
4691:
4174:
5042:
5003:
4403:
5204:
2083:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{}\\{\ce {{^{232}_{90}Th}->{^{233}_{90}Th}->{^{233}_{91}Pa}{\text{ }}->{^{233}_{92}U}->{^{232}_{92}U}}}\\{\ce {{^{232}_{90}Th}->{^{233}_{90}Th}->{^{233}_{91}Pa}{\text{ }}->{^{232}_{91}Pa}->{^{232}_{92}U}}}\\{\ce {{^{232}_{90}Th}->{^{231}_{90}Th}->{^{231}_{91}Pa}{\text{ }}->{^{232}_{91}Pa}->{^{232}_{92}U}}}\\{}\end{aligned}}}
766:
research project into transmutation is mostly focused on transuranic waste. Furthermore, the cross section of some fission products is relatively low and others - such as caesium - are present as a mixture of stable, short lived and long lived isotopes in nuclear waste, making transmutation dependent
405:
A 2011 MIT study concluded that although there is little in the way of barriers to a thorium fuel cycle, with current or near term light-water reactor designs there is also little incentive for any significant market penetration to occur. As such they conclude there is little chance of thorium cycles
5512:
We are concerned, however, that other processes, which might be conducted in smaller facilities, could be used to convert 232Th into 233U while minimizing contamination by 232U, thus posing a proliferation threat. Notably, the chemical separation of an intermediate isotope — protactinium-233 — that
4243:
From IAEA TECDOC-1450 "Thorium Fuel Cycle – Potential
Benefits and Challenges", Table 1: Thorium utilization in different experimental and power reactors. Additionally from Energy Information Administration, "Spent Nuclear Fuel Discharges from U. S. Reactors", Table B4: Dresden 1 Assembly Class.
305:
motivated initial interest in the thorium fuel cycle. It was envisioned that as uranium reserves were depleted, thorium would supplement uranium as a fertile material. However, for most countries uranium was relatively abundant and research in thorium fuel cycles waned. A notable exception was
715:
382:
or "accelerator driven system" (ADS), which he saw as a novel and safe way to produce nuclear energy that exploited existing accelerator technologies. Rubbia's proposal offered the potential to incinerate high-activity nuclear waste and produce energy from natural
761:
or elsewhere). However, while the principal feasibility of some of those reactions has been demonstrated at laboratory scale, there is, as of 2024, no large scale deliberate transmutation of fission products anywhere in the world, and the upcoming
740:. According to some toxicity studies, the thorium cycle can fully recycle actinide wastes and only emit fission product wastes, and after a few hundred years, the waste from a thorium reactor can be less toxic than the
3282:
is greater than two over a wide range of energies, including the thermal spectrum. A breeding reactor in the uranium–plutonium cycle needs to use fast neutrons, because in the thermal spectrum one neutron absorbed by
578:
5907:
Thermal neutron cross sections in barns (isotope, capture:fission, f/f+c, f/c) 233U 45.26:531.3 92.15% 11.74; 235U 98.69:585.0 85.57% 5.928; 239Pu 270.7:747.9 73.42% 2.763; 241Pu 363.0:1012 73.60% 2.788.
5513:
decays into 233U is a cause for concern. ... The
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) considers 8 kilograms of 233U to be enough to construct a nuclear weapon1. Thus, 233U poses proliferation risks.
752:
of the same power. Other studies assume some actinide losses and find that actinide wastes dominate thorium cycle waste radioactivity at some future periods. Some fission products have been proposed for
5983:
2295:
1570:
402:, while evaluating power plant designs suitable for lunar colonies. In 2006 Sorensen started "energyfromthorium.com" to promote and make information available about this technology.
4187:
779:
In a reactor, when a neutron hits a fissile atom (such as certain isotopes of uranium), it either splits the nucleus or is captured and transmutes the atom. In the case of
4124:
claim that these technologies negate thorium's disadvantages present in solid fuelled reactors. As only two liquid-core fluoride salt reactors have been built (the ORNL
314:
characteristics led to renewed interest in the thorium fuel cycle. While thorium is more abundant in the continental crust than uranium and easily extracted from
3320:
is not viable, as it is with uranium. Using breeder reactors, known thorium and uranium resources can both generate world-scale energy for thousands of years.
953:
6179:
5731:
355:
as the fissile fuel in an experiment to demonstrate a part of the Molten Salt
Breeder Reactor that was designed to operate on the thorium fuel cycle.
3198:. These reactors are often considered simpler than the more traditional fast-neutron breeders. Although the thermal neutron fission cross section (σ
5456:
394:
Kirk
Sorensen, former NASA scientist and Chief Technologist at Flibe Energy, has been a long-time promoter of thorium fuel cycle and particularly
307:
710:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\overset {neutron}{n}}+{^{232}_{90}Th}->{^{233}_{90}Th}->{^{233}_{91}Pa}->{\overset {fuel}{^{233}_{92}U}}}}}
5856:
6208:
5442:
5602:
946:
5810:
3656:
from 1964 to 1969, which was expected to be easier to process and separate from contaminants that slow or stop the chain reaction.
1311:
can be removed and stored as waste or retained and transmuted to plutonium, where more of it fissions, while the remainder becomes
5706:
4610:
4313:
3581:, so fewer long-lived transuranics are produced. Because of this, thorium is a potentially attractive alternative to uranium in
3304:
Thorium is estimated to be about three to four times more abundant than uranium in Earth's crust, although present knowledge of
757:, which would further reduce the amount of nuclear waste and the duration during which it would have to be stored (whether in a
5295:
5245:
152:. Additional fissile material or another neutron source is necessary to initiate the fuel cycle. In a thorium-fuelled reactor,
6057:
5250:
5578:"IAEA-TECDOC-1349 Potential of thorium-based fuel cycles to constrain plutonium and to reduce the long-lived waste toxicity"
5411:
5161:
939:
6191:
6126:
Thorium advocates launch pressure group. Huge optimism for thorium nuclear energy at the launch of the
Weinberg Foundation
4125:
5088:
4896:
4767:
4714:
4628:
4288:
6125:
3660:
6173:
6049:
5049:
4878:
3690:
3593:
There are several challenges to the application of thorium as a nuclear fuel, particularly for solid fuel reactors:
3368:
3104:. The hard gamma emissions also create a radiological hazard which requires remote handling during reprocessing.
5010:
4121:
3068:
reaccumulates. The contamination could also be avoided by using a molten-salt breeder reactor and separating the
395:
367:
fluid that eliminated the need to fabricate fuel elements. The MSR program was defunded in 1976 after its patron
4192:
1464:, its neutron absorption cross section is relatively low, making this rather difficult and possibly uneconomic.
5889:
4556:
4129:
334:
5865:
according to computer simulations done at ISN, this
Protactinium dominates the residual toxicity of losses at
5741:
4445:
6250:
5290:
4992:
4988:
3645:
330:
6089:
5884:
5255:
406:
replacing conventional uranium cycles in the current nuclear power market, despite the potential benefits.
3497:) radiological hazard of conventional uranium-based used nuclear fuel is dominated by plutonium and other
6255:
6183:
5961:
5837:. Technical Meeting on Fissile Material Management Strategies for Sustainable Nuclear Energy, Vienna 2005
5831:
5240:
4949:
4463:
3502:
3195:
5919:
6240:
4806:
4342:
4153:
3957:
3805:
Another challenge associated with the thorium fuel cycle is the comparatively long interval over which
3324:
1339:, which in turn can be removed as waste or returned to reactors for further transmutation and fission.
861:, therefore, is about 1:12 – which is better than the corresponding capture vs. fission ratios of
758:
6176:, IAEA translation from the Russian journal Yadernye Konstanty (Nuclear Constants) Issue No. 3–4, 1997
5766:
6199:
5376:
Kang, J.; Von Hippel, F. N. (2001). "U-232 and the proliferation-resistance of U-233 in spent fuel".
5324:
5208:
4953:
4467:
3323:
Thorium-based fuels also display favorable physical and chemical properties that improve reactor and
3260:) than the latter two fissile isotopes, providing fewer non-fissile neutron absorptions and improved
310:. In the twenty-first century thorium's claimed potential for improving proliferation resistance and
5855:
Brissot R.; Heuer D.; Huffer E.; Le Brun, C.; Loiseaux, J-M; Nifenecker H.; Nuttin A. (July 2001).
