1458:"he frowns like a lord, he shoots the sky") was elected tlatoani; he was the son of Huitzilihhuitl, brother of Chimalpopoca and had served as the war leader of his uncle Itzcoatl in the war against the Tepanecs. The accession of a new ruler in the dominant city-state was often an occasion for subjected cities to rebel by refusing to pay taxes. This meant that new rulers began their rule with a coronation campaign, often against rebellious provinces, but also sometimes demonstrating their military might by making new conquests. Motecuzoma tested the attitudes of the cities around the valley by requesting laborers for the enlargement of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan. Only the city of Chalco refused to provide laborers, and hostilities between Chalco and Tenochtitlan would persist until the 1450s. Motecuzoma then reconquered the cities in the valley of Morelos and Guerrero, and then later undertook new conquests in the Huaxtec region of northern Veracruz, and the Mixtec region of Coixtlahuaca and large parts of Oaxaca, and later again in central and southern Veracruz with conquests at Cosamalopan, Ahuilizapan, and Cuetlaxtlan. During this period the city-states of Tlaxcalan, Cholula and Huexotzinco emerged as major competitors to the imperial expansion, and they supplied warriors to several of the cities conquered. Motecuzoma therefore initiated a state of low-intensity warfare against these three cities, staging minor skirmishes called "
1557:"Water monster"), brother of Axayacatl and Tizoc and war leader under Tizoc. His successful coronation campaign suppressed rebellions in the Toluca Valley and conquered Jilotepec and several communities in the northern Valley of Mexico. A second 1521 campaign to the gulf coast was also highly successful. He began an enlargement of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan, inaugurating the new temple in 1487. For the inauguration ceremony, the Mexica invited the rulers of all their subject cities, who participated as spectators in the ceremony in which an unprecedented number of war captives were sacrificed â some sources giving a figure of 80,400 prisoners sacrificed over four days. Probably the actual figure of sacrifices was much smaller, but still numbering several thousand. There have never been found enough skulls in the capital to satisfy even the most conservative figures. Ahuitzotl also constructed monumental architecture in sites such as Calixtlahuaca, Malinalco, and Tepoztlan. After a rebellion in the towns of Alahuiztlan and Oztoticpac in Northern Guerrero, he ordered the entire population executed and repopulated with people from the valley of Mexico. He also constructed a fortified garrison at Oztuma defending the border against the Tarascan state.
4533:, p. 3 write: "The use of terminology changed historically during the Late Postclassic, and it has changed among modern scholars. Readers will find some variation in the terms authors employ in this handbook, but, in general, different authors use Aztecs to refer to people incorporated into the empire of the Triple Alliance in the Late Postclassic period. An empire of such broad geographic extent subsumed much cultural, linguistic, and social variation, and the term Aztec Empire should not obscure that. Scholars often use more specific identifiers, such as Mexica or Tenochca, when appropriate, and they generally employ the term Nahuas to refer to indigenous people in central Mexico after the Spanish Conquest, as Lockhart (1992) proposed. All of these terms introduce their own problems, whether because they are vague, subsume too much variation, are imposed labels, or are problematic for some other reason. We have not found a solution that all can agree on and thus accept the varied viewpoints of authors. We use the term Aztec because today it is widely recognized by both scholars and the international public."
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2765:. These claims have been refuted by Bernard OrtĂz Montellano who, in his studies of Aztec health, diet, and medicine, demonstrates that while the Aztec diet was low in animal proteins, it was rich in vegetable proteins. Ortiz also points to the preponderance of human sacrifice during periods of food abundance following harvests compared to periods of food scarcity, the insignificant quantity of human protein available from sacrifices, and the fact that aristocrats already had easy access to animal protein. Today, many scholars point to ideological explanations of the practice, noting how the public spectacle of sacrificing warriors from conquered states was a major display of political power, supporting the claim of the ruling classes to divine authority. It also served as an important deterrent against rebellion by subjugated polities against the Aztec state, and such deterrents were crucial for the loosely organized empire to cohere.
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2207:, and roofs were made of reed, although pyramids, temples, and palaces were generally made of stone. The city was interlaced with canals, which were useful for transportation. Anthropologist Eduardo Noguera estimated the population at 200,000 based on the house count and merging the population of Tlatelolco (once an independent city, but later became a suburb of Tenochtitlan). If one includes the surrounding islets and shores surrounding Lake Texcoco, estimates range from 300,000 to 700,000 inhabitants. Michael E. Smith gives a somewhat smaller figure of 212,500 inhabitants of Tenochtitlan based on an area of 1,350 hectares (3,300 acres) and a population density of 157 inhabitants per hectare (60/acre). The second largest city in the valley of Mexico in the Aztec period was Texcoco with some 25,000 inhabitants dispersed over 450 hectares (1,100 acres).
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1843:, with authority over a group of nobles and a population of commoners. The altepetl included a capital that served as a religious center, the hub of distribution and organization of a local population that often lived spread out in minor settlements surrounding the capital. Altepetl was also the main source of ethnic identity for the inhabitants, even though Altepetl was frequently composed of groups speaking different languages. Each altepetl would see itself as standing in political contrast to other altepetl polities, and war was waged between altepetl states. In this way, Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs of one Altepetl would be solidary with speakers of other languages belonging to the same altepetl, but enemies of Nahuatl speakers belonging to other competing altepetl states. In the basin of Mexico, altepetl was composed of subdivisions called
2619:
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1602:"He frowns like a lord, the youngest child who is dead as he had lived in life but not death"), was a son of Axayacatl, and a war leader. He began his rule in standard fashion, conducting a coronation campaign to demonstrate his skills as a leader. He attacked the fortified city of Nopallan in Oaxaca and subjected the adjacent region to the empire. An effective warrior, Moctezuma maintained the pace of conquest set by his predecessor and subjected large areas in Guerrero, Oaxaca, Puebla, and even far south along the Pacific and Gulf coasts, conquering the province of Xoconochco in Chiapas. he also intensified the flower wars waged against Tlaxcala and Huexotzinco and secured an alliance with Cholula. He also consolidated the class structure of Aztec society, by making it harder for commoners (Nahuatl languages:
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informed of the arrival of the
Spanish fleet of Hernån Cortés, who soon marched toward Tlaxcala where he allied with the traditional enemies of the Aztecs. On 8 November 1519, Moctezuma II received Cortés and his troops and Tlaxcalan allies on the causeway south of Tenochtitlan, and he invited the Spaniards to stay as his guests in Tenochtitlan. When Aztec troops destroyed a Spanish camp on the Gulf Coast, Cortés ordered Moctezuma to execute the commanders responsible for the attack, and Moctezuma complied. At this point, the power balance had shifted toward the Spaniards who now held Moctezuma as a prisoner in his palace. As this shift in power became clear to Moctezuma's subjects, the Spaniards became increasingly unwelcome in the capital city, and, in June 1520, hostilities broke out, culminating in the
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spouses. Nevertheless, Aztec society was highly gendered with separate gender roles for men and women. Men were expected to work outside of the house, as farmers, traders, craftsmen, and warriors, whereas women were expected to take responsibility for the domestic sphere. Women could however also work outside of the home as small-scale merchants, doctors, priests, and midwives. Warfare was highly valued and a source of high prestige, but women's work was metaphorically conceived of as equivalent to warfare, and as equally important in maintaining the equilibrium of the world and pleasing the gods. This situation has led some scholars to describe Aztec gender ideology as an ideology not of a gender hierarchy, but of gender complementarity, with gender roles being separate but equal.
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4508:, p. 4 writes "For many the term 'Aztec' refers strictly to the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan (the Mexica people), or perhaps the inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico, the highland basin where the Mexica and certain other Aztec groups lived. I believe it makes more sense to expand the definition of "Aztec" to include the peoples of nearby highland valleys in addition to the inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico. In the final few centuries before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1519, the peoples of this wider area all spoke the Nahuatl language (the language of the Aztecs), and they all traced their origins to a mythical place called Aztlan (Aztlan is the etymon of "Aztec," a modern label that was not used by the Aztecs themselves)"
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residents in central Mexico, estimating over 18â30 million. Their very high figure has been highly criticized for relying on unwarranted assumptions. Archeologist
William Sanders based an estimate on archeological evidence of dwellings, arriving at an estimate of 1â1.2 million inhabitants in the Valley of Mexico. Whitmore used a computer simulation model based on colonial censuses to arrive at an estimate of 1.5 million for the Basin in 1519, and an estimate of 16 million for all of Mexico. Depending on the estimations of the population in 1519 the scale of the decline in the 16th century, range from around 50 percent to around 90 percent â with Sanders's and Whitmore's estimates being around 90 percent.
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2543:, who may have been a god of the duality between life and death, male and female, and who may have incorporated Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl. Some historians argue against the notion that Ometeotl was a dual god, claiming that scholars are applying their preconceived ideas onto translated texts. Apart from the major deities, there were dozens of minor deities each associated with an element or concept, and as the Aztec empire grew so did their pantheon because they adopted and incorporated the local deities of conquered people into their own. Additionally, the major gods had many alternative manifestations or aspects, creating small families of gods with related aspects.
1816:
3674:. The Spanish recognized the indigenous elites as nobles in the Spanish colonial system, maintaining the status distinction of the preconquest era, and used these noblemen as intermediaries between the Spanish colonial government and their communities. This was contingent on their conversion to Christianity and continuing loyalty to the Spanish crown. Colonial Nahua polities had considerable autonomy to regulate their local affairs. The Spanish rulers did not entirely understand the indigenous political organization, but they recognized the importance of the existing system and their elite rulers. They reshaped the political system utilizing
4520:, p. 1 writes "These people I call the Nahuas, a name they sometimes used themselves and the one that has become current today in Mexico, in preference to Aztecs. The latter term has several decisive disadvantages: it implies a quasi-national unity that did not exist, it directs attention to an ephemeral imperial agglomeration, it is attached specifically to the pre-conquest period, and by the standards of the time, its use for anyone other than the Mexica (the inhabitants of the imperial capital, Tenochtitlan) would have been improper even if it had been the Mexica's primary designation, which it was not"
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933:, named after the first viceroy of Mexico and perhaps commissioned by him, to inform the Spanish crown about the political and economic structure of the Aztec empire. It has information naming the polities that the Triple Alliance conquered, the types of taxes rendered to the Aztec Empire, and the class/gender structure of their society. Many written annals exist, written by local Nahua historians recording the histories of their polity. These annals used pictorial histories and were subsequently transformed into alphabetic annals in Latin script. Well-known native chroniclers and annalists are
3593:
3407:, both carved with images of warfare and conquest by specific Aztec rulers. Many smaller stone sculptures depicting deities also exist. The style used in religious sculpture was rigid stances likely meant to create a powerful experience for the onlooker. Although Aztec stone sculptures are now displayed in museums as unadorned rock, they were originally painted in vivid polychrome color, sometimes covered first with a base coat of plaster. Early Spanish conquistador accounts also describe stone sculptures as having been decorated with precious stones and metal, inserted into the plaster.
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merchants were permitted to sell their goods, and punishing those who cheated their customers or sold substandard or counterfeit goods. A typical town would have a weekly market (every five days), while larger cities held markets every day. Cortés reported that the central market of
Tlatelolco, Tenochtitlan's sister city, was visited by 60,000 people daily. Some sellers in the markets were petty vendors; farmers might sell some of their produce, potters sold their vessels, and so on. Other vendors were professional merchants who traveled from market to market seeking profits.
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2475:, a deity of the night, magic, prophecy, and fate. The Great Temple in Tenochtitlan had two shrines on its top, one dedicated to Tlaloc, the other to Huitzilopochtli. The two shrines represented two sacred mountains: the left one was Tonacatepetl, the Hill of Sustenance, whose patron god was Tlaloc, and the right one was Coatepec, whose patron god was Huitzilopochtli. Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca each had separate temples within the religious precinct close to the Great Temple, and the high priests of the Great Temple were named "
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agave cords for three-dimensional objects such as fly whisks, fans, bracelets, headgear, and other objects. The second and more difficult was a mosaic-type technique, which the
Spanish also called "feather painting". These were done principally on feather shields and cloaks for idols. Feather mosaics were arrangements of minute fragments of feathers from a wide variety of birds, generally worked on a paper base, made from cotton and paste, then itself backed with amate paper, but bases of other types of paper and directly on
3304:. After the conquest, codices with calendric or religious information were sought out and systematically destroyed by the church â whereas other types of painted books, particularly historical narratives, and tax lists continued to be produced. Although depicting Aztec deities and describing religious practices also shared by the Aztecs of the Valley of Mexico, the codices produced in Southern Puebla near Cholula, are sometimes not considered to be Aztec codices, because they were produced outside of the Aztec "heartland".
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560:. With the destruction of the superstructure of the Aztec Empire in 1521, the Spanish used the city-states on which the Aztec Empire had been built to rule the indigenous populations via their local nobles. Those nobles pledged loyalty to the Spanish crown and converted, at least nominally, to Christianity, and, in return, were recognized as nobles by the Spanish crown. Nobles acted as intermediaries to convey taxes and mobilize labor for their new overlords, facilitating the establishment of Spanish colonial rule.
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maintaining a permanent military presence, installing puppet rulers, or even moving entire populations from the center to maintain a loyal base of support. In this way, the Aztec system of government distinguished between different strategies of control in the outer regions of the empire, far from the core in the Valley of Mexico. Some provinces were treated as subject provinces, which provided the basis for economic stability for the empire, and strategic provinces, which were the basis for further expansion.
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inhabited by
Nahuatl speakers. One study has suggested that Nahuas originally inhabited the BajĂo area around Guanajuato which reached a population peak in the 6th century, after which the population quickly diminished during a subsequent dry period. This depopulation of the BajĂo coincided with an incursion of new populations into the Valley of Mexico, which suggests that this marks the influx of Nahuatl speakers into the region. These people populated central Mexico, dislocating speakers of
1400:, son of the slain Texcocan ruler Ixtlilxochitl against Maxtla. Itzcoatl also allied with Maxtla's brother Totoquihuaztli ruler of the Tepanec city of Tlacopan. The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan besieged Azcapotzalco, and in 1428 they destroyed the city and sacrificed Maxtla. Through this victory, Tenochtitlan became the dominant city-state in the Valley of Mexico, and the alliance between the three city-states provided the basis on which the Aztec Empire was built.