6118:
6019:
5832:"Impact of the MSBR concept technology on long-lived radio-toxicity and proliferation resistance"
5285:
3317:
3191:
5577:
5538:
5319:
6245:
5371:
5369:
4266:
3637:
149:
6043:
5860:
5235:
4824:
4360:
3649:
3423:
3131:
1290:
754:
282:
89:
5675:
5389:
5366:
6205:
6145:
5671:
5610:
5606:
5385:
4931:
3979:
3705:
3689:. Although thorium dioxide performed well at burnups of 170,000 MWd/t and 150,000 MWd/t at
3597:
3524:
3364:
745:
360:
3986:
is necessary for fuel fabrication because of the high radiation levels resulting from the
8:
6076:
4577:
4182:
4157:
4145:
4141:
4117:
3950:
3698:
3653:
749:
356:
290:
286:
6149:
5997:
5533:
5531:
5529:
5527:
5525:
5523:
5521:
4226:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
6260:
6161:
5762:
5632:
5503:
5401:
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4771:
3475:
3445:
3372:
3309:
3139:
1461:
768:
319:
266:
35:
5659:
3704:
In a once-through thorium fuel cycle, thorium-based fuels produce far less long-lived
3585:
to minimize the generation of transuranics and maximize the destruction of plutonium.
1193:
with an even number of neutrons, is not fissile, but neutron capture produces fissile
6165:
6053:
5736:
5687:
5683:
5518:
5495:
5436:
5280:
4506:
3483:
3419:
3029:
302:
259:
3186:
The primary physical advantage of thorium fuel is that it uniquely makes possible a
6265:
6153:
6072:
5679:
5637:
5507:
5485:
5476:
5405:
5393:
5348:
4110:
3920:
2112:
1523:
1416:
1344:
518:
379:
67:
3802:
is also considered an excellent burnable poison absorber in light water reactors.
3644:
temperature necessary to make thorium-dioxide fuel, complicates fuel fabrication.
6212:
6195:
5418:
5260:
3983:
3946:
3924:
3686:
3479:
3471:
3344:
3328:
3261:
3187:
3130:, the major part of natural and depleted uranium. The thermal neutron absorption
3032:; however, chemical separation of thorium from uranium removes the decay product
2212:
2142:
840:
729:
725:
444:
432:
193:
125:
3050:
and the radiation from the rest of the decay chain, which gradually build up as
6188:
4682:
4663:
4388:
4088:
4044:
decay sequence. Further, unlike proven uranium fuel recycling technology (e.g.
3987:
3498:
2989:
2265:
2206:
368:
5397:
3863:
is about 27 days, which is an order of magnitude longer than the half-life of
3305:
6234:
6157:
5859:. Laboratoire de Physique Subatomique et de Cosmologie (LPSC). Archived from
5691:
5265:
5218:
4941:
4888:
4620:
4569:
4516:
4455:
4352:
4048:), recycling technology for thorium (e.g. THOREX) is only under development.
3865:
3467:
3360:
3308:
is limited. Current demand for thorium has been satisfied as a by-product of
2138:
1313:
1253:
1233:
901:
311:
218:
6012:
4132:) and neither have used thorium, it is hard to validate the exact benefits.
270:
5499:
5275:
3142:(average of neutron cross sections over intermediate neutron energies) for
2187:
2115:
fuel fissioning just over half the time when it absorbs a thermal neutron.
1500:
1211:. If the fissile isotope fails to fission on neutron capture, it produces
472:
440:
375:
128:, natural thorium contains only trace amounts of fissile material (such as
121:
1434:), while not a transuranic waste, is a major contributor to the long-term
5937:
5539:"IAEA-TECDOC-1450 Thorium Fuel Cycle – Potential Benefits and Challenges"
5230:
5173:
4856:
4749:
4706:
3694:
2246:
2220:
2167:
1473:
1213:
920:
863:
821:
798:
741:
449:
364:
198:
130:
102:
48:
3316:
sands. Notably, there is very little thorium dissolved in seawater, so
3160:
are about three and one third times those of the respective values for
1435:
496:
236:. Depending on the design of the reactor and fuel cycle, the generated
5854:
797:, the transmutations tend to produce useful nuclear fuels rather than
733:
19:
5026:
pellets (for neutron flux flattening of initial core after start-up)
4140:
Thorium fuels have fueled several different reactor types, including
4109:-plutonium bomb core in the MET (Military Effects Test) blast during
3842:
3641:
2147:
1332:
274:
6133:
5490:
5471:
2895:
2806:
2733:
2665:
2576:
2481:
2404:
2324:
2039:
2008:
1971:
1931:
1874:
1834:
1797:
1766:
1704:
1669:
1632:
1601:
671:
636:
5270:
5127:
5070:
4502:
4008:. This is also true of recycled thorium because of the presence of
3709:
3701:(LWR), which compose the vast majority of existing power reactors.
3596:
In contrast to uranium, naturally occurring thorium is effectively
3582:
3505:
become significant contributors again. A single neutron capture in
3313:
1190:
468:
323:
315:
278:
5930:
5894:
5225:
5213:
5080:
4816:
4759:
4671:
4293:
1947 (NRX) + 1957 (NRU); Irradiation–testing of few fuel elements
3376:
1162:
536:. This then emits another electron and anti-neutrino by a second
436:
388:
384:
255:
171:
97:
93:
43:
39:
24:
5633:"Uranium Is So Last Century – Enter Thorium, the New Green Nuke"
3712:
products constitute a long-term radiological impact, especially
923:
waste than in a reactor using the uranium-plutonium fuel cycle.
6020:"IAEA-TECDOC-1319 Thorium Fuel Utilization: Options and trends"
4698:
4690:
4392:
4298:
3682:
1336:
763:
398:(LFTRs). He first researched thorium reactors while working at
265:
The thorium fuel cycle has several potential advantages over a
5829:
3600:
and contains no fissile isotopes; fissile material, generally
3545:. 98–99% of thorium-cycle fuel nuclei would fission at either
3527:, whereas five captures are generally necessary to do so from
5139:
5041:
5002:
4402:
4384:
4069:
complicates matters, there are public documents showing that
4045:
3945:, this requires two more neutron absorptions, which degrades
3400:
produced in thorium fuels is significantly contaminated with
3264:. The ratio of neutrons released per neutron absorbed (η) in
5789:
5122:
Driver fuel, coated fuel particles, oxide & dicarbides
5031:
4846:
4801:
Driver fuel, coated fuel particles, oxide & dicarbides
4744:
Driver fuel, coated fuel particles, oxide & dicarbides
4667:
4658:
Driver fuel, coated fuel particles, oxide & dicarbides
4559:
4149:
737:
399:
5707:"Nuclear community snubbed reactor safety message: expert"
5317:
5147:
Liquid fuel thorium-based molten salt experimental reactor
4284:
2992:, which damage electronics, limiting their use in bombs.
2209:, along with half-lives and relevant gamma energies, is:
6225:
359:(MSR) experiments assessed thorium's feasibility, using
3327:
performance. Compared to the predominant reactor fuel,
3697:
respectively, challenges complicate achieving this in
4437:
Driver fuel, ‘J’ rod of Th & ThO2, ‘J’ rod of ThO
4113:
in 1955, though with much lower yield than expected.
2293:
1568:
581:
6096:. White Plains, New York. March 16, 1966. p. 17
5857:"Nuclear Energy With (Almost) No Radioactive Waste?"
5561:
273:, superior physical and nuclear properties, reduced
6174:"Status of nuclear data for the thorium fuel cycle"
6025:. International Atomic Energy Agency. November 2002
6134:"Thorium: Not a near-term commercial nuclear fuel"
4163:
2977:
2082:
709:
6215:from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
6206:Annotated bibliography for the thorium fuel cycle
6045:Spent Nuclear Fuel Discharges from U. S. Reactors
5984:"Protactinium-231 –New burnable neutron absorber"
3418:in proposed power reactor designs, thorium-based
819:absorbs a neutron, it either fissions or becomes
409:
6232:
5463:
5313:
5311:
5181:High Flux Reactor thorium molten salt experiment
6121:" Science & Global Security, 7(3), 237–269.
6119:Review of the Radkowsky Thorium reactor concept
5470:Ashley, Stephen; Parks, Geoffrey (2012-12-05).
4864:Aqueous homogeneous suspension (pin assemblies)
5830:Le Brun, C.; L. Mathieu; D. Heuer; A. Nuttin.
5544:. International Atomic Energy Agency. May 2005
5375:
4926:Driver fuel, coated fuel particles, Dicarbide
3375:and, unlike uranium dioxide, does not further
3256:, it has a much lower capture cross section (σ
843:is about 92%; the capture-to-fission ratio of
839:. The chance of fissioning on absorption of a
6075:(assembly code XDR07G) and later sent to the
5318:Robert Hargraves; Ralph Moir (January 2011).
5308:
4416:40 MWt; 100 MWt; 30 kWt (low power, research)
3956:Alternatively, if solid thorium is used in a
947:
5954:
5660:"The thorium isotope content of ocean water"
4997:1980 (RAPS 2) +; continuing in all new PHWRs
3482:of separated uranium and aid in the passive
3301:on average leads to less than two neutrons.
3112:As a fertile material thorium is similar to
1467:
5469:
5457:""Superfuel" Thorium a Proliferation Risk?"