2079:. They made long expeditions to all parts of Mesoamerica bringing back exotic luxury goods, and they served as the judges and supervisors of the Tlatelolco market. Although the economy of Aztec Mexico was commercialized (in its use of money, markets, and merchants), land and labor were not generally commodities for sale, though some types of land could be sold between nobles. In the commercial sector of the economy, several types of money were in regular use. Small purchases were made with
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achieved after the conquest when the Aztecs had been introduced to the principles of phonetic writing by the
Spanish. Other scholars, notably Gordon Whittaker, have argued that the syllabic and phonetic aspects of Aztec writing were considerably less systematic and more creative than Lacadena's proposal suggests, arguing that Aztec writing never coalesced into a strictly syllabic system such as the Maya writing, but rather used a wide range of different types of phonetic signs.
2133:(also known as Tarascans), a source of bronze tools and jewelry. On the negative side, imperial taxes imposed a burden on commoner households, who had to increase their work to pay their share of taxes. Nobles, on the other hand, often made out well under the imperial rule because of the indirect nature of imperial organization. The empire had to rely on local kings and nobles and offered them privileges for their help in maintaining order and keeping the tax revenue flowing.
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1855:), who would hold sway over a territory and distribute rights to land among the commoners. A calpolli was at once a territorial unit where commoners organized labor and land use since the land was not private property, and also often a kinship unit as a network of families that were related through intermarriage. Calpolli leaders might be or become members of the nobility, in which case they could represent their Calpolli interests in the altepetl government.
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3896:, pro-indigenist Mexican intellectuals did not find a wide audience. With Santa Anna's overthrow in 1854, Mexican liberals and scholars interested in the indigenous past became more active. Liberals were more favorably inclined toward the Indigenous populations and their history, but considered a pressing matter being the "Indian Problem". Liberals' commitment to equality before the law meant that for upwardly mobile Indigenous, such as Zapotec
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1643:, for the assault on Tenochtitlan. After the siege and destruction of the Aztec capital, Cuauhtémoc was captured on 13 August 1521, marking the beginning of Spanish hegemony in central Mexico. Spaniards held Cuauhtémoc captive until he was tortured and executed on the orders of Cortés, supposedly for treason, during an ill-fated expedition to Honduras in 1525. His death marked the end of a tumultuous era in Aztec political history.
499:. Soon Texcoco and Tlacopan were relegated to junior partnership in the alliance, with Tenochtitlan the dominant power. The empire extended its reach by a combination of trade and military conquest. It was never a true territorial empire controlling territory by large military garrisons in conquered provinces but rather dominated its client city-states primarily by installing friendly rulers in conquered territories, constructing
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5790:, sec 2a: "Teotl continually generates and regenerates as well as permeates, encompasses, and shapes the cosmos as part of its endless process of self-generation-andâregeneration. That which humans commonly understand as nature â e.g. heavens, earth, rain, humans, trees, rocks, animals, etc. â is generated by teotl, from teotl as one aspect, facet, or moment of its endless process of self-generation-and-regeneration."
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3284:. Of these, none are conclusively confirmed to have been created before the conquest, but several codices must have been painted either right before the conquest or very soon after â before traditions for producing them were much disturbed. Even if some codices may have been produced after the conquest, there is good reason to think that they may have been copied from pre-Columbian originals by scribes. The
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destruction that sets the stage for the next period to begin. In this process, the deities
Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl appear as adversaries, each destroying the creations of the other. The current Sun, the fifth, was created when a minor deity sacrificed himself on a bonfire and turned into the sun, but the sun only begins to move once the other deities sacrifice themselves and offer it their life force.
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originally the most common, but has now largely been replaced with "motecuhzoma" and "Moteuczoma", in
Spanish the term "Moctezuma" which inverts the order of t and k has been predominant and is a common surname in Mexico, but is now also largely replaced with a form that respects the original Nahuatl structure, such as "Motecuzoma". In Nahuatl the word is /motekÊ·so:ma/, meaning "he frowns like a lord" (
2831:
1001:, trades and crafts and history. Another source of knowledge is the cultures and customs of the contemporary Nahuatl speakers who can often provide insights into what prehispanic ways of life may have been like. Scholarly study of Aztec civilization is most often based on scientific and multidisciplinary methodologies, combining archeological knowledge with ethnohistorical and ethnographic information.
2781:, who predated the Aztecs in central Mexico. The Aztecs considered Toltec productions to represent the finest state of culture. The fine arts included writing and painting, singing and composing poetry, carving sculptures and producing mosaics, making fine ceramics, producing complex featherwork, and working metals, including copper and gold. Artisans of the fine arts were referred to collectively as
3237:), and different kinds of braziers, tripod dishes, and biconical goblets. Vessels were fired in simple updraft kilns or even in open firing in pit kilns at low temperatures. Polychrome ceramics were imported from the Cholula region (also known as Mixteca-Puebla style), and these wares were highly prized as a luxury ware, whereas the local black on orange styles were also for everyday use.
1546:
1509:. Axayacatl also conquered the independent Mexica city of Tlatelolco, located on the northern part of the island where Tenochtitlan was also located. The Tlatelolco ruler Moquihuix was married to Axayacatl's sister, and his alleged mistreatment of her was used as an excuse to incorporate Tlatelolco and its important market directly under the control of the tlatoani of Tenochtitlan.
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interpret the historical context of artifacts. There are many written texts by the indigenous people and
Spaniards of the early colonial period that contain invaluable information about pre-colonial Aztec history. These texts provide insight into the political histories of various Aztec city-states, and their ruling lineages. Such histories were produced as well in pictorial
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vegetation. These raised beds were separated by narrow canals, which allowed farmers to move between them by canoe. Chinampas were extremely fertile pieces of land, and yielded, on average, seven crops annually. Based on current chinampa yields, it has been estimated that one hectare (2.5 acres) of chinampa would feed 20 individuals and 9,000 hectares (22,000 acres) of
4094:(1843). Although not formally trained as a historian, Prescott drew on the obvious Spanish sources, but also Ixtlilxochitl and SahagĂșn's history of the conquest. His resulting work was a mixture of pro- and anti-Aztec attitudes. It was not only a bestseller in English, but it also influenced Mexican intellectuals, including the leading conservative politician,
3218:
II is characterized by a stylized grass design above calligraphic designs such as S-curves or loops; Aztec III is characterized by very simple line designs; Aztec IV continues some pre-Columbian designs but adds
European influenced floral designs. There were local variations on each of these styles, and archeologists continue to refine the ceramic sequence.
3538:, large tracts of agricultural land on which the encomenderos and their slaves lived. The Spanish coerced the tribes into granting them private ownership of indigenous people and land for enslavement and encomiendas. Occasionally, an Indigenous individual benefited from this system and grew into substantial wealth and power come the colonial period.
1976:. While most of the farming occurred outside the densely populated areas, within the cities there was another method of (small-scale) farming. Each family had a garden plot where they grew maize, fruits, herbs, medicines, and other important plants. When the city of Tenochtitlan became a major urban center, water was supplied to the city through
1529:
consequently, most of Tizoc's short reign was spent attempting to quell rebellions and maintain control of areas conquered by his predecessors. Tizoc died suddenly in 1485, and it has been suggested that he was poisoned by his brother and war leader Ahuitzotl who became the next tlatoani. Tizoc is mostly known as the namesake of the
4216:) have been borrowed through Spanish into other languages around the world. Through the spread and popularity of Mexican cuisine, the culinary legacy of the Aztecs can be said to have a global reach. Today, Aztec images and Nahuatl words are often used to lend an air of authenticity or exoticism in the marketing of Mexican cuisine.
4176:: corn, chili, beans, squash, tomato, and avocado. Many of these staple products continue to be known by their Nahuatl names, carrying in this way ties to the Aztec people who introduced these foods to the Spaniards and the world. Through the spread of ancient Mesoamerican food elements, particularly plants, Nahuatl loan words (
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3532:, but the two positions in many Nahua towns became separated over time. Indigenous governors were in charge of the colonial political organization of the Indians. In particular, they enabled the continued functioning of the tax and enslavement of indigenous commoners to benefit the Spanish encomenderos. Encomenderos owned
3796:(1780â1781) in his Italian exile following the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, in which he traces the history of the Aztecs from their migration to the last Aztec ruler, Cuauhtemoc. He wrote it expressly to defend Mexico's indigenous past against the slanders of contemporary writers, such as Pauw, Buffon, Raynal, and
1981:
amphibians, shrimp, insects and insect eggs, and waterfowl. The presence of such varied sources of protein meant that there was little use for domestic animals for meat (only turkeys and dogs were kept), and scholars have calculated that there was no shortage of protein among the inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico.
3877:, the Mexican flag retained the emblematic eagle and cactus, with elaborate symbols of monarchy. After the defeat of the French and their Mexican collaborators, the Mexican Republic was re-established, and the flag returned to its republican simplicity. This emblem has also been adopted as Mexico's national
3892:, who were mostly liberal Mexican elites. Although the flag of the Mexican Republic had the symbol of the Aztecs as its central element, conservative elites were generally hostile to the current indigenous populations of Mexico or crediting them with a glorious pre-Hispanic history. Under Mexican President
1754:, originally peasants, but later extended to the lower working classes in general. Eduardo Noguera estimates that in later stages only 20 percent of the population was dedicated to agriculture and food production. The other 80 percent of society were warriors, artisans, and traders. Eventually, most of the
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the subsequent campaigns of conquest in northern and southern Mesoamerica. This meant that aspects of Aztec culture and the Nahuatl language continued to expand during the early colonial period as Aztec auxiliary forces made permanent settlements in many of the areas that were put under the Spanish crown.
3710:, which usually continued to function as the elite ruling group had in the Preconquest era. Population decline due to epidemic disease resulted in many population shifts in settlement patterns and the formation of new population centers. These were often forced resettlements under the Spanish policy of
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from Oaxaca who was president of Mexico from 1876 to 1911. His policies opening Mexico to foreign investors and modernizing the country under a firm hand controlling unrest, "Order and Progress", undermined Mexico's indigenous populations and their communities. However, for investigations of Mexico's
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Aztec black-on-orange ceramics are chronologically classified into four phases: Aztec I and II corresponding to c. 1100â1350 (early Aztec period), Aztec III (c. 1350â1520), and the last phase Aztec IV was the early colonial period. Aztec I is characterized by floral designs and day-name glyphs; Aztec
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in words unrelated to teeth. The combination of these principles allowed the Aztecs to represent the sounds of names of persons and places. Narratives tended to be represented through sequences of images, using various iconographic conventions such as footprints to show paths, temples on fire to show
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were carried out during the ritual festivals and the bodies of sacrificial victims were thrown down the stairs. The temple was enlarged in several stages, and most of the Aztec rulers made a point of adding a further stage, each with a new dedication and inauguration. The temple has been excavated in
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as they spread their political influence south. As the former nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples mixed with the complex civilizations of Mesoamerica, adopting religious and cultural practices, the foundation for later Aztec culture was laid. After 900 CE, during the postclassic period, many sites almost
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During the 19th century, the image of the Aztecs as uncivilized barbarians was replaced with romanticized visions of the Aztecs as original sons of the soil, with a highly developed culture rivaling the ancient European civilizations. When Mexico became independent from Spain, a romanticized version
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was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, gradually replacing and covering the lake, the island and the architecture of Aztec Tenochtitlan. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, Aztec warriors were enlisted as auxiliary troops alongside the Spanish Tlaxcalteca allies, and Aztec forces participated in all of
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was a major city of the Nahuatl-speaking Tlahuica tribe, and Tollocan in the Toluca Valley was the capital of the Matlatzinca tribe which included Nahuatl speakers as well as speakers of Otomi and the language today called Matlatzinca. Most Aztec cities had a similar layout with a central plaza with
1800:
Among the nobles, marriage alliances were often used as a political strategy with lesser nobles marrying daughters from more prestigious lineages whose status was then inherited by their children. Nobles were also often polygamous, with lords having many wives. Polygamy was not very common among the
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The Aztec family pattern was bilateral, counting relatives on the father's and mother's side of the family equally, and inheritance was also passed both to sons and daughters. This meant that women could own property just as men and that women therefore had a good deal of economic freedom from their
1528:
In 1481 at Axayacatls death, his older brother Tizoc was elected ruler. Tizoc's coronation campaign against the Otomi of Metztitlan failed as he lost the major battle and only managed to secure 40 prisoners to be sacrificed for his coronation ceremony. Having shown weakness, many cities rebelled and
1029:
were not indigenous to the highlands of central Mexico, but that they gradually migrated into the region from somewhere in northwestern Mexico. At the fall of Teotihuacan in the 6th century CE, some city-states rose to power in central Mexico, some of them, including Cholula and Xochicalco, probably
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neighborhood in Tenochtitlan where they lived and worked. They did not pay taxes nor were required to perform public service. The Florentine Codex gives information about how feather works were created. The amanteca had two ways of creating their works. One was to secure the feathers in place using
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Huitzilopochtli is the deity tied to the Mexica tribe and he figures in the story of the origin and migrations of the tribe. On their journey, Huitzilopochtli, in the form of a deity bundle carried by the Mexica priest, continuously spurs the tribe by pushing them into conflict with their neighbors
1964:
on the lake, artificial islands that allowed the conversion of the shallow waters into highly fertile gardens that could be cultivated year-round. Chinampas are human-made extensions of agricultural land, created from alternating layers of mud from the bottom of the lake, and plant matter and other
1898:
were not in direct contact with the center. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions once their city-state was conquered, and the Aztecs did not generally interfere in local affairs as long as the tax payments were
910:
Knowledge of Aztec society rests on several different sources: The many archeological remains of everything from temple pyramids to thatched huts can be used to understand many of the aspects of what the Aztec world was like. However, archeologists often must rely on knowledge from other sources to
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Sculptures were carved in stone and wood, but few wood carvings have survived. Aztec stone sculptures exist in many sizes from small figurines and masks to large monuments, and are characterized by a high quality of craftsmanship. Many sculptures were carved in highly realistic styles, for example
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Epigrapher Alfonso Lacadena has demonstrated that the different syllable signs used by the Aztecs almost enabled the representation of all the most frequent syllables of the Nahuatl language (with some notable exceptions), but some scholars have argued that such a high degree of phonetics was only
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Products were distributed through a network of markets; some markets specialized in a single commodity (e.g., the dog market of Acolman), and other general markets with the presence of many different goods. Markets were highly organized with a system of supervisors taking care that only authorized
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from springs on the banks of the lake, and they organized a system that collected human waste for use as fertilizer. Through intensive agriculture, the Aztecs were able to sustain a large urbanized population. The lake was also a rich source of proteins in the form of aquatic animals such as fish,
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very diverse, but unlike most European empires, it was more of a hegemonic confederacy than a single system of government. Ethnohistorian Ross Hassig has argued that the Aztec empire is best understood as an informal or hegemonic empire because it did not exert supreme authority over the conquered