4181:It has been suggested that this section be
4091:test. The United States tested a composite
2223:of Th, commonly called the "thorium series"
308:India's three-stage nuclear power programme
5583:. International Atomic Energy Agency. 2002
4135:
3708:than uranium-based fuels, some long-lived
2093:Unlike most even numbered heavy isotopes,
954:
940:
414:In the thorium cycle, fuel is formed when
5943:. American Nuclear Society. November 2006
5825:
5823:
5489:
1154:have half-lives over 1,000,000 years
5768:Sustainable Energy – without the hot air
5346:
3371:. Thorium dioxide also exhibits greater
2211:
720:
192:. This parallels the process in uranium
148:), which are insufficient to initiate a
18:
5848:
3636:or plutonium, must be added to achieve
3489:The long-term (on the order of roughly
6233:
6226:International Thorium Energy Committee
6172:B.D. Kuz'minov, V.N. Manokhin, (1998)
6131:
5820:
5761:
5704:
5630:
5441:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
5296:World energy resources and consumption
5246:List of countries by thorium resources
4397:1960–2010 (CIRUS); others in operation
1449:can in principle be converted back to
5657:
5631:Martin, Richard (December 21, 2009).
5600:
5564:Bhabha and his magnificent obsessions
5251:List of countries by uranium reserves
4185:out into another article titled
1491:is also formed in this process, via (
919:(both about 1:3). The result is less
744:that would have been used to produce
303:limits of worldwide uranium resources
281:production, and better resistance to
5938:"The Use of Thorium as Nuclear Fuel"
5811:The Future of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
5729:
5347:Sublette, Carey (20 February 1999).
4717:, Experimental (pin-in-block design)
4206:
4167:
3685:is necessary to achieve a favorable
3010:cannot be chemically separated from
322:mining, it is much less abundant in
258:or is chemically separated from the
5664:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
5603:"Scientist urges switch to thorium"
13:
6124:Duncan Clark (9 September 2011), "
6111:
5964:. World Nuclear News. 21 June 2013
5566:. Universities Press. p. 157.
3474:. These high-energy photons are a
2958:
2955:
2952:
2937:
2864:
2861:
2858:
2843:
2775:
2702:
2634:
2631:
2628:
2613:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2133:has a relatively short half-life (
1147:have half-lives under 30 days
262:and formed into new nuclear fuel.
14:
6277:
6219:
6138:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
6050:Energy Information Administration
5816:(Report). MIT. 2011. p. 181.
3901:develops in thorium-based fuels.
3691:Fort St. Vrain Generating Station
2988:Thorium-cycle fuels produce hard
774:
216:absorbs neutrons to form fissile
6090:"Indian Readied for New Uranium"
5771:. UIT Cambridge Ltd. p. 166
5658:Moore, Willard S. (1981-05-01).
5212:
5202:
5172:
5138:
5079:
5040:
5001:
4940:
4887:
4855:
4815:
4758:
4705:
4697:
4689:
4681:
4631:, Experimental (prismatic block)
4619:
4568:
4515:
4454:
4401:
4351:
4297:
4211:
4172:
3949:and increases the likelihood of
3588:
3369:coefficient of thermal expansion
396:liquid fluoride thorium reactors
6180:Thorium and uranium fuel cycles
6082:
6036:
5990:
5976:
5912:
5885:"Interactive Chart of Nuclides"
5877:
5803:
5782:
5755:
5723:
5698:
5651:
5624:
5601:Evans, Brett (April 14, 2006).
4188:List of thorium-fueled reactors
4164:List of thorium-fueled reactors
3107:
732:which can have half-lives from
5890:Brookhaven National Laboratory
5594:
5570:
5555:
5449:
5340:
5327:Forum on Physics & Society
5320:"Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors"
5133:2023; operating license issued
4116:Advocates for liquid core and
2961:
2928:
2867:
2834:
2778:
2766:
2705:
2693:
2637:
2604:
2548:
2509:
2453:
2432:
2376:
2352:
612:
410:Nuclear reactions with thorium
335:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
1:
5705:Miller, Daniel (March 2011).
5562:Ganesan Venkataraman (1994).
5378:Science & Global Security
5302:
5209:Nuclear technology portal
4150:high temperature gas reactors
3646:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
3181:
1438:of spent nuclear fuel. While
1144:a yellow background in italic
331:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
283:nuclear weapons proliferation
5684:10.1016/0012-821X(81)90046-7
5256:Advanced heavy-water reactor
3923:and, although it eventually
3640:. This, along with the high
3478:that necessitate the use of
7:
6184:National Nuclear Laboratory
5241:Thorium-based nuclear power
5196:
4983:Driver fuel, oxide pellets
4497:Driver fuel, oxide pellets
4154:sodium-cooled fast reactors
3883:. As a result, substantial
3503:long-lived fission products
378:proposed the concept of an
285:when used in a traditional
10:
6282:
6071:They were manufactured by
5156:Thorium-based molten salt
4551:Driver fuel oxide pellets
1138:
974:
965:
930:
759:deep geological repository
738:greater than 200,000 years
296:
6200:World Nuclear Association
5398:10.1080/08929880108426485
5325:American Physical Society
4899:, Power (prismatic block)
4220:This article needs to be
4051:Although the presence of
3523:is sufficient to produce
2920:
2889:
2826:
2800:
2758:
2727:
2685:
2659:
2596:
2570:
2501:
2475:
2424:
2398:
2344:
2318:
2067:
2032:
1999:
1964:
1924:
1902:
1867:
1825:
1790:
1759:
1737:
1697:
1660:
1625:
1594:
1468:Uranium-232 contamination
1271:, and eventually fissile
700:
664:
629:
610:
467:. This normally emits an
6158:10.1177/0096340212459125
5730:Dean, Tim (April 2006).
5472:"Thorium fuel has risks"
5353:nuclearweaponarchive.org
4379:clad in Zircaloy-2 tube
4087:has been used once in a
2913:
2907:
2882:
2876:
2819:
2813:
2793:
2787:
2751:
2745:
2720:
2714:
2678:
2672:
2652:
2646:
2589:
2583:
2563:
2557:
2494:
2488:
2468:
2462:
2417:
2411:
2391:
2385:
2337:
2331:
2311:
2305:
2060:
2054:
2025:
2019:
1992:
1986:
1957:
1951:
1917:
1911:
1895:
1889:
1860:
1854:
1818:
1812:
1783:
1777:
1752:
1746:
1730:
1724:
1690:
1684:
1653:
1647:
1618:
1612:
1587:
1581:
693:
687:
657:
651:
622:
616:
603:
597:
6117:Kasten, P. R. (1998). "
5676:1981E&PSL..53..419M
5390:2001S&GS....9....1K
5349:"Nuclear Materials FAQ"
5286:Thorium Energy Alliance
4136:Thorium-fueled reactors
4026:, which is part of the
3583:mixed oxide (MOX) fuels
3196:thermal breeder reactor
3194:, otherwise known as a
6132:Nelson, A. T. (2012).
6052:. 1995 . p. 111.
4873:Th+HEU, oxide pellets
3470:that emit high-energy
3086:before it decays into
2979:
2224:
2084:
932:Transmutations in the
711:
269:, including thorium's
150:nuclear chain reaction
27:
6189:Fact sheet on thorium
6182:comparison by the UK
5962:"Thorium test begins"
5765:(February 20, 2009).
5236:Occurrence of thorium
3650:thorium tetrafluoride
2980:
2215:
2085:
1362:(with a half-life of
1291:isotopes of plutonium
755:nuclear transmutation
728:produces radioactive
721:Fission product waste
712:
318:as a side product of
22:
6251:Nuclear reprocessing
4524:BWR (pin assemblies)
4306:MTR (pin assemblies)
4158:molten salt reactors
4146:heavy water reactors
4142:light water reactors
4118:molten salt reactors
3784:can be reprocessed.
3748:. On a closed cycle,
3699:light water reactors
3525:transuranic elements
3446:chemically separated
3365:thermal conductivity
2291:
1566:
1499:) reactions between
746:low enriched uranium
579:
361:thorium(IV) fluoride
6150:2012BuAtS..68e..33N
6077:Savannah River Site
5986:. 11 November 2017.
5763:MacKay, David J. C.
5291:Weinberg Foundation
4827:irradiation-testing
4530:2.4 MW(e); 24 MW(e)
3654:molten salt reactor
3486:of such materials.
3476:radiological hazard
3422:possesses inherent
3318:seawater extraction
3202:) of the resulting
2904:
2810:
2742:
2669:
2580:
2485:
2408:
2328:
2264:where it joins the
2050:
2015:
1982:
1947:
1885:
1850:
1808:
1773:
1720:
1680:
1643:
1608:
927:
750:light water reactor
682:
647:
357:Molten salt reactor
301:Concerns about the
291:molten salt reactor
287:light water reactor
6256:Nuclear technology
6211:2010-10-07 at the
6194:2013-02-16 at the
6094:Mount Vernon Argus
6000:. 11 November 2017
5998:"Operation Teapot"
5459:. 5 December 2012.