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The name of the two Aztec rulers which in this article is written as "Motecuzoma" has several variants, due to alterations to the original Nahuatl word by speakers of English and Spanish, and due to different orthographical choices for writing Nahuatl words. In English the variant "Montezuma" was
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was formed in Nancy, France in 1875, Mexican scholars became active participants, and Mexico City hosted the biennial multidisciplinary meeting six times, starting in 1895. Mexico's ancient civilizations have continued to be the focus of major scholarly investigations by Mexican and international
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estimates that a typical altepetl had from 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants, and covered an area between 70 and 100 square kilometers (27 and 39 sq mi). In the Morelos Valley, altepetl sizes were somewhat smaller. Smith argues that the altepetl was primarily a political unit, made up of the
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permitted them to settle in the empty barrens of Tizapan, where they were eventually assimilated into Culhuacan culture. The noble lineage of Colhuacan traced its roots back to the legendary city-state of Tula, and by marrying into Colhua families, the Mexica now appropriated this heritage. After
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Today the legacy of the Aztecs lives on in Mexico in many forms. Archeological sites are excavated and opened to the public and their artifacts are prominently displayed in museums. Place names and loanwords from the Aztec language Nahuatl permeate the Mexican landscape and vocabulary, and Aztec
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There has been no consensus about the population size of Mexico at the time of European arrival. Early estimates gave very small population figures for the Valley of Mexico, in 1942 Kubler estimated a figure of 200,000. In 1963 Borah and Cook used preconquest tax lists to calculate the number of
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Aztec mythology is known from many sources written down in the colonial period. One set of myths, called Legend of the Suns, describes the creation of four successive suns, or periods, each ruled by a different deity and inhabited by a different group of beings. Each period ends in a cataclysmic
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Nevertheless, the expansion of the empire was accomplished through military control of frontier zones, in strategic provinces where a much more direct approach to conquest and control was taken. Such strategic provinces were often exempt from taxation. The Aztecs even invested in those areas, by
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on the history of the conquest of Mexico, the term was adopted by most of the world, including 19th-century Mexican scholars who saw it as a way to distinguish present-day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans. This usage has been the subject of debate in more recent years, but the term "Aztec" is
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were done as well. These works were done in layers with "common" feathers, dyed feathers, and precious feathers. First, a model was made with lower-quality feathers and the precious feathers were found only on the top layer. The adhesive for the feathers in the Mesoamerican period was made from
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The Aztecs produced ceramics of different types. Common are orange wares, which are orange or buff burnished ceramics with no slip. Red wares are ceramics with a reddish slip. Polychrome ware is ceramics with a white or orange slip, with painted designs in orange, red, brown, and/or black. Very
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A key aspect of Aztec poetics was the use of parallelism, using a structure of embedded couplets to express different perspectives on the same element. Some such couplets were diphrasisms, conventional metaphors whereby an abstract concept was expressed metaphorically by using two more concrete
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In 1517, Moctezuma received the first news of ships with strange warriors having landed on the Gulf Coast near Cempoallan and he dispatched messengers to greet them and find out what was happening, and he ordered his subjects in the area to keep him informed of any new arrivals. In 1519, he was
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In Mexico, Aztec place names are ubiquitous, particularly in central Mexico where the Aztec empire was centered, but also in other regions where many towns, cities, and regions were established under their Nahuatl names, as Aztec auxiliary troops accompanied the Spanish colonizers on the early
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is known to world history as the Aztec ruler when the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies began their conquest of the empire in a two-year-long campaign (1519â1521). His early rule did not hint at his future fame. He succeeded in the rulership after the death of Ahuitzotl. Motecuhzoma
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Scholars in Europe and the United States increasingly wanted investigations into Mexico's ancient civilizations, starting in the nineteenth century. Humboldt had been extremely important in bringing ancient Mexico into broader scholarly discussions of ancient civilizations. French Americanist
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themselves to allow life to continue. As described in the myth of creation above, humans were understood to be responsible for the sun's continued revival, as well as for paying the earth for its continued fertility. Blood sacrifice in various forms was conducted. Both humans and animals were
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The different Nahua peoples, just like other Mesoamerican indigenous peoples in colonial New Spain, were able to maintain many aspects of their social and political structure under colonial rule. The basic division the Spanish made was between the Indigenous populations, organized under the
1635:, a kinsman and adviser to Moctezuma, succeeded him as tlatoani, mounting the defense of Tenochtitlan against the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies. He ruled for only 80 days, perhaps dying in a smallpox epidemic, although early sources do not give the cause. He was succeeded by
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with major urban centers such as Teotihuacan with a population well above 100,000, and, at the time of the rise of the Aztecs, the urban tradition was ingrained in Mesoamerican society, with urban centers serving major religious, political and economic functions for the entire population.
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oversaw a huge project, employing writers and researchers, to write the history the "Native Races" of North America, including Mexico, California, and Central America. One entire work was devoted to ancient Mexico, half of which concerned the Aztecs. It was a work of synthesis drawing on
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is important, serving as director of the National Museum and doing research utilizing codices, while staying out of the fierce conflicts between liberals and conservatives that led to a decade of civil war. Mexican scholars who pursued research on the Aztecs in the late 19th century were
1382:. Even though Ixtlilxochitl was married to Chimalpopoca's daughter, the Mexica ruler continued to support Tezozomoc. Tezozomoc died in 1426, and his sons began a struggle for the rulership of Azcapotzalco. During this power struggle, Chimalpopoca died, probably killed by Tezozomoc's son
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is considered by some to be the only extant Aztec codex produced before the conquest â it is a calendric codex describing the day and month counts indicating the patron deities of the different periods. Others consider it to have stylistic traits suggesting a post-conquest production.
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ancient civilizations, his was a benevolent regime, with funds supporting archeological research and for protecting monuments. "Scholars found it more profitable to confine their attention to Indians who had been dead for a number of centuries." His benevolence saw the placement of a
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also wrote extensively about pre-Hispanic religion as well as the history of the Mexica. An invaluable source of information about many aspects of Aztec religious thought, political and social structure, as well as the history of the Spanish conquest from the Mexica viewpoint is the
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have analyzed the use of Aztec symbols by the modern Mexican state, critiquing the way it adopts and adapts indigenous culture to political ends, yet they have also in their works made use of the symbolic idiom themselves. Paz for example critiqued the architectural layout of the
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begin and the four directions of the universe originate, is the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan". Matos Moctezuma supports his supposition by claiming that the temple acts as an embodiment of a living myth where "all sacred power is concentrated and where all the levels intersect".
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Codex Chimalpahin, vol. 2: society and politics in Mexico Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco, Texcoco, Culhuacan, and other Nahua altepetl in central Mexico; the Nahuatl and Spanish annals and accounts collected and recorded by don Domingo de San Antón Muñón Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin
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Aztec cosmological drawing with the god Xiuhtecuhtli, the lord of fire in the center and the four corners of the cosmos marked by four trees with associated birds, deities, and calendar names, and each direction marked by a dismembered limb of the god Tezcatlipoca. From the
2366:, as well as a large pantheon of lesser gods and idealizations of natural phenomena such as stars and fire. Priests and educated upper classes held more monistic views, while the popular religion of the uneducated tended to embrace the polytheistic and mythological aspects.
513:, in an economic strategy limiting communication and trade between outlying polities, making them dependent on the imperial center for the acquisition of luxury goods. The political clout of the empire reached far south into Mesoamerica conquering polities as far south as
2642:. Each day had a name and number in both calendars, and the combination of two dates was unique within 52 years. The tonalpohualli was mostly used for divinatory purposes and it consisted of 20-day signs and number coefficients of 1â13 that cycled in a fixed order. The
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is today spoken by 1.5 million people, mostly in mountainous areas in the states of central Mexico. Mexican Spanish today incorporates hundreds of loans from Nahuatl, and many of these words have passed into general Spanish use, and further into other world languages.
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Commoners were able to obtain privileges similar to those of the nobles by demonstrating prowess in warfare. When a warrior took a captive he accrued the right to use certain emblems, weapons, or garments, and as he took more captives his rank and prestige increased.
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Like all Mesoamerican peoples, Aztec society was organized around maize agriculture. The humid environment in the Valley of Mexico with its many lakes and swamps permitted intensive agriculture. The main crops in addition to maize were beans, squashes, chilies, and
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lands; it merely expected taxes to be paid and exerted force only to the degree it was necessary to ensure the payment of taxes. It was also a discontinuous empire because not all dominated territories were connected; for example, the southern peripheral zones of
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After the arrival of the Europeans in Mexico and the conquest, indigenous populations declined significantly. This was largely the result of the epidemics of viruses brought to the continent against which the natives had no immunity. In 1520â1521, an outbreak of
1067:", Aztlan being a mythical place of origin toward the north. Hence the term applied to all those peoples who claimed to carry the heritage from this mythical place. The migration stories of the Mexica tribe tell how they traveled with other tribes, including the
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Codex Chimalpahin, vol. 1: society and politics in Mexico Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco, Texcoco, Culhuacan, and other Nahua altepetl in central Mexico; the Nahuatl and Spanish annals and accounts collected and recorded by don Domingo de San Antón Muñón Chimalpahin
1525:) in 1478â1479 the Aztec forces were repelled by a well-organized defense. Axayacatl was soundly defeated in a battle at Tlaximaloyan (today Tajimaroa), losing most of his 32,000 men and only barely escaping back to Tenochtitlan with the remnants of his army.
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Aztec culture and history have been central to the formation of a Mexican national identity after Mexican independence in 1821. In 17th and 18th century Europe, the Aztecs were generally described as barbaric, gruesome, and culturally inferior. Even before
4079:(1831â1846) that were richly illustrated, bankrupting him. He was not directly interested in the Aztecs, but rather in proving that Mexico had been colonized by Jews. However, his publication of these valuable primary sources gave others access to them.
579:; and especially from 16th- and 17th-century descriptions of Aztec culture and history written by Spanish clergymen and literate Aztecs in the Spanish or Nahuatl language, such as the famous illustrated, bilingual (Spanish and Nahuatl), twelve-volume
3800:. Archeological excavations in 1790 in the capital's main square uncovered two massive stone sculptures, buried immediately after the fall of Tenochtitlan in the conquest. Unearthed were the famous calendar stone, as well as a statue of Coatlicue.
3447:â the creation of intricate and colorful mosaics of feathers, and their use in garments as well as decoration on weaponry, war banners, and warrior suits. The class of highly skilled and honored craftsmen who created feather objects was called the
1359:. The Mexica supplied the Tepaneca with warriors for their successful conquest campaigns in the region and received part of the tribute from the conquered city-states. In this way, the political standing and economy of Tenochtitlan gradually grew.
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temples, and the main sacred precinct. Many festivals involved different forms of dancing, as well as the reenactment of mythical narratives by deity impersonators and the offering of sacrifice, in the form of food, animals, and human victims.
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Archaeological excavations in the Aztec-ruled provinces show that incorporation into the empire had both costs and benefits for provincial peoples. On the positive side, the empire promoted commerce and trade, and exotic goods from obsidian to
2581:, and requiring her to become the earth, allowing humans to carve into her flesh and plant their seeds, on the condition that in return they will offer blood to her. In the story of the creation of humanity, Quetzalcoatl travels with his twin
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In other contexts, Aztec may refer to all the various city-states and their peoples, who shared large parts of their ethnic history and cultural traits with the Mexica, Acolhua, and Tepanecs, and who often also used the Nahuatl language as a
3273:), it was also produced on ceramics and carved in wood and stone. The surface of the material was often first treated with gesso to make the images stand out more clearly. The art of painting and writing was known in Nahuatl by the metaphor
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Song and poetry were highly regarded; there were presentations and poetry contests at most of the Aztec festivals. There were also dramatic presentations that included players, musicians, and acrobats. There were several different genres of
1762:) for example if they had to sell themselves into the service of a noble due to debt or poverty, but enslavement was not an inherited status among the Aztecs. Some macehualtin were landless and worked directly for a lord (Nahuatl languages:
3714:. Indigenous populations living in sparsely populated areas were resettled to form new communities, making it easier for them to be brought within range of evangelization efforts, and easier for the colonial state to exploit their labor.
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2083:, which had to be imported from lowland areas. In Aztec marketplaces, a small rabbit was worth 30 beans, a turkey egg cost three beans, and a tamal cost a single bean. For larger purchases, standardized lengths of cotton cloth, called
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The Aztec ruling dynasty continued to govern the indigenous polity of San Juan Tenochtitlan, a division of the Spanish capital of Mexico City, but the subsequent indigenous rulers were mostly puppets installed by the Spanish. One was
2028:, and the elaboration of tools and musical instruments. Sometimes entire calpollis specialized in a single craft, and in some archeological sites large neighborhoods have been found where- only a single craft specialty was practiced.
4572:, suggest that Atotoztli functioned as ruler of Tenochtitlan succeeding her father. Indeed no conquests are recorded for Motecuzoma in the last years of his reign, suggesting that he may have been incapable of ruling, or even dead (
4061:(1814â1874) asserted that "science in our own time has at last effectively studied and rehabilitated America and the Americans from the viewpoint of history and archeology. It was Humboldt who woke us from our sleep." Frenchman
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The excess supply of food products allowed a significant portion of the Aztec population to dedicate themselves to trades other than food production. Apart from taking care of domestic food production, women weaved textiles from
811:, the term "Aztec" refers to several Nahuatl-speaking peoples of central Mexico in the postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology, especially the Mexica, the ethnic group that had a leading role in establishing the hegemonic
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sacrificed, depending on the god to be placated and the ceremony being conducted, and priests of some gods were sometimes required to provide their blood through self-mutilation. It is known that some rituals included acts of
4102:, Prescott's history "has survived attacks from every quarter, and still dominates the conceptions of the laymen, if not the specialist, concerning Aztec civilization". In the later 19th century, businessman and historian
2671:. In this ceremony, old pottery was broken in all homes and all fires in the Aztec realm were put out. Then a new fire was drilled over the breast of a sacrificial victim and runners brought the new fire to the different
1629:, and a major uprising of the Mexica against the Spanish. During the fighting, Moctezuma was killed, either by the Spaniards who killed him as they fled the city, or by the Mexica themselves who considered him a traitor.
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In Aztec artwork some monumental stone sculptures have been preserved, such sculptures usually functioned as adornments for religious architecture. Particularly famous monumental rock sculpture includes the so-called
2993:; however, like the Maya and Zapotec, they did use a writing system that combined logographic signs with phonetic syllable signs. Logograms would, for example, be the use of an image of a mountain to signify the word
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expeditions that mapped New Spain. In this way even towns, that were not originally Nahuatl speaking came to be known by their Nahuatl names. In Mexico City there are commemorations of Aztec rulers, including on the
2852:, shell, traces of gilding & 2 resins are used as adhesive (pine resin and Bursera resin); height: 20.3 cm (8.0 in), width: 43.3 cm (17.0 in), depth: 5.9 cm (2.3 in); British Museum
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cycle began. Each 20-day month was named after the specific ritual festival that began the month, many of which contained a relation to the agricultural cycle. Whether, and how, the Aztec calendar was corrected for
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In older usage, the term was commonly used about modern Nahuatl-speaking ethnic groups, as Nahuatl was previously referred to as the "Aztec language". In recent usage, these ethnic groups are referred to as the
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in the late postclassic period. Such usage may also extend the term "Aztec" to all the groups in Central Mexico that were incorporated culturally or politically into the sphere of dominance of the Aztec empire.
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remained the dominant form of organization at the local level. The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire's hegemonic form of control.
3387:, found in 1978, was at the foot of the staircase leading up to the Great Temple in Tenochtitlan. Two important types of sculpture are unique to the Aztecs, and related to the context of ritual sacrifice: the
783:, who preferred the term "Culhua-Mexica", and by Pedro Carrasco, who prefers the term "Tenochca empire". Carrasco writes about the term "Aztec" that "it is of no use for understanding the ethnic complexity of
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and illustrated the colonial aftermath of the 1520s Spanish Conquest of Mexico. It adopted the perspective of an Aztec scribe, Topiltzin, who survived the attack on the temple of Tenochtitlan. The 1989 film
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Axayacatl then conquered areas in Central Guerrero, the Puebla Valley, on the gulf coast and against the Otomi and Matlatzinca in the Toluca Valley. The Toluca Valley was a buffer zone against the powerful
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orchid bulbs. Feathers from local and faraway sources were used, especially in the Aztec Empire. The feathers were obtained from wild birds as well as from domesticated turkeys and ducks, with the finest
2600:, and her four hundred brothers at the hill of Coatepetl. The southern side of the Great Temple, also called Coatepetl, was a representation of this myth, and at the foot of the stairs lay a large stone
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by the Aztecs themselves, but it is found in the different migration accounts of the Mexica, where it describes the different tribes who left Aztlan together. In one account of the journey from Aztlan,
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shared essential cultural traits of Mesoamerica. So many of the characteristics that characterize Aztec culture cannot be said to be exclusive to the Aztecs. For the same reason, the notion of "Aztec
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Although the Aztec empire fell, some of its highest elites continued to hold elite status in the colonial era. The principal heirs of Moctezuma II and their descendants retained high status. His son
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rural tradition with the development of a truly urbanized society with a complex system of institutions, specializations, and hierarchies. The urban tradition in Mesoamerica was developed during the
1639:, the last independent Mexica tlatoani, who continued the fierce defense of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs were weakened by disease, and the Spanish enlisted tens of thousands of Indian allies, especially
7639:; Smith, Michael E. (1996b). "9. Imperial Strategies and Core-Periphery Relations". In Frances Berdan; Richard Blanton; Elizabeth Hill Boone; Mary G. Hodge; Michael E. Smith; Emily Umberger (eds.).
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made and the local elites participated willingly. Such compliance was secured by establishing and maintaining a network of elites, related through intermarriage and different forms of exchange.
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population with allegiance to a lord, rather than as a territorial unit. He makes this distinction because in some areas minor settlements with different altepetl allegiances were interspersed.
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for any particular ethnic group. Rather, it was an umbrella term used to refer to several ethnic groups, not all of them Nahuatl-speaking, that claimed heritage from the mythic place of origin,
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among the Aztecs. While there is universal agreement that the Aztecs practiced sacrifice, there is a lack of scholarly consensus as to whether cannibalism was widespread. Harris, the author of
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While human sacrifice was practiced throughout Mesoamerica, the Aztecs, according to their accounts, brought this practice to an unprecedented level. For example, for the reconsecration of the
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spent considerable energy in their pursuit of understanding ancient Mexico. Kingsborough answered Humboldt's call for the publication of all known Mexican codices, publishing nine volumes of
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2963:
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Sanders, William T. (1992) . "The Population of the Central Mexican Symbiotic Region, the Basin of Mexico, and the Teotihuacan Valley in the Sixteenth-century". In William Denevan (ed.).
3972:, which he inaugurated in 1887. In world fairs of the late 19th century, Mexico's pavilions included a major focus on its indigenous past, especially the Aztecs. Mexican scholars such as
2876:(feathered serpent); before 1500; bast fiber paper; height: 38 cm (15 in), length of the full manuscript: 142 cm (56 in); BibliothÚque de l'Assemblée nationale (Paris)
1745:) and they owned and controlled noble estates or houses, and could serve in the highest government positions or as military leaders. Nobles made up about five percent of the population.
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based at Tenochtitlan. The term extends to further ethnic groups associated with the Aztec empire, such as the Acolhua, the Tepanec, and others that were incorporated into the empire.
8202:. MĂ©xico City: SecretarĂa de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, SecretarĂa de Cultura, Instituto Nacional de AntropologĂa e Historia, Museo Nacional de AntropologĂa. pp. 42â61.
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had the traditional Aztec eagle on a nopal cactus. The eagle had a crown, symbolizing the new Mexican monarchy. When Mexico became a republic after the overthrow of the first monarch
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The scale of Aztec human sacrifice has provoked many scholars to consider what may have been the driving factor behind this aspect of Aztec religion. In the 1970s, Michael Harner and
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status was hereditary and ascribed certain privileges to its holders, such as the right to wear particularly fine garments and consume luxury goods, as well as to own land and direct
2276:). He states that the "principal center, or navel, where the horizontal and vertical planes intersect, that is, the point from which the heavenly or upper plane and the plane of the
1378:"She smokes like a shield"), son of Huitzilihhuitl, became ruler of Tenochtitlan in 1417. In 1418, Azcapotzalco initiated a war against the Acolhua of Texcoco and killed their ruler
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as well as other central Mexican polities, including Texcoco, its former ally in the Triple Alliance. After the fall of Tenochtitlan on 13 August 1521 and the capture of the emperor
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1119:
on a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco, the inland lake of the Basin of Mexico. The year of foundation is usually given as 1325. In 1376 the Mexica royal dynasty was founded when
891:
3908:, a defender of the rights of the indigenous, liberalism presented a way forward in that era. For investigations of Mexico's indigenous past, however, the role of moderate liberal
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told them to split from the other Aztec tribes and take on the name "Mexica". At the time of their arrival, there were many Aztec city-states in the region. The most powerful were
3308:, nevertheless considered that the Codex Borgia, painted in the area around Cholula and using a Mixtec style, was the "most significant work of art among the extant manuscripts".
1792:
showing the rearing and education of Aztec boys and girls in an ages list, how they were instructed in different types of labor, and how they were harshly punished for misbehavior
2761:(1977), has propagated the claim, originally proposed by Harner, that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward since the Aztec diet was lacking in
3399:, a monumental carved stone disk to which war captives were tied and sacrificed in a form of gladiatorial combat. The most well-known examples of this type of sculpture are the
1142:
2630:
Aztec religious life was organized around the calendars. Like most Mesoamerican people, the Aztecs used two calendars simultaneously: a ritual calendar of 260 days called the
2113:. When an altepetl was conquered, the victor imposed a yearly tax, usually paid in the form of whichever local product was most valuable or treasured. Several pages from the
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displaying the skulls of sacrificial victims, houses of the warrior orders and a merchants palace. Around the sacred precinct were the royal palaces built by the tlatoanis.
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The idea of the Aztecs has captivated the imaginations of Europeans since the first encounters and has provided many iconic symbols to Western popular culture. In his book
3994:(1910â1920) and the significant participation of Indigenous people in the struggle in many regions, ignited a broad government-sponsored political and cultural movement of
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to flowers (a symbol of poetry itself and indicative of the highly metaphorical nature of poetry that often used duality to convey multiple layers of meaning). "Prose" was
2087:, were used. There were different grades of quachtli, ranging in value from 65 to 300 cacao beans. About 20 quachtli could support a commoner for one year in Tenochtitlan.
12446:
8198:
Galindo Leal, Carlos; Sarukhån Kermez, José; Wright, David; Carr, Charles (2017). "Una historia natural del emblema nacional de México". In Cora Ma. A. Falero Ruiz (ed.).
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1335:
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originated the modern usage of "Aztec" in 1810, as a collective term applied to all the people linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to the Mexica state and the
9495:
RodrĂguez-AlegrĂa, E. (2017). "A City Transformed: From Tenochtitlan to Mexico City in the Sixteenth Century". In Nichols, Deborah L; RodrĂguez-AlegrĂa, Enrique (eds.).
799:. In this meaning, it is possible to talk about an "Aztec civilization" including all the particular cultural patterns common for most of the peoples inhabiting central
9631:
Smith, Michael E. (1996). "The Strategic Provinces". In Frances Berdan; Richard Blanton; Elizabeth Hill Boone; Mary G. Hodge; Michael E. Smith; Emily Umberger (eds.).
3473:. These feathers were obtained through trade and taxes. Due to the difficulty of conserving feathers, fewer than ten pieces of original Aztec featherwork exist today.
2891:; 1502â1521; basalt; diameter: 3.58 m (11.7 ft); thick: 98 cm (39 in); discovered on 17 December 1790 during repairs on the Mexico City Cathedral;
7535:
Beekman, C.S.; Christensen, A.F. (2003). "Controlling for doubt and uncertainty through multiple lines of evidence: A new look at the Mesoamerican Nahua migrations".
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produced a son, who married into the Spanish aristocracy and a further generation saw the creation of the title Duke of Moctezuma de Tultengo. From 1696 to 1701, the
11034:
8553:
Isaac, B.L. (2002). "Cannibalism among Aztecs and Their Neighbors: Analysis of the 1577â1586" Relaciones GeogrĂĄficas" for Nueva España and Nueva Galicia Provinces".
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A remarkable amount of this poetry survives, having been collected during the era of the conquest. In some cases poetry is attributed to individual authors, such as
1355:
In the first 50 years after the founding of the Mexica dynasty, the Mexica were a tributary of Azcapotzalco, which had become a major regional power under the ruler
9178:
Nichols, Deborah L.; RodrĂguez-AlegrĂa, Enrique (2017). "Introduction: Aztec Studies: Trends and Themes". In Deborah L. Nichols; Enrique RodrĂguez-AlegrĂa (eds.).
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10057:
7605:; Smith, Michael E. (1996a). "1. Introduction". In Frances Berdan; Richard Blanton; Elizabeth Hill Boone; Mary G. Hodge; Michael E. Smith; Emily Umberger (eds.).
3300:(codex creators), but under the control of Spanish authorities, who also sometimes commissioned codices describing pre-colonial religious practices, for example,
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that controlled what is often known as the "Aztec Empire". The usage of the term "Aztec" in describing the empire centered in Tenochtitlan has been criticized by
2663:
Every 52 years, the two calendars reached their shared starting point and a new calendar cycle began. This calendar event was celebrated with a ritual known as
4303:, a large flying reptile with a wingspan of as much as 11 meters (36 ft). Quetzalcoatl has appeared as a character in many books, films and video games.
1301:
12441:
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705:
In today's usage, the term "Aztec" often refers exclusively to the Mexica people of Tenochtitlan (now the location of Mexico City), situated on an island in
6504:
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in 1838. Although not directly connected with the Aztecs, it contributed to the increased interest in ancient Mexican studies in Europe. English aristocrat
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The late 19th century in Mexico was a period in which Aztec civilization became a point of national pride. The era was dominated by liberal military hero,
1059:
In the ethnohistorical sources from the colonial period, the Mexica themselves describe their arrival in the Valley of Mexico. The ethnonym Aztec (Nahuatl
5867:
4559:
argues that the name "Motecuzoma" was a later addition added to make for a parallel to the later ruler, and that his original name was only "Ilhuicamina".
3615:
3520:, who was appointed by the Spanish. Other former Aztec city states likewise were established as colonial indigenous towns, governed by a local indigenous
927:
who interviewed the native people about their customs and stories. An important pictorial and alphabetic text produced in the early sixteenth century was
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8691:
1758:
were dedicated to arts and crafts. Their works were an important source of income for the city. Macehualtin could become enslaved, (Nahuatl languages:
1415:
agriculture, cultivating human-made extensions of rich soil in the shallow lake Xochimilco. Itzcoatl then undertook further conquests in the valley of
8980:
Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo (2017). "Ancient Stone Sculptures: In Search of the Mexica Past". In Nichols, Deborah L; RodrĂguez-AlegrĂa, Enrique (eds.).
2356:, "a single, dynamic, vivifying, eternally self-generating and self-regenerating sacred power, energy or force." This is conceptualized in a kind of
2329:
was the largest city with the largest pyramid temple in Mesoamerica, while the confederacy of Tlaxcala consisted of four smaller cities. In Morelos,
1025:
was inhabited by speakers of Nahuatl, or whether Nahuas had not yet arrived in central Mexico in the classic period. It is generally agreed that the
593:, in collaboration with Indigenous Aztec informants. Important for knowledge of post-conquest Nahuas was the training of indigenous scribes to write
3626:) the title, which was held by Antonio MarĂa Moctezuma-Marcilla de Teruel y Navarro, 14th Count of Moctezuma de Tultengo, was elevated to that of a
3188:
2655:
is a matter of discussion among specialists. The monthly rituals involved the entire population as rituals were performed in each household, in the
7372:
4355:
by Juan Mora Catlett is a work of historical fiction set during the rule of Motecuzoma I, filmed in Nahuatl and with the alternative Nahuatl title
3723:
symbols and mythology have been promoted by the Mexican government and integrated into contemporary Mexican nationalism as emblems of the country.