5052:, (pin assemblies)
5036:1985; in operation
5013:, (pin assemblies)
4956:, (pin assemblies)
4836:Test fuel (Th,Pu)O
4772:pebble bed reactor
4470:, (pin assemblies)
3648:experimented with
3373:chemical stability
3140:resonance integral
2975:
2973:
2225:
2080:
2078:
1462:neutron absorption
934:thorium fuel cycle
926:
769:isotope separation
707:
333:in the 1960s, the
320:rare earth element
267:uranium fuel cycle
70:. In the reactor,
36:nuclear fuel cycle
32:thorium fuel cycle
28:
16:Nuclear fuel cycle
6241:Nuclear chemistry
6079:for reprocessing.
6059:978-0-7881-2070-1
5732:"New age nuclear"
5281:Radioactive waste
5219:Energy portal
5194:
5193:
4993:RAPS 2, 3 & 4
4991:; KGS 1 & 2;
4605:molten fluorides
4507:Elk River Station
4241:
4240:
4205:
4204:
4200:
3958:closed fuel cycle
3919:is a significant
3681:in situ), higher
3420:used nuclear fuel
3220:is comparable to
3030:used nuclear fuel
2951:
2945:
2936:
2924:
2912:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2857:
2851:
2842:
2830:
2818:
2817:
2816:
2811:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2774:
2762:
2750:
2749:
2748:
2743:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2701:
2689:
2677:
2676:
2675:
2670:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2627:
2621:
2612:
2600:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2562:
2561:
2560:
2538:
2532:
2517:
2505:
2493:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2440:
2428:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2409:
2390:
2389:
2388:
2360:
2348:
2336:
2335:
2334:
2329:
2310:
2309:
2308:
2185:and particularly
2141:emit high energy
2059:
2058:
2057:
2051:
2024:
2023:
2022:
2016:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1983:
1956:
1955:
1954:
1948:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1886:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1851:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1809:
1782:
1781:
1780:
1774:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1729:
1728:
1727:
1721:
1689:
1688:
1687:
1681:
1652:
1651:
1650:
1644:
1617:
1616:
1615:
1609:
1586:
1585:
1584:
1378:) reactions with
1170:
1169:
704:
703:
692:
691:
690:
683:
656:
655:
654:
648:
621:
620:
619:
602:
601:
600:
591:
590:
587:
271:greater abundance
260:used nuclear fuel
6273:
6169:
6106:
6105:
6103:
6101:
6086:
6080:
6073:General Electric
6070:
6068:
6066:
6040:
6034:
6033:
6031:
6030:
6024:
6016:
6010:
6009:
6007:
6005:
5994:
5988:
5987:
5980:
5974:
5973:
5971:
5969:
5958:
5952:
5951:
5949:
5948:
5942:
5934:
5928:
5927:
5924:atom.kaeri.re.kr
5916:
5910:
5909:
5904:
5902:
5893:. Archived from
5881:
5875:
5874:
5872:
5870:
5852:
5846:
5845:
5843:
5842:
5836:
5827:
5818:
5817:
5815:
5807:
5801:
5800:
5798:
5797:
5786:
5780:
5779:
5777:
5776:
5759:
5753:
5752:
5750:
5749:
5740:. Archived from
5727:
5721:
5720:
5718:
5717:
5702:
5696:
5695:
5655:
5649:
5648:
5646:
5645:
5628:
5622:
5621:
5619:
5618:
5609:. Archived from
5598:
5592:
5591:
5589:
5588:
5582:
5574:
5568:
5567:
5559:
5553:
5552:
5550:
5549:
5543:
5535:
5516:
5515:
5493:
5467:
5461:
5460:
5453:
5447:
5446:
5440:
5432:
5430:
5429:
5423:
5417:. Archived from
5416:
5409:
5373:
5364:
5363:
5361:
5359:
5344:
5338:
5337:
5335:
5333:
5315:
5217:
5216:
5207:
5206:
5205:
5186:
5177:
5176:
5152:
5143:
5142:
5121:
5120:
5119:
5112:
5111:
5100:
5084:
5083:
5057:
5045:
5044:
5018:
5006:
5005:
4982:
4981:
4980:
4973:
4972:
4961:
4945:
4944:
4925:
4924:
4923:
4916:
4915:
4904:
4892:
4891:
4869:
4860:
4859:
4832:
4820:
4819:
4800:
4799:
4798:
4791:
4790:
4779:
4770:, experimental (
4763:
4762:
4743:
4742:
4741:
4734:
4733:
4722:
4710:
4709:
4702:
4701:
4694:
4693:
4686:
4685:
4657:
4656:
4655:
4648:
4647:
4636:
4624:
4623:
4604:
4603:
4602:
4595:
4594:
4584:
4573:
4572:
4550:
4549:
4548:
4541:
4540:
4529:
4520:
4519:
4496:
4495:
4494:
4487:
4486:
4475:
4459:
4458:
4436:
4435:
4434:
4427:
4426:
4415:
4406:
4405:
4367:
4356:
4355:
4336:
4335:
4334:
4327:
4326:
4311:
4302:
4301:
4256:Operation period
4247:
4246:
4236:
4233:
4227:
4215:
4214:
4207:
4196:
4176:
4175:
4168:
4111:Operation Teapot
4108:
4107:
4106:
4099:
4098:
4086:
4085:
4084:
4077:
4076:
4068:
4067:
4066:
4059:
4058:
4043:
4042:
4041:
4034:
4033:
4025:
4024:
4023:
4016:
4015:
4007:
4006:
4005:
3998:
3997:
3977:
3976:
3975:
3968:
3967:
3944:
3943:
3942:
3935:
3934:
3921:neutron absorber
3918:
3917:
3916:
3909:
3908:
3900:
3899:
3898:
3891:
3890:
3882:
3880:
3879:
3872:
3871:
3862:
3861:
3860:
3853:
3852:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3831:
3830:
3822:
3821:
3820:
3813:
3812:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3792:
3791:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3774:
3773:
3765:
3764:
3763:
3756:
3755:
3747:
3746:
3745:
3738:
3737:
3729:
3728:
3727:
3720:
3719:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3671:
3670:
3663:(i.e. utilizing
3635:
3634:
3633:
3626:
3625:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3608:
3607:
3580:
3579:
3578:
3571:
3570:
3562:
3561:
3560:
3553:
3552:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3535:
3534:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3513:
3512:
3496:
3492:
3466:and has several
3465:
3464:
3463:
3456:
3455:
3443:
3442:
3441:
3434:
3433:
3417:
3416:
3415:
3408:
3407:
3399:
3398:
3397:
3390:
3389:
3358:
3357:
3356:
3342:
3341:
3340:
3312:extraction from
3300:
3299:
3298:
3291:
3290:
3281:
3280:
3279:
3272:
3271:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3246:
3245:
3237:
3236:
3235:
3228:
3227:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3210:
3209:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3168:
3167:
3159:
3158:
3157:
3150:
3149:
3129:
3128:
3127:
3120:
3119:
3103:
3102:
3101:
3094:
3093:
3085:
3084:
3083:
3076:
3075:
3067:
3066:
3065:
3058:
3057:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3040:
3039:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3018:
3017:
3009:
3008:
3007:
3000:
2999:
2984:
2982:
2981:
2976:
2974:
2970:
2964:
2949:
2943:
2934:
2922:
2921:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2891:
2877:
2870:
2855:
2849:
2840:
2828:
2827:
2814:
2812:
2802:
2788:
2781:
2772:
2760:
2759:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2729:
2715:
2708:
2699:
2687:
2686:
2673:
2671:
2661:
2647:
2640:
2625:
2619:
2610:
2598:
2597:
2584:
2582:
2572:
2558:
2551:
2536:
2530:
2515:
2503:
2502:
2489:
2487:
2477:
2463:
2456:
2438:
2426:
2425:
2412:
2410:
2400:
2386:
2379:
2358:
2346:
2345:
2332:
2330:
2320:
2306:
2299:
2283:
2282:
2281:
2274:
2273:
2263:
2261:
2260:
2253:
2252:
2243:
2242:
2241:
2234:
2233:
2207:full decay chain
2204:
2202:
2201:
2194:
2193:
2184:
2182:
2181:
2174:
2173:
2164:
2162:
2161:
2154:
2153:
2136:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2123:
2122:
2110:
2109:
2108:
2101:
2100:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2035:
2033:
2020:
2017:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1987:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1967:
1965:
1952:
1949:
1927:
1925:
1912:
1904:
1903:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1870:
1868:
1855:
1852:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1793:
1791:
1778:
1775:
1762:
1760:
1747:
1739:
1738:
1725:
1722:
1700:
1698:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1628:
1626:
1613:
1610:
1597:
1595:
1582:
1574:
1558:
1557:
1556:
1549:
1548:
1540:
1538:
1537:
1530:
1529:
1520:
1519:
1518:
1511:
1510:
1490:
1488:
1487:
1480:
1479:
1459:
1457:
1456:
1448:
1446:
1445:
1433:
1431:
1430:
1423:
1422:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1404:
1403:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1386:
1385:
1369:
1367:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1351:
1350:
1330:
1328:
1327:
1320:
1319:
1310:
1309:
1308:
1301:
1300:
1288:
1287:
1286:
1279:
1278:
1270:
1268:
1267:
1260:
1259:
1250:
1248:
1247:
1240:
1239:
1230:
1228:
1227:
1220:
1219:
1210:
1209:
1208:
1201:
1200:
1188:
1187:
1186:
1179:
1178:
1160:
1146:
956:
949:
942:
928:
925:
918:
916:
915:
908:
907:
898:
897:
896:
889:
888:
881:(about 1:6), or
880:
878:
877:
870:
869:
860:
859:
858:
851:
850:
838:
836:
835:
828:
827:
818:
817:
816:
809:
808:
796:
795:
794:
787:
786:
730:fission products
716:
714:
713:
708:
706:
705:
701:
688:
686:
684:
681:
680:
667:
665:
652:
649:
646:
645:
632:
630:
617:
611:
598:
592:
588:
585:
584:
571:
570:
569:
562:
561:
554:decay to become
553:
552:
551:
544:
543:
535:
533:
532:
525:
524:
513:
512:
511:
504:
503:
494:
493:
492:
486:
483:
482:
466:
464:
463:
456:
455:
431:
430:
429:
422:
421:
380:energy amplifier
354:
353:
352:
345:
344:
289:though not in a
254:either fissions
253:
252:
251:
244:
243:
235:
233:
232:
225:
224:
215:
213:
212:
205:
204:
196:whereby fertile
194:breeder reactors
191:
190:
189:
182:
181:
169:
168:
167:
160:
159:
147:
145:
144:
137:
136:
119:
117:
116:
109:
108:
87:
86:
85:
78:
77:
68:fertile material
65:
63:
62:
55:
54:
6281:
6280:
6276:
6275:
6274:
6272:
6271:
6270:
6231:
6230:
6222:
6213:Wayback Machine
6196:Wayback Machine
6128:", The Guardian
6114:
6112:Further reading
6109:
6099:
6097:
6088:
6087:
6083:
6064:
6062:
6060:
6042:
6041:
6037:
6028:
6026:
6022:
6018:
6017:
6013:
6003:
6001:
5996:
5995:
5991:
5982:
5981:
5977:
5967:
5965:
5960:
5959:
5955:
5946:
5944:
5940:
5936:
5935:
5931:
5920:"9219.endfb7.1"
5918:
5917:
5913:
5900:
5898:
5897:on 21 July 2011
5883:
5882:
5878:
5868:
5866:
5863:on 2011-05-25.
5853:
5849:
5840:
5838:
5834:
5828:
5821:
5813:
5809:
5808:
5804:
5795:
5793:
5788:
5787:
5783:
5774:
5772:
5760:
5756:
5747:
5745:
5728:
5724:
5715:
5713:
5703:
5699:
5656:
5652:
5643:
5641:
5629:
5625:
5616:
5614:
5599:
5595:
5586:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5575:
5571:
5560:
5556:
5547:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5536:
5519:
5491:10.1038/492031a
5484:(7427): 31–33.
5468:
5464:
5455:
5454:
5450:
5434:
5433:
5427:
5425:
5421:
5414:
5412:"Archived copy"
5410:
5374:
5367:
5357:
5355:
5345:
5341:
5331:
5329:
5316:
5309:
5305:
5300:
5261:Alvin Radkowsky
5211:
5203:
5201:
5199:
5184:
5171:
5150:
5137:
5118:
5116:
5115:
5114:
5110:
5108:
5107:
5106:
5105:
5098:
5078:
5064:
5055:
5039:
5025:
5016:
5000:
4979:
4977:
4976:
4975:
4971:
4969:
4968:
4967:
4966:
4959:
4939:
4922:
4920:
4919:
4918:
4914:
4912:
4911:
4910:
4909:
4902:
4886:
4867:
4854:
4839:
4830:
4814:
4797:
4795:
4794:
4793:
4789:
4787:
4786:
4785:
4784:
4777:
4757:
4740:
4738:
4737:
4736:
4732:
4730:
4729:
4728:
4727:
4720:
4704:
4696:
4688:
4680:
4654:
4652:
4651:
4650:
4646:
4644:
4643:
4642:
4641:
4634:
4618:
4601:
4599:
4598:
4597:
4593:
4591:
4590:
4589:
4588:
4582:
4567:
4547:
4545:
4544:
4543:
4539:
4537:
4536:
4535:
4534:
4527:
4514:
4493:
4491:
4490:
4489:
4485:
4483:
4482:
4481:
4480:
4473:
4453:
4440:
4433:
4431:
4430:
4429:
4425:
4423:
4422:
4421:
4420:
4413:
4400:
4378:
4375:corner rods, UO
4374:
4365:
4350:
4333:
4331:
4330:
4329:
4325:
4323:
4322:
4321:
4320:
4312:20 MW; 200 MW (
4309:
4296:
4237:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4216:
4212:
4201:
4177:
4173:
4166:
4138:
4105:
4103:
4102:
4101:
4097:
4095:
4094:
4093:
4092:
4083:
4081:
4080:
4079:
4075:
4073:
4072:
4071:
4070:
4065:
4063:
4062:
4061:
4057:
4055:
4054:
4053:
4052:
4040:
4038:
4037:
4036:
4032:
4030:
4029:
4028:
4027:
4022:
4020:
4019:
4018:
4014:
4012:
4011:
4010:
4009:
4004:
4002:
4001:
4000:
3996:
3994:
3993:
3992:
3991:
3984:remote handling
3974:
3972:
3971:
3970:
3966:
3964:
3963:
3962:
3961:
3947:neutron economy
3941:
3939:
3938:
3937:
3933:
3931:
3930:
3929:
3928:
3915:
3913:
3912:
3911:
3907:
3905:
3904:
3903:
3902:
3897:
3895:
3894:
3893:
3889:
3887:
3886:
3885:
3884:
3878:
3876:
3875:
3874:
3870:
3868:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3859:
3857:
3856:
3855:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3846:
3837:
3835:
3834:
3833:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3825:
3824:
3819:
3817:
3816:
3815:
3811:
3809:
3808:
3807:
3806:
3798:
3796:
3795:
3794:
3790:
3788:
3787:
3786:
3785:
3780:
3778:
3777:
3776:
3772:
3770:
3769:
3768:
3767:
3762:
3760:
3759:
3758:
3754:
3752:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3736:
3734:
3733:
3732:
3731:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3722:
3718:
3716:
3715:
3714:
3713:
3687:neutron economy
3677:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3669:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3661:open fuel cycle
3632:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3624:
3622:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3614:
3612:
3611:
3610:
3606:
3604:
3603:
3602:
3601:
3591:
3577:
3575:
3574:
3573:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3564:
3559:
3557:
3556:
3555:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3547:
3546:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3531:
3530:
3529:
3528:
3519:
3517:
3516:
3515:
3511:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3506:
3499:minor actinides
3494:
3490:
3480:remote handling
3472:gamma radiation
3462:
3460:
3459:
3458:
3454:
3452:
3451:
3450:
3449:
3440:
3438:
3437:
3436:
3432:
3430:
3429:
3428:
3427:
3414:
3412:
3411:
3410:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3394:
3393:
3392:
3388:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3383:
3359:) has a higher
3355:
3352:
3351:
3350:
3348:
3345:thorium dioxide
3339:
3336:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3329:uranium dioxide
3297:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3289:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3274:
3270:
3268:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3262:neutron economy
3259:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3248:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3226:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3216:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3208:
3206:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3190:that runs with
3188:breeder reactor
3184:
3174:
3172:
3171:
3170:
3166:
3164:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3152:
3148:
3146:
3145:
3144:
3143:
3137:
3126:
3124:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3114:
3113:
3110:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3096:
3092:
3090:
3089:
3088:
3087:
3082:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3074:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3056:
3054:
3053:
3052:
3051:
3046:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3034:
3033:
3024:
3022:
3021:
3020:
3016:
3014:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3006:
3004:
3003:
3002:
2998:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2990:gamma emissions
2972:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2965:
2927:
2925:
2896:
2890:
2875:
2872:
2871:
2833:
2831:
2801:
2786:
2783:
2782:
2765:
2763:
2734:
2728:
2713:
2710:
2709:
2692:
2690:
2660:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2603:
2601:
2571:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2508:
2506:
2476:
2461:
2458:
2457:
2431:
2429:
2399:
2384:
2381:
2380:
2351:
2349:
2319:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2280:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2272:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2267:
2266:decay chain of
2259:
2257:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2240:
2238:
2237:
2236:
2232:
2230:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2160:
2158:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2143:gamma radiation
2135:68.9 years
2134:
2129:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2116:
2107:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2094:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2053:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2018:
2003:
2001:
1985:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1950:
1926:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1888:
1879:
1875:
1869:
1853:
1829:
1827:
1811:
1802:
1798:
1792:
1776:
1761:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1723:
1699:
1683:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1662:
1646:
1637:
1633:
1627:
1611:
1596:
1580:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1536:
1534:
1533:
1532:
1528:
1526:
1525:
1524:
1522:
1517:
1515:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1486:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1478:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1455:
1453:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1444:
1442:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1429:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1419:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1414:that decays to
1410:
1408:
1407:
1406:
1402:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1397:
1392:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1382:
1381:
1380:
1379:
1365:
1363:
1357:
1355:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1347:
1346:
1345:
1343:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1316:
1315:
1314:
1312:
1307:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1294:
1285:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1277:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1258:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1252:
1246:
1244:
1243:
1242:
1238:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1207:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1199:
1197:
1196:
1195:
1194:
1185:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1158:
1142:
961:
960:
914:
912:
911:
910:
906:
904:
903:
902:
900:
895:
893:
892:
891:
887:
885:
884:
883:
882:
876:
874:
873:
872:
868:
866:
865:
864:
862:
857:
855:
854:
853:
849:
847:
846:
845:
844:
841:thermal neutron
834:
832:
831:
830:
826:
824:
823:
822:
820:
815:
813:
812:
811:
807:
805:
804:
803:
802:
793:
791:
790:
789:
785:
783:
782:
781:
780:
777:
726:Nuclear fission
723:
685:
676:
672:
666:
650:
641:
637:
631:
615:
596:
583:
582:
580:
577:
576:
568:
566:
565:
564:
560:
558:
557:
556:
555:
550:
548:
547:
546:
542:
540:
539:
538:
537:
531:
529:
528:
527:
523:
521:
520:
519:
517:
510:
508:
507:
506:
502:
500:
499:
498:
497:
491:
489:
488:
487:
484:
481:
479:
478:
477:
476:
462:
460:
459:
458:
454:
452:
451:
450:
448:
445:thermal reactor
428:
426:
425:
424:
420:
418:
417:
416:
415:
412:
363:dissolved in a
351:
349:
348:
347:
343:
341:
340:
339:
338:
299:
250:
248:
247:
246:
242:
240:
239:
238:
237:
231:
229:
228:
227:
223:
221:
220:
219:
217:
211:
209:
208:
207:
203:
201:
200:
199:
197:
188:
186:
185:
184:
180:
178:
177:
176:
175:
166:
164:
163:
162:
158:
156:
155:
154:
153:
143:
141:
140:
139:
135:
133:
132:
131:
129:
126:natural uranium
115:
113:
112:
111:
107:
105:
104:
103:
101:
84:
82:
81:
80:
76:
74:
73:
72:
71:
61:
59:
58:
57:
53:
51:
50:
49:
47:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6279:
6269:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6243:
6229:
6228:
6221:
6220:External links
6218:
6217:
6216:
6203:
6186:
6177:
6170:
6129:
6122:
6113:
6110:
6108:
6107:
6081:
6058:
6035:
6011:
5989:
5975:
5953:
5929:
5911:
5876:
5847:
5819:
5802:
5792:. Flibe Energy
5790:"Flibe Energy"
5781:
5754:
5722:
5697:
5670:(3): 419–426.
5650:
5623:
5593:
5569:
5554:
5517:
5462:
5448:
5365:
5339:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5222:
5198:
5195:
5192:
5191:
5188:
5182:
5179:
5169:
5164:
5158:
5157:
5154:
5148:
5145:
5135:
5130:
5124:
5123:
5117:
5109:
5102:
5096:
5086:
5085:Germany (West)
5076:
5073:
5067:
5066:
5062:
5059:
5053:
5047:
5037:
5034:
5028:
5027:
5023:
5020:
5014:
5008:
4998:
4995:
4985:
4984:
4978:
4970:
4963:
4957:
4947:
4937:
4934:
4928:
4927:
4921:
4913:
4906:
4900:
4894:
4884:
4881:
4875:
4874:
4871:
4865:
4862:
4852:
4849:
4842:
4841:
4837:
4834:
4828:
4822:
4821:Germany (West)
4812:
4809:
4803:
4802:
4796:
4788:
4781:
4775:
4765:
4764:Germany (West)
4755:
4752:
4746:
4745:
4739:
4731:
4724:
4718:
4712:
4678:
4675:
4660:
4659:
4653:
4645:
4638:
4632:
4626:
4616:
4613:
4607:
4606:
4600:
4592:
4586:
4580:
4575:
4565:
4562:
4553:
4552:
4546:
4538:
4531:
4525:
4522:
4512:
4509:
4499:
4498:
4492:
4484:
4477:
4471:
4461:
4451:
4448:
4446:Indian Point 1
4442:
4441:
4438:
4432:
4424:
4417:
4411:
4408:
4398:
4395:
4381:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4369:
4363:
4358:
4348:
4345:
4343:Dresden Unit 1
4339:
4338:
4332:
4324:
4317:
4307:
4304:
4294:
4291:
4281:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4239:
4238:
4219:
4217:
4210:
4203:
4202:
4180:
4178:
4171:
4165:
4162:
4137:
4134:
4104:
4096:
4089:nuclear weapon
4082:
4074:
4064:
4056:
4039:
4031:
4021:
4013:
4003:
3995:
3988:decay products
3973:
3965:
3940:
3932:
3914:
3906:
3896:
3888:
3877:
3869:
3858:
3850:
3836:
3828:
3818:
3810:
3797:
3789:
3779:
3771:
3761:
3753:
3743:
3735:
3725:
3717:
3676:
3668:
3631:
3623:
3613:
3605:
3590:
3587:
3576:
3568:
3558:
3550:
3540:
3532:
3518:
3510:
3501:, after which
3468:decay products
3461:
3453:
3439:
3431:
3413:
3405:
3395:
3387:
3353:
3337:
3296:
3288:
3277:
3269:
3257:
3251:
3243:
3233:
3225:
3215:
3207:
3199:
3183:
3180:
3173:
3165:
3155:
3147:
3135:
3125:
3117:
3109:
3106:
3099:
3091:
3081:
3073:
3063:
3055:
3045:
3037:
3023:
3015:
3005:
2997:
2986:
2985:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2960:
2957:
2954:
2948:
2942:
2939:
2933:
2930:
2926:
2919:
2916:
2902:
2899:
2894:
2888:
2885:
2874:
2873:
2869:
2866:
2863:
2860:
2854:
2848:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2832:
2825:
2822:
2809:
2805:
2799:
2796:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2771:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2754:
2740:
2737:
2732:
2726:
2723:
2712:
2711:
2707:
2704:
2698:
2695:
2691:
2684:
2681:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2655:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2636:
2633:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2615:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2595:
2592:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2566:
2555:
2554:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2535:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2497:
2484:
2480:
2474:
2471:
2460:
2459:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2423:
2420:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2394:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2357:
2354:
2350:
2343:
2340:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2303:
2302:
2297:
2296:
2279:
2271:
2258:
2250:
2239:
2231:
2199:
2191:
2179:
2171:
2159:
2151:
2139:decay products
2128:
2120:
2106:
2098:
2091:
2090:
2073:
2072:
2066:
2063:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2031:
2028:
2014:
2011:
2007:
1998:
1995:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1963:
1960:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1920:
1908:
1907:
1901:
1898:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1866:
1863:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1833:
1824:
1821:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1789:
1786:
1772:
1769:
1765:
1758:
1755:
1743:
1742:
1736:
1733:
1719:
1716:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1696:
1693:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1659:
1656:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1624:
1621:
1607:
1604:
1600:
1593:
1590:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1571:
1554:
1546:
1535:
1527:
1516:
1508:
1485:
1477:
1469:
1466:
1454:
1443:
1428:
1420:
1409:
1401:
1391:
1383:
1370:) formed via (
1356:
1348:
1325:
1317:
1306:
1298:
1284:
1276:
1265:
1257:
1245:
1237:
1225:
1217:
1206:
1198:
1184:
1176:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1165:
1155:
1148:
1141:Nuclides with
1136:
1135:
1130:
1127:
1122:
1119:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1086:
1081:
1078:
1073:
1070:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
989:
984:
982:
979:
978:
975:
972:
971:
966:
963:
962:
959:
958:
951:
944:
936:
931:
913:
905:
894:
886:
875:
867:
856:
848:
833:
825:
814:
806:
792:
784:
776:
775:Actinide waste
773:
722:
719:
718:
717:
699:
696:
679:
675:
670:
663:
660:
644:
640:
635:
628:
625:
614:
609:
606:
595:
567:
559:
549:
541:
530:
522:
509:
501:
490:
480:
461:
453:
439:(whether in a
427:
419:
411:
408:
369:Alvin Weinberg
350:
342:
326:than uranium.