2626:" or "Sun Stone", a large stone monolith unearthed in 1790 in Mexico City depicting the five eras of Aztec mythical history, with calendric images.
1469:
Motecuzoma I also consolidated the political structure of the Triple Alliance and the internal political organization of Tenochtitlan. His brother
2930:
Kneeling female figure; 15thâearly 16th century; painted stone; overall: 54.61 cm Ă 26.67 cm (21.50 in Ă 10.50 in);
2751:. Harner claimed that very high population pressure and an emphasis on maize agriculture, without domesticated herbivores, led to a deficiency of
1995:
1481:) and instituting a set of legal codes, and the practice of reinstating conquered rulers in their cities bound by fealty to the Mexica tlatoani.
451:
was the heart of dense population and the rise of city-states. The Mexica were late-comers to the Valley of Mexico, and founded the city-state of
9612:
3141:
2719:, with the captor and his family consuming part of the flesh of their sacrificed captives, but it is not known how widespread this practice was.
9805:
Taube, Karl (2012). "Creation and Cosmology:Gods and Mythic Origins in Ancient Mesoamerica". In Deborah L. Nichols; Christopher A. Pool (eds.).
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11067:
10561:
9984:
9944:
Witton, M.P.; Martill, D.M.; Loveridge, R.F. (2010). "Clipping the Wings of Giant Pterosaurs: Comments on Wingspan Estimations and Diversity".
9636:
8876:
8861:. Translated by Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano and Thelma Ortiz de Montellano (Revised ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
8700:
7644:
7610:
4289:
The Aztecs and figures from Aztec mythology feature in Western culture. The name of Quetzalcoatl, a feathered serpent god, has been used for a
4024:, which constructs a view of Mexican history as culminating with the Aztecs, as an expression of a nationalist appropriation of Aztec culture.
3139:, Lord of Tepechpan, but whether these attributions reflect actual authorship is a matter of opinion. An important collection of such poems is
1477:) and he is considered the architect of major political reforms in this period, consolidating the power of the noble class (Nahuatl languages:
8468:
Hodge, Mary G.; Neff, Hector; Blackman, M. James; Minc, Leah D. (1993). "Black-on-orange ceramic production in the Aztec empire's heartland".
12406:
9421:
2946:
Frog-shaped necklace ornaments; 15thâearly 16th century; gold; height: 2.1 cm (0.83 in); Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
1709:
showing a commoner advancing through the ranks by taking captives in war. Each attire can be achieved by taking a certain number of captives.
985:. Produced between 1545 and 1576 in the form of an ethnographic encyclopedia written bilingually in Spanish and Nahuatl, by Franciscan friar
5353:
1610:
through merit in combat. He also instituted a strict sumptuary code limiting the types of luxury goods that could be consumed by commoners.
12509:
7299:
4832:
6134:
Pennock, Caroline Dodds (2012). "Mass Murder Religious Homicide: Rethinking Human Sacrifice and Interpersonal Violence in Aztec Society".
2210:
The center of Tenochtitlan was the sacred precinct, a walled-off square area that housed the Great Temple, temples for other deities, the
2121:
beads, but more practical goods such as cloth, firewood, and food. Taxes were usually paid twice or four times a year at differing times.
11383:
11006:
6883:
9104:
Minc, Leah D. (2017). "Pottery and the Potter's Craft in the Aztec Heartland". In Deborah L. Nichols; Enrique RodrĂguez-AlegrĂa (eds.).
3900:, who rose in the ranks of the liberals to become Mexico's first president of Indigenous origins, and Nahua intellectual and politician
1906:
Although the form of government is often referred to as an empire, most areas within the empire were organized as city-states, known as
8789:. Mauricio J. Mixco (trans.) (Originally published as Bernardino de SahagĂșn: Pionero de la AntropologĂa 1999, UNAM. ed.). Norman:
3884:
Tensions within post-independence Mexico pitted those rejecting the ancient civilizations of Mexico as a source of national pride, the
3769:
2406:
942:
9370:
Ouweneel, A. (1995). "From tlahtocayotl to gobernadoryotl: a critical examination of indigenous rule in 18th-century central Mexico".
7450:
Batalla, Juan JosĂ© (2016). "The Historical Sources: Codices and Chronicles". In Deborah L. Nichols; Enrique RodrĂguez-AlegrĂa (eds.).
3838:
in the middle of a lake, the mythical symbol which the Aztecs were said to have seen at the site where the city of Mexica was founded.
12514:
12411:
9048:
8818:
The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries
4394:
3156:
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by many scholars as wildly exaggerated. Other estimates place the number of human sacrifices at between 1,000 and 20,000 annually.
2618:
9198:
Painted Architecture and Polychrome Monumental Sculpture in Mesoamerica: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 10th to 11th October, 1981
4058:
3319:. The Aztec capital was decorated with elaborate murals. In Aztec murals, humans are represented like they are represented in the
2589:
by the goddess Cihuacoatl, the resulting dough is given human form and comes to life when Quetzalcoatl imbues it with his blood.
1847:, which served as the main organizational unit for commoners. In Tlaxcala and the Puebla valley, the altepetl was organized into
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637:
3727:
of the Aztecs became a source of images that could be used to ground the new nation as a unique blend of European and American.
3343:
323:
and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to the 16th centuries. Aztec culture was organized into city-states (
10870:
Smith, Michael E.; Montiel, Lisa (2001). "The Archaeological Study of Empires and Imperialism in Pre-Hispanic Central Mexico".
4111:
4049:
3812:
spent a year in Mexico, during his four-year expedition to Spanish America. One of his early publications from that period was
1342:
17:
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or "eagle vessel", large stone bowls often shaped like eagles or jaguars used as a receptacle for extracted human hearts; the
3017:. The uppermost place is "Mapachtepec", meaning literally "Hill of the Raccoon", but the glyph includes the phonetic prefixes
1403:
Itzcoatl proceeded by securing a power basis for Tenochtitlan, by conquering the city-states on the southern lake â including
1317:
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communities where fire was redistributed to each home. The night without fire was associated with the fear that star demons,
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list subject towns along with the goods they supplied, which included not only luxuries such as feathers, adorned suits, and
633:
7877:
CĂĄceres-Lorenzo, M.T. (2015). "Diffusion trends and Nahuatlisms of American Spanish: Evidence from dialectal vocabularies".
4862:
388:" is best understood as a particular horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization. The culture of central Mexico includes
12519:
12317:
11432:
8088:
Diel, Lori B. (2005). "Women and political power: The inclusion and exclusion of noblewomen in Aztec pictorial histories".
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to travel to Mexico and then publish well-illustrated accounts in the early 1840s. The research of a half-blind Bostonian,
3764:) drew on Aztec history to ground their search for symbols of local pride, separate from that of Spain. Intellectuals used
2710:
To the Aztecs, death was instrumental in the perpetuation of creation, and gods and humans alike had the responsibility of
1566:
553:
357:. Although the term Aztecs is often narrowly restricted to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, it is also broadly used to refer to
209:
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10804:
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1370:"Hummingbird feather") became ruler; married to Tezozomoc's daughter, the relationship with Azcapotzalco remained close.
702:
of the Mexica tribe, tells his followers on the journey that "now, no longer is your name Azteca, you are now Mexitin ".
8411:
2272:, posits that the orientation of the temple is indicative of the totality of the vision the Mexica had of the universe (
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11410:
11049:
4437:
4070:
3816:. Humboldt was important in disseminating images of the Aztecs to scientists and general readers in the Western world.
3780:
to understand Mexico's indigenous past in texts by indigenous writers. This search became the basis for what historian
1922:. Even after the confederation of the Triple Alliance was formed in 1427 and began its expansion through conquest, the
246:
9187:
Nicholson, H.B. (1971). "Major Sculpture in Pre-Hispanic Central Mexico". In Gordon F. Ekholm; Ignacio Bernal (eds.).
2248:, the Great Temple, a large stepped pyramid with a double staircase leading up to two twin shrines â one dedicated to
989:
and indigenous informants and scribes, it contains knowledge about many aspects of precolonial society from religion,
12370:
11439:
10462:
10361:
10046:
10024:
9759:
9300:
OrtĂz de Montellano, Bernard R. (1983). "Counting Skulls: Comment on the Aztec Cannibalism Theory of Harner-Harris".
6877:
6367:
6342:
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was made up of 18 "months" of 20 days, and with a remainder of five "void" days at the end of a cycle before the new
1309:
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throughout Mesoamerica in the late post-classic period. It originated in 1427 as an alliance between the city-states
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42:
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7516:
7341:
12191:
11880:
9567:
8896:
7167:
3324:
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1859:
1824:
823:(1964). These include the Culhuaque, Cuitlahuaque, Mixquica, Xochimilca, Chalca, Tepaneca, Acolhuaque, and Mexica.
149:
10198:
Treatise on the Heathen Superstitions and Customs That Today Live Among the Indians Native to This New Spain, 1629
7194:"Census Bureau Releases 2020 Census Data for Nearly 1,500 Detailed Race and Ethnicity Groups, Tribes and Villages"
2726:
in 1487, Aztec and Spanish sources later said that 80,400 prisoners were sacrificed over four days, reportedly by
1115:, eating a snake. The vision indicated the location where they were to build their settlement. The Mexica founded
953:
of Tlaxcala. There are also many accounts by Spanish conquerors who participated in the Spanish invasion, such as
12261:
11891:
11573:
11388:
10999:
6488:
3926:
2105:
showing the tribute paid to Tenochtitlan in exotic trade goods by the altepetl of Xoconochco on the Pacific coast
10210:
Tratado de las supersticiones y costumbres gentĂlicas que oy viven entre los indios naturales desta Nueva España
4270:, and "Aztec" became the largest American Indian group that respondents identified as having a full background.
3905:
2742:
2694:
1766:), whereas the majority of commoners were organized into calpollis which gave them access to land and property.
12504:
12353:
12196:
11044:
10947:
10751:. Mesoamerican Worlds series. Translated by Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano; Thelma Ortiz de Montellano. Niwot:
10715:
10677:"The history of the Nawa language group from the earliest times to the sixteenth century: some initial results"
10646:
7677:
2238:
2172:
12332:
11608:
4697:
3893:
2199:(directions). Tenochtitlan was built according to a fixed plan and centered on the ritual precinct, where the
835:(also sometimes called the Uto-Nahuan languages) that includes the Nahuatl language and its closest relatives
12342:
11583:
11087:
4286:
argued that Western thinkers have usually viewed Aztec culture through a filter of their cultural interests.
3930:
3869:
in 1822, the flag was revised to show the eagle with no crown. In the 1860s, when the French established the
3797:
3631:
3601:
3597:
3587:
3488:
2723:
2593:
whenever they are settled in a place. In another myth, Huitzilopochtli defeats and dismembers his sister the
2261:
the center of Mexico City and the rich dedicatory offerings are displayed in the Museum of the Templo Mayor.
2200:
1674:
594:
12358:
8524:
Isaac, B.L. (2005). "Aztec cannibalism: Nahua versus Spanish and mestizo accounts in the Valley of Mexico".
3517:
3013:
The image to the right demonstrates the use of phonetic signs for writing place names in the colonial Aztec
1269:
12436:
12364:
12328:
11398:
10752:
10612:
10501:
Charlton, Thomas (2000). "The Aztecs and their Contemporaries: The Central and Eastern Mexican Highlands".
10428:
10385:
10324:
10213:
10167:
10125:
8790:
8743:
8329:
8259:
Mexploitation Cinema: A Critical History of Mexican Vampire, Wrestler, Ape-Man and Similar Films, 1957â1977
4432:
4360:
4335:(1997). The novels were so popular that four more novels in the Aztec series were written after his death.
1626:
1095:
of Azcapotzalco soon expelled the Mexica from Chapultepec and executed the first Aztec royal family except
960:
Spanish friars also produced documentation in chronicles and other types of accounts. Of key importance is
597:, mainly for local purposes under Spanish colonial rule. At its height, Aztec culture had rich and complex
316:
10968:
9139:
MorfĂn, Lourdes MĂĄrquez; Storey, Rebecca (2016). "Population History in Precolumbian and Colonial Times".
7868:
Burkhart, Louise M. (1997). "Mexican women on the home front". In S Schroeder; S Wood; RS Haskett (eds.).
3292:
Some codices were produced post-conquest, sometimes commissioned by the colonial government, for example,
12030:
11902:
11488:
11230:
11039:
10844:
10264:
9064:
8231:
7576:
5950:"Tenochtitlan: Templo Mayor | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History"
4598:
3773:
2326:
1779:
1494:
1285:
938:
759:
Sometimes the term also includes the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan's two principal allied city-states, the
10193:
10053:
9234:
7364:
4698:"Style, Memory, and the Production of History: Aztec Pottery and the Materialization of a Toltec Legacy"
3650:
in perpetuity by Hernån Cortes. Doña Leonor Moctezuma married in succession two Spaniards, and left her
3436:
2817:
The Mask of Xiuhtecuhtli; 1400â1521; cedrela wood, turquoise, pine resin, mother-of-pearl, conch shell,
1815:
1261:
954:
576:
12257:
12141:
11984:
10992:
10711:
10558:
Native Traditions in the Postconquest World, A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks 2nd through 4th October 1992
9274:
Tlacuilolli: Style and Contents of the Mexican Pictorial Manuscripts with a Catalog of the Borgia Group
9205:
Nicholson, H.B.; Berger, Rainer (1968). "Two Aztec Wood Idols: Iconographic and Chronologic Analysis".
9074:
The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion
8207:
8117:
Elson, Cristina; Smith, Michael E. (2001). "Archaeological deposits from the Aztec New Fire Ceremony".
7775:
7704:
Berdan, F.F. (2016). "Featherworking in the Provinces: A Dispersed Luxury Craft under Aztec Hegemony".
4062:
3909:
3827:
3789:
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2563:
1521:, against which Axayacatl turned next. In the major campaign against the Tarascans (Nahuatl languages:
816:
689:", a mythical place of origin for several ethnic groups in central Mexico. The term was not used as an
9571:
3918:
1652:
system, the Aztec education system was abolished and replaced by a very limited church education, and
12524:
10976:
9779:
9445:
9006:
McCaa, Robert (1995). "Spanish and Nahuatl Views on Smallpox and Demographic Catastrophe in Mexico".
8507:
Views of the Cordilleras and Monuments of the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas : A Critical Edition
8427:
Helland, J. (1990). "Aztec Imagery in Frida Kahlo's Paintings: Indigenity and Political Commitment".
8363:
7741:
4267:
4087:
3901:
3850:, the Nahua to whom the apparition was said to appear, links the dark Virgin to Mexico's Aztec past.
3128:
2397:, as a manner of payment for, or even effecting, the continuation of the days and the cycle of life.
1918:) from a legitimate noble dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and competition among
1397:
965:
892:
Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire § Sources for the history of the conquest of Central Mexico
38:
9967:
8683:
8131:
4824:
3961:
3940:
3801:
1646:
After the fall of the Aztec Empire, entire Nahua communities were subject to forced labor under the
11964:
11568:
11493:
11370:
11345:
11059:
10955:
B. Diaz del Castillo, The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico (tr. by A.P. Maudsley, 1928, repr. 1965)
10940:: constantly updated educational site specifically on the Aztecs, for serious students of all ages.
10609:
Trade, Tribute, and Transportation: The Sixteenth-Century Political Economy of the Valley of Mexico
10268:
9344:
8624:(2001). "Review of: City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization".
3984:
3888:, mostly politically conservative Mexican elites, and those who saw them as a source of pride, the
2118:
1356:
1036:
10320:
10294:
10242:
9471:
8971:
Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo (1987). "Symbolism of the Templo Mayor". In Hill Boone, Elizabeth (ed.).
8002:
The Tenochca Empire of Ancient Mexico: The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Tetzcoco, and Tlacopan
2704:
2377:, and scheduled festivals, government ceremonies, and even war around key transition dates in the
2195:, the city plan was based on a symmetrical layout that was divided into four city sections called
2031:
The Aztecs did not produce much metalwork but did have knowledge of basic smelting technology for
986:
590:
12040:
11713:
11210:
10810:
9426:
9302:
8933:
7924:
5806:, "M. Leon-Portilla argues that Ometeotl was neither strictly pantheistic nor strictly monistic."
4452:
3933:
contributing significantly to the 19th-century development of Mexican scholarship on the Aztecs.
3355:
realistic sculpture of animals such as rattlesnakes, dogs, jaguars, frogs, turtles, and monkeys.
2265:
2129:
managed to reach the houses of both commoners and nobles. Trade partners also included the enemy
1396:. The Mexica were now in open war with Azcapotzalco and Itzcoatl petitioned for an alliance with
1088:
969:
492:
354:
12265:
10943:
10744:
10113:
8835:
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8731:
8719:
2289:
Other major Aztec cities were some of the previous city-state centers around the lake including
1080:
507:
to its client city-states. Client city-states paid taxes, not tribute to the Aztec emperor, the
9579:
8126:
4322:
4164:
3878:
3874:
3809:
3639:
3404:
3214:
common is "black on orange" ware which is orange ware decorated with painted designs in black.
3146:
2211:
1506:
1068:
1031:
855:
541:
374:
239:
204:
67:
11683:
10427:; Susan Schroeder. Susan Schroeder (general editor), Wayne Ruwet (manuscript editor). Norman:
10384:; Susan Schroeder. Susan Schroeder (general editor), Wayne Ruwet (manuscript editor). Norman:
9504:
7224:
6867:
4363:
of the 1970s, a recurring figure was the "Aztec mummy" as well as Aztec ghosts and sorcerers.
4067:
Voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la province d'Yucatan pendant les années 1834 et 1836
3866:
3819:
950:
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12035:
11668:
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11393:
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11167:
11132:
9258:
9235:"Sitios de ocupaciĂłn en la periferia de TenochtitlĂĄn y su significado histĂłrico-arqueolĂłgico"
9189:
Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 10 & 11 "Archaeology of Northern Mesoamerica"
4427:
4075:
3996:
3922:
3914:
3870:
3623:
3571:
3411:
2837:
2390:
1972:
The Aztecs further intensified agricultural production by constructing systems of artificial
1823:
ruins with semi-underground unidentified small and simple buildings, probably houses (left).
1820:
1328:
876:
859:
832:
723:
533:
169:
11320:
9113:
8041:(1973). "Selected Nineteenth-Century Mexican Writers on Ethnohistory". In H.F. Cline (ed.).
7459:
4090:, into the Spanish conquest of Mexico, resulted in his highly popular and deeply researched
3592:
3182:
An Aztec bowl for everyday use. Black on orange ware, a simple Aztec IV style flower design.
12470:
12337:
12201:
12166:
11775:
11483:
11378:
11360:
11260:
10984:
10553:
10424:
10415:
10381:
10372:
10312:
10256:
9894:
9885:
Van Essendelft, W. (2018). "What's in a name? A typological analysis of Aztec placenames".
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5879:
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in local-level, Nahuatl-language documentation), with outlying settlements governed by the
3360:
2752:
2747:
2302:
1977:
1960:. Particularly important for agricultural production in the valley was the construction of
1502:
1404:
1084:
1044:
961:
784:
753:
532:
The empire reached its maximum extent in 1519, just before the arrival of a small group of
441:
362:
219:
11663:
10455:
Life and Labor in Ancient Mexico: The Brief and Summary Relation of the Lords of New Spain
8214:
The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519â1810
7772:
The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492â1867
3788:
acquired the manuscript collection of Texcocan nobleman Alva Ixtlilxochitl. Creole Jesuit
3524:. This office was often initially held by the hereditary indigenous ruling line, with the
2322:
540:. Cortés allied with city-states opposed to the Mexica, particularly the Nahuatl-speaking
8:
12303:
12065:
11097:
11077:
10298:
5802:, sec 2b,2c, citing Hunt 1977 and I. Nicholson 1959; Leon-Portilla 1966, p. 387 cited by
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This article is about the Aztec people and culture. For the polity they established, see
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9250:
9196:
Nicholson, H.B. (1981). "Polychrome on Aztec Sculpture". In Elizabeth Hill Boone (ed.).
8585:; Lockhart, James (1980). "La estructura de la poesĂa nĂĄhuatl vista por sus variantes".
8156:
Franco, Jean (2004). "The return of Coatlicue: Mexican nationalism and the Aztec past".
5883:
3200:
2130:
1831:
The main unit of Aztec political organization was the city-state, in Nahuatl called the
1713:
12426:
12416:
12322:
12146:
12055:
11834:
11578:
11523:
11498:
11162:
11157:
11127:
11122:
10901:
10887:
10783:
The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. 2. Mesoamerica Part 2
10600:
Nationalist Myths and Ethnic Identities: Indigenous Intellectuals and the Mexican State
10542:
10503:
The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. 2. Mesoamerica Part 1
10410:
10304:
10030:
9910:
9867:
9850:
9596:
9327:
9214:
9078:
9031:
9023:
8945:
8670:
8641:
8570:
8541:
8493:
8485:
8300:
8223:
8173:
8144:
8105:
8062:
The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. 2. Mesoamerica Part 2
7904:
7810:
7721:
7569:
7552:
7505:
7492:
7484:
5911:
4779:
4728:
4380:
4313:
4172:
continues to be based on staple elements of Mesoamerican cooking and, particularly, of
3991:
3497:
3380:
3305:
3151:
2557:
2298:
1580:
764:
610:
537:
500:
480:
381:
312:
12045:
4098:. AlamĂĄn pushed back against his characterization of the Aztecs. In the assessment of
1880:
1501:. He undertook a successful coronation campaign far south of Tenochtitlan against the
12451:
12381:
12347:
12070:
12060:
11770:
11738:
11618:
11548:
11280:
11255:
11187:
11177:
11015:
10918:
10908:
10858:
10848:
10824:
10814:
10786:
10766:
10756:
10729:
10719:
10660:
10650:
10626:
10616:
10575:
10565:
10528:
10506:
10487:
10458:
10442:
10432:
10399:
10389:
10357:
10338:
10328:
10316:
10282:
10272:
10252:
10227:
10217:
10181:
10171:
10139:
10129:
10081:
10071:
10042:
10020:
9914:
9871:
9819:
9793:
9783:
9755:
9748:
9681:
9671:
9650:
9640:
9604:
9508:
9459:
9449:
9405:
9358:
9348:
9331:
9319:
9286:
9092:
9082:
9035:
8959:
8949:
8919:
8888:
8862:
8843:
8821:
8804:
8794:
8757:
8747:
8645:
8607:
8600:
8582:
8574:
8545:
8510:
8497:
8454:
8377:
8367:
8343:
8333:
8304:
8245:
8235:
8212:
8177:
8109:
8065:
8046:
8024:
8005:
7986:
7969:
7959:
7938:
7928:
7908:
7854:
7779:
7755:
7745:
7725:
7681:
7658:
7648:
7624:
7614:
7590:
7580:
7556:
7496:
7212:
6873:
6494:
6363:
6338:
5903:
5895:
4771:
4732:
4720:
4442:
4422:
4347:
4144:
4082:
In the United States in the early 19th century, interest in ancient Mexico propelled
3706:
3612:
3155:. Both men and women were poets in Aztec society, illustrating pre-Hispanic Mexico's
2997:"mountain", whereas a phonetic syllable sign would be the use of an image of a tooth
2990:
2716:
2699:
2668:
1940:
1618:
836:
329:), some of which joined to form alliances, political confederations, or empires. The
232:
11648:
11513:
11479:
10963:
10891:
9276:. Translated by George A. Evertt and Edward B. Sisson. University of Oklahoma Press.
8148:
5915:
3846:
have examples of her depicted floating above the iconic nopal cactus of the Aztecs.
3552:
3257:
Aztec painted art was produced on animal skin (mostly deer), on cotton lienzos, and
2357:
1442:
1035:
certainly inhabited by Nahuatl speakers became powerful. Among them are the site of
12151:
12091:
12075:
11958:
11922:
11829:
11733:
11533:
11350:
11325:
11142:
11137:
10879:
10778:
10672:
10246:
9902:
9842:
9773:
9588:
9500:
9483:
9435:
9379:
9311:
9246:
9166:
9109:
9072:
9015:
8985:
8739:
8662:
8633:
8562:
8533:
8477:
8290:
8165:
8136:
8097:
7894:
7886:
7835:
7802:
7713:
7544:
7476:
7455:
5887:
4712:
4135:
4001:
3643:
3558:
3368:
3285:
2865:
2142:
2012:. Men also engaged in craft specializations such as the production of ceramics and
1949:
1741:
labor by commoners. The most powerful nobles were called lords (Nahuatl languages:
1390:, brother of Huitzilihhuitl and uncle of Chimalpopoca, was elected the next Mexica
1096:
1014:
982:
787:
and for identifying the dominant element in the political entity we are studying".
780:
748:
735:
718:
677:
664:
598:
580:
448:
266:
134:
9383:
9315:
7671:
7394:
6973:
5891:
4601:, teacher of LeĂłn-Portilla, and it exists in English translation by John Bierhorst
4266:
Aztec and Maya were newly listed examples given for American Indian groups in the
4037:
3952:
3944:
3897:
3033:" ("raccoon") phonetically instead of logographically. The other two place names,
2334:
a major pyramid with two staircases and a double temple oriented toward the west.
2177:
1411:, Cuitlahuac, and Mizquic. These states had an economy based on highly productive
621:
12274:
11953:
11912:
11897:
11860:
11824:
11718:
11613:
11528:
11503:
11464:
11449:
11270:
11107:
10836:
10800:
10520:
10108:. Civilization of the American Indian series. Translated by Fernando Horcasitas;
9906:
9701:. Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. pp. 581â595.
8913:
8295:
8276:
8038:
4854:
4417:
4318:
4256:, grasshoppers toasted and dusted with chilis, continue to be a popular delicacy.
4169:
4148:
4127:
4016:
3973:
3608:
3263:
3160:
3088:
2888:
2841:
2623:
2552:
2504:
2503:, a male and female couple of deities that represented the underworld and death;
2448:
2428:
2394:
2253:
2036:
1613:
1379:
695:
602:
496:
437:
129:
8169:
4095:
3814:
Views of the Cordilleras and Monuments of the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas
3427:
2914:
effigy vessel; 1440â1469; painted earthenware; height: 35 cm (14 in);
2597:
2374:
12494:
12205:
12171:
12015:
11990:
11947:
11937:
11927:
11917:
11875:
11658:
11469:
11459:
11152:
11112:
11102:
10308:
10038:
8101:
7636:
7602:
7564:
4299:
4032:
3983:
Detail of Diego Rivera's mural depicting the Aztec market of Tlatelolco at the
3862:
3823:
3482:
3400:
2822:
2613:
2500:
2496:
2488:
2456:
2386:
2378:
2343:
2146:
1717:
1653:
1530:
1514:
1363:
1171:
902:
840:
699:
606:
557:
526:
421:
144:
139:
124:
12307:
12291:
10687:
10349:
10151:
10093:
9937:
Disease and Death in Early Colonial Mexico: Simulating Amerindian Depopulation
9523:
9487:
8537:
8140:
7890:
7840:
7823:
7717:
7548:
5856:, ch. II; H. B. Nicholson 1971, pp. 410â412; and I. Nicholson 1959, pp. 60â63.
4000:, with symbols of Mexico's Aztec past becoming ubiquitous, most especially in
2577:, Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl appear as allies, defeating a giant crocodile
1009:
977:
12488:
12161:
12005:
11974:
11942:
11886:
11854:
11693:
11653:
11643:
11638:
11628:
11623:
11558:
11553:
11508:
11072:
11029:
10525:
Handbook of Middle American Indians, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, Part 2
10085:
10067:
10015:
9608:
9170:
8892:
8769:
LeĂłn-Portilla, Miguel (2000). "Aztecas, disquisiciones sobre un gentilicio".
8761:
8621:
8566:
8043:
Handbook of Middle American Indians, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, Part 2
7916:
7767:
6819:
5899:
4775:
4724:
4457:
4327:
4304:
4283:
4173:
4160:
4099:
3831:
3781:
3765:
3320:
3293:
3233:), molcajetes or mortar-type vessels with slashed bases for grinding chilli (
3014:
2957:
2738:
2632:
2585:
to the underworld and brings back bones which are then ground like corn on a
2492:
2444:
2114:
2101:
1705:
1682:
1678:
1125:
1104:
living in Colhuacan, the Mexica were again expelled and were forced to move.