298:
295:
249:
241:
230:
222:
210:
202:
187:
179:
165:
157:
142:
134:
114:
106:
83:
75:
60:
52:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6278:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6246:Nuclear fuels
6244:
6242:
6239:
6238:
6236:
6227:
6224:
6223:
6214:
6210:
6207:
6204:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6181:
6178:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6143:
6139:
6135:
6130:
6127:
6123:
6120:
6116:
6115:
6095:
6091:
6085:
6078:
6074:
6061:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6046:
6039:
6021:
6015:
5999:
5993:
5985:
5979:
5963:
5957:
5939:
5933:
5925:
5921:
5915:
5908:
5896:
5892:
5891:
5886:
5880:
5873:
5862:
5858:
5851:
5833:
5826:
5824:
5812:
5806:
5791:
5785:
5770:
5769:
5764:
5758:
5744:on 2010-01-05
5743:
5739:
5738:
5733:
5726:
5712:
5708:
5701:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5654:
5640:
5639:
5634:
5627:
5613:on 2010-03-28
5612:
5608:
5604:
5597:
5579:
5573:
5565:
5558:
5540:
5534:
5532:
5530:
5528:
5526:
5524:
5522:
5514:
5509:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5492:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5478:
5473:
5466:
5458:
5452:
5444:
5438:
5424:on 2014-12-03
5420:
5413:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5372:
5370:
5354:
5350:
5343:
5328:
5326:
5321:
5314:
5312:
5307:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5266:CANDU reactor
5264:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5223:
5221:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5189:
5183:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5168:
5167:2024; planned
5165:
5163:
5160:
5159:
5155:
5149:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5125:
5103:
5097:
5094:
5090:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5068:
5060:
5054:
5051:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5029:
5021:
5015:
5012:
5009:
5004:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4990:
4989:KAPS 1 &2
4987:
4986:
4964:
4958:
4955:
4951:
4948:
4946:United States
4943:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4929:
4907:
4901:
4898:
4895:
4893:United States
4890:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4879:Fort St Vrain
4877:
4876:
4872:
4866:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4844:
4843:
4835:
4829:
4826:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4782:
4776:
4773:
4769:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4725:
4719:
4716:
4713:
4708:
4700:
4692:
4684:
4679:
4676:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4662:
4661:
4639:
4633:
4630:
4627:
4625:United States
4622:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4608:
4587:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:United States
4571:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4555:
4554:
4532:
4526:
4523:
4521:United States
4518:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4504:
4501:
4500:
4478:
4472:
4469:
4465:
4462:
4460:United States
4457:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4443:
4418:
4412:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4370:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:United States
4354:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4340:
4318:
4315:
4308:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4286:
4283:
4282:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4268:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4248:
4245:
4235:
4223:
4218:
4209:
4208:
4199:
4198:(August 2020)
4194:
4190:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4170:
4169:
4161:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4133:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4114:
4112:
4090:
4049:
4047:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3959:
3954:
3952:
3948:
3927:into fissile
3926:
3922:
3881:
3844:
3803:
3711:
3707:
3702:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3662:
3657:
3655:
3652:as fuel in a
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3599:
3594:
3589:Disadvantages
3586:
3584:
3526:
3504:
3500:
3495:10 years
3487:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3447:
3425:
3424:proliferation
3421:
3380:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3361:melting point
3346:
3330:
3326:
3321:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3302:
3263:
3197:
3193:
3192:slow neutrons
3189:
3179:
3141:
3133:
3132:cross section
3105:
3031:
2991:
2946:
2940:
2931:
2917:
2914:
2900:
2897:
2892:
2886:
2883:
2852:
2846:
2837:
2823:
2820:
2807:
2803:
2797:
2794:
2769:
2755:
2752:
2738:
2735:
2730:
2724:
2721:
2696:
2682:
2679:
2666:
2662:
2656:
2653:
2622:
2616:
2607:
2593:
2590:
2577:
2573:
2567:
2564:
2533:
2527:
2512:
2498:
2495:
2482:
2478:
2472:
2469:
2435:
2421:
2418:
2405:
2401:
2395:
2392:
2355:
2341:
2338:
2325:
2321:
2315:
2312:
2287:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2262:
2222:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2208:
2203:
2183:
2163:
2144:
2140:
2114:
2064:
2061:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2029:
2026:
2012:
2009:
2005:
1996:
1993:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1961:
1958:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1918:
1899:
1896:
1880:
1876:
1871:
1864:
1861:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1831:
1822:
1819:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1787:
1784:
1770:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1753:
1734:
1731:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1691:
1675:
1671:
1666:
1657:
1654:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1622:
1619:
1605:
1602:
1598:
1591:
1588:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1539:
1502:
1501:fast neutrons
1498:
1494:
1489:
1465:
1463:
1437:
1436:radiotoxicity
1432:
1377:
1373:
1368:10 years
1360:
1342:However, the
1340:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1292:
1269:
1249:
1229:
1192:
1164:
1156:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1140:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
981:
980:
976:
973:
970:
967:
964:
957:
952:
950:
945:
943:
938:
937:
935:
929:
924:
922:
917:
879:
842:
837:
800:
772:
770:
767:on expensive
765:
760:
756:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
697:
694:
677:
673:
668:
661:
658:
642:
638:
633:
626:
623:
607:
604:
593:
575:
574:
573:
534:
515:
474:
473:anti-neutrino
470:
465:
446:
442:
438:
434:
407:
403:
401:
397:
392:
390:
387:and depleted
386:
381:
377:
372:
370:
366:
362:
358:
336:
332:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
304:
294:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
263:
261:
257:
234:
214:
195:
173:
151:
146:
127:
123:
120:which is the
118:
99:
95:
91:
69:
64:
45:
41:
38:that uses an
37:
33:
26:
21:
6144:(5): 33–44.
6141:
6137:
6098:. Retrieved
6093:
6084:
6063:. Retrieved
6044:
6038:
6027:. Retrieved
6014:
6002:. Retrieved
5992:
5978:
5966:. Retrieved
5956:
5945:. Retrieved
5932:
5923:
5914:
5906:
5899:. Retrieved
5895:the original
5888:
5879:
5864:
5861:the original
5850:
5839:. Retrieved
5805:
5794:. Retrieved
5784:
5773:. Retrieved
5767:
5757:
5746:. Retrieved
5742:the original
5735:
5725:
5714:. Retrieved
5710:
5700:
5667:
5663:
5653:
5642:. Retrieved
5636:
5626:
5615:. Retrieved
5611:the original
5596:
5585:. Retrieved
5572:
5563:
5557:
5546:. Retrieved
5511:
5481:
5475:
5465:
5451:
5426:. Retrieved
5419:the original
5381:
5377:
5356:. Retrieved
5352:
5342:
5330:. Retrieved
5323:
5276:Peak uranium
5200:
5166:
5132:
4932:Shippingport
4845:SUSPOP/KSTR
4711:Switzerland)
4611:Peach Bottom
4337:, Test Fuel
4277:
4272:
4267:Reactor type
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4242:
4229:
4221:
4197:
4186:
4139:
4115:
4050:
3955:
3953:production.
3804:
3706:transuranics
3703:
3658:
3598:mononuclidic
3595:
3592:
3488:
3426:resistance.
3382:Because the
3381:
3367:, and lower
3322:
3303:
3185:
3111:
3108:Nuclear fuel
2987:
2226:
2217:
2137:), and some
2092:
1496:
1492:
1471:
1375:
1371:
1341:
1289:and heavier
1189:, like most
1171:
1157:Nuclides in
1151:
1150:Nuclides in
1143:
1132:
1124:
1116:
1083:
1075:
1067:
1026:
1012:
986:
968:
933:
801:waste. When
778:
724:
572:, the fuel:
447:) to become
441:fast reactor
413:
404:
393:
376:Carlo Rubbia
373:
328:
300:
264:
122:nuclear fuel
31:
29:
23:A sample of
6004:11 November
5871: years
5384:(1): 1–32.
5358:October 23,
5231:Thorium-232
5178:Netherlands
5093:pebble type
4861:Netherlands
4703:Norway and
4410:MTR thermal
4232:August 2020
3951:transuranic
3638:criticality
2221:decay chain
921:transuranic
799:transuranic
748:fuel for a
742:uranium ore
371:was fired.