1026:
929:
887:
808:
792:
522:
509:
472:
432:
373:
have long been the topic of scholarly discussion ever since German scientist
189:
184:
109:
12252:
12248:
11240:
11235:
10922:
10862:
10828:
10770:
10733:
10664:
10630:
10579:
10446:
10403:
10342:
10248:
Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, 13 vols. in 12
10231:
10185:
9797:
9685:
9654:
9553:(revised ed.). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 85â150.
9463:
9362:
9096:
8963:
8808:
8381:
8347:
8314:
Indigenous rulers: An ethnohistory of town government in colonial Cuernavaca
8249:
7973:
7952:
City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization
7942:
7793:
Bright, W. (1990). "'With one lip, with two lips': Parallelism in Nahuatl".
7759:
7662:
7628:
6620:
5354:"'Huey Tzompantli': Fearsome tower of human skulls unearthed in Mexico City"
3301:
1636:
1632:
545:
12244:
12220:
12176:
12126:
12121:
12010:
11995:
11979:
11844:
11795:
11790:
11765:
11743:
11708:
11588:
11290:
11225:
11182:
10883:
10159:
10109:
10097:
9323:
8941:
7955:
7851:
The Pursuit of Ruins: Archaeology, History, and the Making of Modern Mexico
7594:
5907:
4005:
3936:
3389:
3384:
3316:
3250:
3136:
2873:
2869:
2798:
2741:
argued that the motivation behind human sacrifice among the Aztecs was the
2681:, might descend and devour the earth â ending the fifth period of the sun.
2638:
2528:
2516:
2472:
2460:
2436:
2432:
2416:
2382:
2294:
2245:
2192:
2184:
1985:
1890:
1886:
1871:
1692:
1594:
1576:
1498:
1432:
1371:
1232:
1179:
1163:
1120:
1116:
920:
831:. Linguistically, the term "Aztecan" is still used about the branch of the
828:
776:
706:
568:
476:
464:
460:
452:
426:
417:
409:
385:
334:
330:
214:
199:
194:
159:
154:
80:
63:
11728:
10286:
10143:
8637:
2797:
Urban standard details; Mexico-Tenochtitlan wall remnants stone bricks in
2203:
rose 50 meters (160 ft) above the city. Houses were made of wood and
2095:
1784:
1699:
1687:
12240:
12230:
11849:
11780:
11633:
11603:
11310:
11202:
11082:
10972:
10638:
10583:
10411:
10368:
10205:
10200:. Civilization of the American Indian series. translated & edited by
8355:
8321:
5986:
4447:
4338:
Aztec society has also been depicted in cinema. The Mexican feature film
4012:
3777:
3748:
3534:
3508:
3312:
3281:
3269:
2962:
2896:
2821:; height: 16.8 cm (6.6 in), width: 15.2 cm (6.0 in);
2802:
2711:
2594:
2574:
2531:(gods of song, dance and games). In some regions, particularly Tlaxcala,
2520:
2512:
2480:
2452:
2370:
2310:
2273:
2188:
2059:
2025:
2017:
1750:
1657:
1584:
1571:
1451:
1200:
1107:
According to Aztec legend, in 1323, the Mexica were shown a vision of an
1022:
934:
739:, referring only to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, excluding Tlatelolco) or
584:
572:
564:
549:
504:
436:
of 260 days. Particular to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan was the patron God
400:
304:
84:
10457:. Translated by Benjamin Keen. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick.
9441:
Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 5: Epigraphy
9218:
8880:
7329:
6771:
4783:
4759:
896:
12278:
12116:
12096:
11538:
11330:
11092:
10479:
10063:
9854:
9769:
9068:
9045:"The Peopling of Mexico from Origins to Revolution (preliminary draft)"
8674:
8268:
On the Lips of Others: Moteuczoma's Fame in Aztec Monuments and Rituals
7921:
American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America
7899:
7395:"Films on the Indigenous Peoples of Mexico. Part One: Historical Films"
7168:"The Native American population exploded, the census shows. Here's why"
4252:
4236:
4232:
3979:
3847:
3501:
3395:
3328:
3245:
2677:
2524:
2508:
2464:
2411:
2330:
2318:
2277:
2220:
2080:
1973:
1648:
1640:
1459:
1420:
1408:
1248:
1240:
1123:, son of a Mexica father and a Colhua mother, was elected as the first
1048:
990:
968:
arriving in Mexico in 1524. Another Franciscan of great importance was
819:
enumerates many groups in central Mexico that he includes in his study
575:; from eyewitness accounts by Spanish conquistadors such as Cortés and
11723:
10303:. Civilization of the American Indians series. Vol. 200, part 2.
9600:
9027:
8999:
Indian Conquistadors: Indigenous Allies in the Conquest of Mesoamerica
8489:
7923:. Oxford Studies in Anthropoical Linguistics, 4. London and New York:
7814:
7488:
5929:
3646:
and her younger sister, Doña Leonor Moctezuma, were granted extensive
643:
12299:
12295:
12270:
12020:
11355:
11245:
9558:
Sanders, William T. (1971). "Settlement Patterns in Central Mexico".
8197:
7738:
Stories in Red and Black: Pictorial Histories of the Aztec and Mixtec
7467:
Barlow, Robert H. (1945). "Some Remarks On The Term "Aztec Empire"".
6979:
4569:
4294:
4123:
4052:
met in Mexico City in 1910 on the centennial of Mexican independence.
3854:
3784:
calls "creole patriotism". Seventeenth-century cleric and scientist,
3757:
3680:
or city-states as the basic unit of governance. In the colonial era,
3570:
swept through the population of Tenochtitlan and was decisive in the
3556:
Depiction of smallpox during the Spanish conquest in Book XII of the
3084:
2849:
2727:
2652:
2484:
2468:
2044:
1895:
1518:
1470:
1224:
1208:
1100:
518:
366:
11804:
11474:
10356:. Translated by Doris Heyden. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
9846:
8666:
8653:
Kubler, George (1942). "Population Movements in Mexico, 1520â1600".
4961:
3364:
3176:
2911:
2249:
1912:
in Nahuatl. These were small polities ruled by a hereditary leader (
1064:
686:
463:, later becoming the dominant power of the Aztec Triple Alliance or
179:
12286:
12136:
11678:
11673:
11563:
11543:
9592:
9019:
8975:. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. pp. 188â189.
8481:
8185:
Frazier, E.G. (2006). "Préstamos del nåhuatl al español mexicano".
7806:
7480:
7267:
6117:
6115:
4716:
3808:
examines the two stone monoliths. A decade later, German scientist
3676:
3567:
3529:
3470:
3376:
3372:
3079:
2818:
2601:
2578:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2314:
2306:
2290:
2215:
2084:
2072:
2021:
2013:
1961:
1957:
1914:
1908:
1839:
1833:
1729:
1412:
1392:
1387:
1192:
1040:
772:
484:
468:
394:
346:
325:
11698:
10937:
8060:
Cline, Sarah (2000). "Native Peoples of Colonial Central Mexico".
6376:
5537:
5535:
4325:
wrote two acclaimed historical novels set in Aztec-period Mexico,
2989:
The Aztecs did not have a fully developed writing system like the
2233:
2075:
were specialized long-distance merchants organized into exclusive
2051:
products were generally imported from the Tarascans of Michoacan.
1054:
552:
on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. From there, they proceeded with the
12282:
11819:
11703:
11444:
11340:
11315:
11300:
11220:
11215:
11172:
11147:
11117:
10066:(trans.) (6th printing (1973) ed.). Harmondsworth, England:
9530:
General History of the Things of New Spain (The Florentine Codex)
8021:
Moctezuma's Children: Aztec Royalty Under Spanish Rule, 1520â1700
4467:
3976:
helped shape the cultural image of Mexico at these exhibitions.
3956:
3744:
3735:
3619:
3466:
3462:
3431:
Aztec feather shield displaying the "stepped fret" design called
3332:
3327:
depicts an old man and an old woman. This may represent the gods
3221:
Typical vessels for everyday use were clay griddles for cooking (
2974:
2762:
2539:
was the main tribal deity. A few sources mention a binary deity,
2109:
Another form of distribution of goods was through the payment of
1416:
1112:
1092:
1076:
1072:
998:
912:
847:
768:
760:
690:
652:
514:
488:
350:
320:
119:
11748:
10964:
Tlahuica Culture Home Page (an Aztec group from Morelos, Mexico)
10781:(2000). "Mesoamerica since the Spanish Invasion: An Overview.".
10523:(1976). "Hubert Howe Bancroft, 1832â1918". In H.F. Cline (ed.).
8228:
The Aztec Kings: the Construction of Rulership in Mexica History
7828:
Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association
7300:"Gary Jennings Is Dead at 70; Author of the Best Seller 'Aztec'"
7279:
6482:
6480:
6158:
6112:
4568:
Some sources, including the RelaciĂłn de Tula and the history of
2381:. Public ritual practices could involve food, storytelling, and
1889:
was ruled by indirect means. Like most European empires, it was
1837:, meaning "water-mountain". Each altepetl was led by a ruler, a
1004:
915:. Some of these manuscripts were entirely pictorial, often with
12225:
11598:
11593:
11518:
11454:
11335:
11285:
11275:
11250:
10952:
10903:
The Aztec Arrangement: The Social History of Pre-Spanish Mexico
10323:, and Wayne Ruwet (completion, revisions, and editor). Norman:
9572:"The Aztlan Migrations of Nahuatl Chronicles: Myth or History?"
6314:
5532:
4462:
3671:
3493:
3363:
discovered in 1790; also discovered in 1790 excavations of the
3120:
concepts. For example, the Nahuatl expression for "poetry" was
3073:
2778:
2586:
2582:
2440:
2424:
2164:
2126:
2048:
2009:
1738:
1383:
994:
851:
812:
800:
682:
629:
413:
358:
338:
308:
101:
75:
10164:
Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España y Islas de Tierra Firme
8724:
Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient NĂĄhuatl Mind
8399:
6951:
6949:
6636:
6278:
5103:
4027:
3670:
included not just Europeans, but also Africans and mixed-race
3108:
to the gods and creation myths and adoration of said figures,
1560:
1141:
333:
was a confederation of three city-states established in 1427:
11865:
11809:
11800:
11688:
11265:
10684:
Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica
6961:
6550:
6548:
6546:
6477:
6302:
6254:
4290:
3881:, and is emblazoned on official buildings, seals, and signs.
3581:
3457:
3258:
2351:
2076:
2005:
1945:
1216:
1108:
924:
916:
587:
456:
389:
12447:
Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
11014:
10423:. Civilization of the American Indian series. Translated by
10380:. Civilization of the American Indian series. Translated by
9750:
Daily Life of the Aztecs, on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest
8726:. Translated by Davis, Jack E. University of Oklahoma Press.
7255:
7096:
6835:
6747:
6560:
6519:
6405:
5634:
5264:
5262:
5026:
5024:
4901:
4899:
3730:
1801:
commoners and some sources describe it as being prohibited.
1545:
919:. In the postconquest era, many other texts were written in
9922:
Whittaker, G. (2009). "The principles of nahuatl writing".
7231:
7147:
7135:
7024:
6946:
6934:
6910:
6194:
5967:
5769:
5757:
5622:
5598:
5588:
5586:
5400:
5376:
5334:
5298:
3627:
2204:
2040:
2032:
567:
evidence found in excavations such as that of the renowned
281:
10708:
We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico
9157:
Mundy, B.E. (2014). "Place-Names in Mexico-Tenochtitlan".
6783:
6660:
6543:
6429:
5658:
5424:
5322:
10588:
10241:
10192:
10052:
8938:
The Great Temple of the Aztecs: Treasures of Tenochtitlan
6759:
5559:
5508:
5496:
5259:
5247:
5235:
5211:
5199:
5187:
5163:
5067:
5021:
4896:
4869:
3857:
achieved independence in 1821 and became a monarchy, the
3842:
In the realm of religion, late colonial paintings of the
3751:. The design is rooted in the legend of the Aztec people.
3574:; further significant epidemics struck in 1545 and 1576.
2604:
carved with a representation of the dismembered goddess.
2110:
1537:), decorated with a representation of Tizoc's conquests.
626:
272:
10981:
featuring Alan Knight, Adrian Locke and Elizabeth Graham
9225:
Nichols, Deborah L. and Enrique RodrĂguez-AlegrĂa, eds.
9177:
9150:
The death of Aztec Tenochtitlan, the life of MĂ©xico City
8842:. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 68â72.
6898:
6847:
6596:
6584:
6417:
5733:
5583:
5547:
5460:
5448:
5036:
4967:
4928:
4926:
4530:
4107:
Ixtlilxochitl and Brasseur de Bourbourg, among others.
3548:
Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
3253:
a folding codex painted on deer skin prepared with gesso
3194:
An Aztec polychrome vessel typical of the Cholula region
377:
established its common usage in the early 19th century.
10307:(English trans. and paleography of Nahuatl text), with
10158:. Civilization of the American Indian series, no. 210.
9125:. MĂ©xico City: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de MĂ©xico.
8326:
Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control
6076:
6064:
6052:
6040:
6028:
6004:
5819:
5745:
5388:
5091:
5009:
3830:
emblem, which depicts an eagle on a cactus holding the
3688:
or "head towns" (although they often retained the term
3206:
A life-size ceramic sculpture of an Aztec eagle warrior
3163:, whose work primarily focused on the Aztec conquest.
2523:(a female deity tied to childbirth and sexuality); and
2373:
civilizations, the Aztecs put great ritual emphasis on
2361:
2349:
315:
from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different
10710:. Repertorium Columbianum. Vol. 1. Translated by
10611:. Civilization of the American Indian series. Norman:
10293:
9943:
9123:
Los difrasismos en el nĂĄhuatl de los siglos XVI y XVII
8360:
Time, History, and Belief in Aztec and Colonial Mexico
8328:. Civilization of the American Indian series. Norman:
8081:
The Aztec palimpsest: Mexico in the Modern Imagination
7273:
7125:
7123:
6572:
6531:
6266:
6242:
5670:
5520:
5310:
5286:
5274:
5175:
5151:
5115:
5057:
5055:
5053:
5051:
3806:
DescripciĂłn histĂłrico y cronolĂłgico de las dos piedras
3704:, the Spanish created Iberian-style town councils, or
3500:, showing the abuse by Spaniards of a Nahua under the
1984:
Further information on the land distance measure:
1021:
It is a matter of debate whether the enormous city of
563:
Aztec culture and history are primarily known through
12442:
Painting in the Americas before European colonization
10898:
10547:"The Aztec Triple Alliance: A Postconquest Tradition"
10012:
Berdan, Frances F. and Patricia Reiff Anawalt (1997)
9968:"One Hundred and Fifty Years of Nahuatl Decipherment"
8467:
7048:
6990:
6988:
6922:
6795:
6735:
6713:
6711:
6672:
6465:
6382:
6218:
6016:
4985:
4923:
4886:
4884:
1466:) against them, perhaps as a strategy of exhaustion.