365:molten salt
174:to produce
96:artificial
6235:Categories
6029:2009-03-24
5947:2009-03-24
5841:2010-06-20
5796:2012-06-12
5775:2010-06-19
5748:2010-06-19
5716:2012-03-25
5644:2010-06-19
5617:2011-09-17
5587:2009-03-24
5548:2009-03-23
5428:2015-03-02
5303:References
3823:breeds to
3444:cannot be
3325:repository
3310:rare-earth
3182:Advantages
2244:decays to
2145:, such as
2111:is also a
1396:(yielding
1159:red frames
516:to become
90:transmuted
6261:Actinides
6166:144725888
6100:March 21,
5692:0012-821X
5101:300 MW(e)
5091:, power (
5075:1985–1989
5019:220 MW(e)
4962:100 MW(e)
4936:1977–1982
4905:330 MW(e)
4883:1976–1989
4851:1974–1977
4811:1968–1973
4754:1967–1988
4687:UK (also
4677:1966–1973
4615:1966–1972
4564:1964–1969
4511:1963–1968
4476:285 MW(e)
4450:1962–1965
4368:197 MW(e)
4347:1960–1978
3960:in which
3843:half-life
3642:sintering
3484:detection
3363:, higher
2901:−
2898:β
2808:α
2739:−
2736:β
2667:α
2578:α
2483:α
2406:α
2326:α
2046:−
2042:β
1978:−
1974:β
1939:−
1881:−
1877:β
1842:−
1804:−
1800:β
1712:−
1676:−
1672:β
1639:−
1635:β
1333:americium
1191:actinides
678:−
674:β
643:−
639:β
613:⟶
374:In 1993,
275:plutonium
124:. Unlike
92:into the
66:, as the
6209:Archived
6192:Archived
5711:ABC News
5607:ABC News
5500:23222590
5437:cite web
5271:Fuji MSR
5197:See also
5187:45 MW(e)
5128:TMSR-LF1
5071:THTR-300
5065:blanket
4840:pellets
4833:60 MW(e)
4780:15 MW(e)
4695:Sweden,
4637:40 MW(e)
4503:BORAX-IV
4391:; &
4120:such as
3980:recycled
3710:actinide
3314:monazite
3306:reserves
2893:→
2804:→
2731:→
2663:→
2574:→
2479:→
2402:→
2322:→
2037:→
2006:→
1969:→
1929:→
1872:→
1832:→
1795:→
1764:→
1702:→
1667:→
1630:→
1599:→
669:→
634:→
469:electron
433:captures
324:seawater
316:monazite
279:actinide
172:neutrons
170:absorbs
100:isotope
6266:Thorium
6198:at the
6146:Bibcode
6065:11 June
5968:21 July
5901:2 March
5672:Bibcode
5508:4414368
5406:8033110
5386:Bibcode
5226:Thorium
4672:Euratom
4585:7.5 MWt
4261:Country
4222:updated
4193:Discuss
3377:oxidize
2113:fissile
1331:, then
1163:fissile
589:neutron
471:and an
437:neutron
389:uranium
385:thorium
297:History
256:in situ
98:uranium
94:fissile
44:thorium
40:isotope
25:thorium
6164:
6056:
5737:Cosmos
5690:
5506:
5498:
5477:Nature
5404:
5332:31 May
5185:060000
5162:Petten
5151:002000
5099:300000
5058:40 MWt
5056:040000
5017:220000
4960:100000
4903:330000
4868:001000
4831:060000
4807:Lingen
4778:015000
4723:20 MWt
4721:020000
4664:Dragon
4635:040000
4583:007500
4528:002400
4505:&
4474:285000
4414:040000
4393:KAMINI
4389:DHRUVA
4366:300000
4310:020000
4303:Canada
4287:&
4156:, and
3925:breeds
3841:. The
3683:burnup
3659:In an
3138:) and
2950:
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2427:
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2347:
2205:. The
1541:, and
1337:curium
1293:. The
764:MYRRHA
545:β
505:β
485:ν
6162:S2CID
6023:(PDF)
5941:(PDF)
5835:(PDF)
5814:(PDF)
5638:Wired
5581:(PDF)
5542:(PDF)
5504:S2CID
5422:(PDF)
5415:(PDF)
5402:S2CID
5153:2 MWt
5144:China
5050:LMFBR
5046:India
5007:India
4870:1 MWt
4407:India
4385:CIRUS
4273:Power
4183:split
4122:LFTRs
4046:PUREX
3448:from
3028:from
2770:10.64
2216:The 4
514:decay
495:) by
337:used
312:waste
34:is a
6102:2023
6067:2012
6054:ISBN
6006:2017
5970:2013
5903:2015
5688:ISSN
5496:PMID
5443:link
5360:2019
5334:2012
5089:HTGR
5032:FBTR
5011:PHWR
4950:LWBR
4897:HTGR
4847:KEMA
4768:HTGR
4715:HTGR
4668:OECD
4629:HTGR
4560:ORNL
4557:MSRE
4464:LWBR
4278:Fuel
4251:Name
4130:MSRE
4128:and
3766:and
3730:and
3693:and
3238:and
2853:0.78
2697:0.15
2623:0.54
2534:0.24
2356:68.9
1503:and
1364:3.27
1335:and
1161:are
1152:bold
734:days
702:fuel
400:NASA
277:and
30:The
6154:doi
5869:000
5680:doi
5486:doi
5482:492
5394:doi
5104:Th+
5061:ThO
5022:ThO
4965:Th+
4954:PWR
4908:Th+
4825:BWR
4783:Th+
4750:AVR
4726:Th+
4640:Th+
4578:MSR
4533:Th+
4479:Th+
4468:PWR
4419:Al+
4371:ThO
4361:BWR
4319:Th+
4314:see
4289:NRU
4285:NRX
4191:. (
4126:ARE
3990:of
3978:is
3845:of
3695:AVR
3563:or
3493:to
3349:ThO
3343:),
2947:2.6
2918:208
2887:208
2824:208
2798:212
2756:212
2725:212
2683:212
2657:216
2594:216
2568:220
2513:3.6
2499:220
2473:224
2436:1.9
2422:224
2396:228
2342:228
2316:232
2065:232
2030:232
1997:231
1962:231
1922:232
1900:232
1865:232
1823:233
1788:233
1757:232
1735:232
1695:233
1658:233
1623:233
1592:232
1460:by
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698:233
662:233
627:233
608:232
443:or
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3775:Pa
3721:Pa
3618:,
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3379:.
3333:UO
3292:Pu
3247:Pu
3178:.
3151:Th
3134:(σ
3077:Pa
3059:Th
3041:Th
2915:82
2909:Pb
2884:81
2878:Tl
2838:61
2821:81
2815:Tl
2795:83
2789:Bi
2753:83
2747:Bi
2722:82
2716:Pb
2680:82
2674:Pb
2654:84
2648:Po
2608:55
2591:84
2585:Po
2565:86
2559:Rn
2496:86
2490:Rn
2470:88
2464:Ra
2419:88
2413:Ra
2393:90
2387:Th
2339:90
2333:Th
2313:92
2275:Th
2254:Th
2195:Tl
2175:Bi
2165:,
2155:Rn
2062:92
2027:91
2021:Pa
1994:91
1988:Pa
1959:90
1953:Th
1919:90
1913:Th
1897:92
1862:91
1856:Pa
1820:91
1814:Pa
1785:90
1779:Th
1754:90
1748:Th
1732:92
1692:92
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1589:90
1583:Th
1559::
1550:Th
1531:Pa
1521:,
1495:,2
1458:Th
1447:Pa
1424:Pa
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1387:Th
1374:,2
1352:Pa
1321:Pu
1302:Np
1280:Pu
1261:Pu
1251:,
1241:Np
1231:,
1133:Th
1129:→
1125:Th
1121:←
1117:Th
1113:→
1084:Pa
1080:→
1076:Pa
1072:←
1068:Pa
1064:→
1052:↑
1023:→
1020:U
1017:↔
1009:↔
1006:U
1003:↔
1000:U
997:↔
994:U
991:←
977:↑
969:Np
909:Pu
890:Pu
771:.
695:92
659:91
653:Pa
624:90
618:Th
605:90
599:Th
526:Pa
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226:Pu
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79:Th
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2433:(
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2374:s
2371:r
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2307:U
2235:U
2218:n
2124:U
2102:U
2056:U
2013:n
2010:+
1945:n
1942:2
1936:n
1933:+
1891:U
1848:n
1845:2
1839:n
1836:+
1771:n
1768:+
1726:U
1718:n
1715:2
1709:n
1706:+
1686:U
1606:n
1603:+
1512:U
1497:n
1493:n
1481:U
1376:n
1372:n
1366:×
1221:U
1202:U
1180:U
1103:↑
1094:↑
1047:↑
1042:↑
1037:↓
1027:U
1013:U
987:U
955:e
948:t
941:v
871:U
852:U
829:U
810:U
788:U
689:U
594:+
586:n
563:U
475:(
346:U
245:U
206:U
183:U
110:U
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