846:
To the Aztecs themselves the word "Aztec" was not an
554:
process of conquest and incorporation of Mesoamerican
296:
287:
284:
275:
10959:
Article: "Life in the Provinces of the Aztec Empire"
8448:
8400:"Borrowed borrowings: Nahuatl loan words in English"
8391:
Polygamy and the Rise and Demise of the Aztec Empire
7824:"The multiple identities of Aztec craft specialists"
7670:
Berdan, Frances F.; Anawalt, Patricia Rieff (1997).
7413:
7108:
7084:
7072:
7036:
7012:
6807:
6777:
6723:
6453:
6395:
6393:
6391:
5721:
5711:
5709:
5682:
5610:
5472:
5412:
5139:
4529:
The editors of the "Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs",
4370:
3760:
achieved its independence, American-born Spaniards (
3116:, also with its different categories and divisions.
1663:
278:
10478:
9338:
9299:
9132:
Mexican Cinema: Reflections of a Society, 1896â2004
7575:. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York:
7425:
7120:
7060:
6696:
6608:
6290:
6230:
6164:
6146:
6121:
5436:
5223:
5079:
5048:
3662:, which was separate from the Hispanic sphere, the
3443:An especially prized art form among the Aztecs was
2730:, the Great Speaker himself. This number, however,
2423:The four main deities worshiped by the Aztecs were
1866:
1426:
752:, referring to their royal genealogy tying them to
392:
cultivation, the social division between nobility (
269:
59:
Ethnic group of central Mexico and its civilization
10900:
9833:Tomlinson, G. (1995). "Ideologies of Aztec song".
9747:
9693:Smith, Michael E. (2000). "Aztec City-States". In
8599:
8211:
7568:
7534:
7000:
6985:
6869:The Complete Guide to National Symbols and Emblems
6708:
6684:
6648:
6441:
6100:
6088:
5484:
5109:
4997:
4949:
4911:
4881:
3159:in upper-class society. One famous female poet is
3041:("Place of many thorns") use the phonetic element
2684:
1617:"The Martyrdom of Cuauhtémoc", (1892) painting by
1419:, subjecting the city-state of Cuauhnahuac (today
1017:with the locations of the main city-states in 1519
10259:(eds., trans., notes and illus.) (translation of
9699:A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures
9494:
9263:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
8859:The Offerings of the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan
8581:
7571:The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society
7243:
6642:
6388:
6284:
6206:
6182:
5706:
5694:
5646:
5571:
5127:
4597:This volume was later translated into Spanish by
4321:, insisted on a change of title. American author
3315:. Most of our current Aztec murals were found in
444:, and the ceramic styles known as Aztec I to IV.
12486:
12086:
10505:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 500â558.
10261:Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España
9499:. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
9404:. University of Texas Press. pp. 176, 227.
8064:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 187â222.
6487:Tuerenhout, Dirk R. Van; Weeks, John M. (2005).
4616:
9807:The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology
9204:
8979:
8970:
8932:
8840:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Culture
7876:
7102:
6566:
6525:
6486:
5775:
5763:
3379:goddess with a skirt made of rattlesnakes. The
2063:Diorama model of the Aztec market at Tlatelolco
1473:served as his main advisor (Nahuatl languages:
1055:Mexica migration and foundation of Tenochtitlan
862:. In 1843, with the publication of the work of
503:between the ruling dynasties, and extending an
467:. It was an empire that expanded its political
12422:Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
12407:Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas
10562:Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection
10162:(trans., annot., and introd.) (Translation of
9884:
9813:
9637:Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection
9470:
8078:
7645:Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection
7611:Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection
7291:
7237:
7141:
7030:
6940:
2768:
2511:(a deity of fertility and the natural cycle);
1935:
647:Large ceramic statue of an Aztec eagle warrior
11000:
10785:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1â43.
10263: ed.). Santa Fe, NM and Salt Lake City:
10004:
9835:Journal of the American Musicological Society
9551:The Native Population of the Americas in 1492
9525:Historia general de las cosas de nueva España
9422:Planet taco: A global history of Mexican food
9191:. University of Texas Press. pp. 92â134.
9120:
8996:
8911:
8781:
8768:
8730:
8718:
8200:Escudo Nacional: flora, fauna y biodiversidad
7669:
7285:
6955:
6666:
6320:
6308:
6260:
5853:
5837:
5818:, sec 2f: "Literally, 'Two God', also called
5073:
5030:
4905:
4130:, with a stylized feathered crown as its logo
3476:
3083:played by a youth in Aztec-themed costume in
1819:Pre-Hispanic "Tepeyac" Road of city-state of
1336:
1005:Central Mexico in the classic and postclassic
240:
10869:
10743:
10739:(in English, Spanish, and Nahuatl languages)
10150:
10092:
10019:. University of California Press, Berkeley.
9809:. Oxford University Press. pp. 741â752.
9232:
9207:Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology
9138:
8997:Matthew, Laura E; Oudijk, Michel R. (2007).
8834:
7635:
7601:
6753:
5592:
5565:
5541:
5430:
4671:
4239:of women grinding corn and making tortillas.
3618:. In 1766, the holder of the title became a
3277:â meaning "the black ink, the red pigment".
3124:a dual term meaning "the flower, the song".
2636:and a solar calendar of 365 days called the
2419:, one of the few extant pre-Hispanic codices
380:Most ethnic groups of central Mexico in the
10367:
10208:(original reproduction and translation of:
9717:"Life in the Provinces of the Aztec Empire"
9434:Prem, Hanns J. (1992). "Aztec Writing". In
9063:
8856:
8787:Bernardino de Sahagun, First Anthropologist
8606:. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
7537:Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory
7517:"Mesoamerican religious concepts: Part two"
7362:
5973:
5954:The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
5751:
4875:
4028:Aztec history and international scholarship
2141:Aztec society combined a relatively simple
1851:units headed by a lord (Nahuatl languages:
1606:) to accede to the privileged class of the
1599:
1561:Final Aztec rulers and the Spanish conquest
1554:
1490:
1455:
1437:
1375:
1367:
23:
11007:
10993:
9887:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
8277:"The Ecological Basis for Aztec Sacrifice"
8158:Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies
8116:
6082:
4118:
3582:Social and political continuity and change
3142:Romances de los señores de la Nueva España
3104:was devoted to war and the god(s) of war,
2951:
2743:cannibalization of the sacrificial victims
2546:
2407:List of Aztec gods and supernatural beings
2284:
1999:Typical Aztec black on orange ceramic ware
1948:, the main foodstuff, using simple tools.
1446:The coronation of Moctezuma I, Tovar Codex
1362:In 1396, at Acamapichtli's death, his son
1343:
1329:
957:who wrote a full history of the conquest.
775:, who together with the Mexica formed the
319:, particularly those groups who spoke the
247:
233:
24:
12412:Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas
10835:
10809:(1st pbk ed.). Oxford and New York:
10597:
10541:
10482:; Cline, Sarah; Pescador, Javier (2003).
9924:Göttinger BeitrÀge zur Sprachwissenschaft
9921:
9832:
9745:
9285:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9195:
9186:
8912:Martz, Louis L.; Lawrence, D. H. (1998).
8294:
8222:
8130:
7898:
7839:
6602:
6578:
6537:
6272:
6248:
6200:
4556:
4487:The term was not used as an endonym, see
4395:Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal
3731:The Aztecs and Mexico's national identity
3068:
2695:Cannibalism in the Americas § Aztecs
2487:(a female earth deity); the deity couple
2183:The capital city of the Aztec empire was
2054:
1079:, but that eventually their tribal deity
722:, a tribal designation that included the
11016:Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures
10907:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
10705:
10500:
9934:
9861:
9399:
9390:
9369:
9339:OrtĂz de Montellano, Bernard R. (1990).
9108:. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press.
8984:. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press.
8815:
8681:
8504:
8451:The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521â1555
8265:
8187:Hesperia: Anuario de FilologĂa HispĂĄnica
7999:
7980:
7949:
7915:
7867:
7821:
7261:
6967:
6928:
6859:
6841:
6801:
6789:
6741:
6678:
6590:
6423:
6411:
6357:
6224:
6176:
6127:
5824:, 'our Mother, our Father, the Old God'"
5640:
5628:
5616:
5604:
5514:
5502:
5478:
5406:
5394:
5382:
5340:
5328:
5316:
5304:
5268:
5217:
5205:
5193:
5181:
5169:
5015:
4991:
4932:
4544:
4517:
4122:
4031:
4011:In their works, Mexican authors such as
3978:
3935:
3818:
3734:
3591:
3588:Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas
3551:
3492:
3489:Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas
3426:
3342:
3244:
3145:, collected (Tezcoco 1582), probably by
3072:
2961:
2698:
2617:
2556:
2471:, and star deity and cultural hero; and
2410:
2244:The centerpiece of Tenochtitlan was the
2232:
2171:
2163:
2094:
2058:
1994:
1939:
1870:
1814:
1804:
1783:
1712:
1698:
1691:Aztec 'high lords', who were in the top
1686:
1612:
1570:
1544:
1441:
1008:
923:by either literate Aztecs or by Spanish
895:
642:
620:
307:civilization that flourished in central
74:
32:This is an accepted version of this page
10969:"The Aztecs â looking behind the myths"
10799:
10777:
10671:
10369:Chimalpahin, Domingo de San Antón Muñón
9557:
9548:
9521:
9505:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341962.001.0001
9418:
9271:
9229:. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2017.
8885:The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
8820:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
8426:
8311:
8184:
8018:
7766:
7514:
7449:
7165:
7153:
7114:
7042:
6916:
6865:
6813:
6765:
6729:
6471:
6459:
6332:
6133:
5803:
5442:
5085:
5061:
3654:to her daughter by her second husband.
2703:Ritual human sacrifice as shown in the
2507:(a female deity of lakes and springs);
2495:(associated with life and sustenance);
2415:The deity Tezcatlipoca depicted in the
1858:In the valley of Morelos, archeologist
1668:
1489:In 1469, the next ruler was Axayacatl (
1294:Diego de San Francisco Tehuetzquititzin
881:
638:Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica
14:
12487:
10872:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
10841:Chimalpahin and the Kingdoms of Chalco
10643:War and Society in Ancient Mesoamerica
10637:
10606:
10414:; Domingo de San Antón Muñón (1997) .
10354:The History of the Indies of New Spain
10156:The History of the Indies of New Spain
9965:
9280:
8875:
8652:
8397:
8388:
8354:
8320:
8274:
8256:
8218:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
8206:
8155:
8083:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
7792:
7703:
7694:
7563:
7515:Barnett, Ronald A. (1 November 2007).
7503:
7466:
7431:
7344:from the original on 22 September 2018
7129:
7066:
6825:
6702:
6614:
6554:
6435:
6296:
6236:
6152:
6070:
5849:
5833:
5815:
5799:
5787:
5490:
5253:
5241:
5097:
4979:
4944:
4917:
4890:
4660:
4649:
4112:International Congress of Americanists
4050:International Congress of Americanists
2168:Map of the Island city of Tenochtitlan
2153:
1875:The maximal extent of the Aztec Empire
1587:, 8 November 1519, as depicted in the
1484:
1132:
747:
734:
717:
676:
663:
10988:
10519:
9956:
9804:
9768:
9714:
9705:
9692:
9661:
9630:
9566:
9341:Aztec Medicine, Health, and Nutrition
9156:
9147:
9114:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341962.013.13
9042:
9005:
8552:
8523:
8449:Himmerich y Valencia, Robert (1991).
8439:
8059:
8037:
7983:The Aztecs: A very Short Introduction
7848:
7732:
7507:Extent Of The Empire Of Culhua Mexica
7460:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341962.013.30
7365:"The Other Conquest Conquers America"
7297:
7054:
7006:
6994:
6717:
6690:
6654:
6626:
6447:
6106:
6094:
6058:
6046:
6034:
6022:
6010:
5935:
5739:
5727:
5715:
5700:
5688:
5676:
5664:
5652:
5577:
5553:
5526:
5466:
5454:
5418:
5292:
5280:
5229:
5157:
5145:
5133:
5121:
5042:
5003:
4955:
4847:
4819:
4817:
4808:
4796:
4757:
4745:
4695:
4683:
4505:
4273:
4059:Charles Ătienne Brasseur de Bourbourg
3642:. Two of Moctezuma's daughters, Doña
3541:
3383:representing the dismembered goddess
3367:was the 2.7-meter-tall (8.9 ft)
3049:) combined with a deer head to spell
2777:(arts and fine craftsmanship) of the
2369:In common with many other indigenous
1493:"Water mask"), son of Itzcoatl's son
495:, which had previously dominated the
10749:Tamoanchan, Tlalocan: Places of Mist
10686:. Revised March 2001. Archived from
10041:. Yale University Press, New Haven.
9990:from the original on 21 January 2021
9733:from the original on 21 January 2021
9536:from the original on 2 December 2020
9433:
9129:
9103:
9008:Journal of Interdisciplinary History
8990:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341962.013.1
8899:from the original on 12 January 2023
8706:from the original on 21 January 2021
8620:
8597:
8414:from the original on 12 January 2023
8404:Lexis. Journal in English Lexicology
8087:
7419:
7401:from the original on 15 October 2018
7310:from the original on 13 January 2016
7274:Witton, Martill & Loveridge 2010
7249:
7090:
7078:
7018:
6904:
6853:
6507:from the original on 12 January 2023
6399:
6212:
6188:
5865:
5364:from the original on 12 January 2023
4968:Nichols & RodrĂguez-AlegrĂa 2017
4835:from the original on 17 October 2012
4760:"The Aztecs Paid Taxes, Not Tribute"
4573:
4531:Nichols & RodrĂguez-AlegrĂa 2017
3616:held the title of Count of Moctezuma
2218:(a school for nobles), a skull rack
2176:Mexico-Tenochtitlan urban standard,
1990:
1773:
1567:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
210:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
12510:Post-Classic period in the Americas
12111:
11440:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela
10953:Aztec history, culture and religion
10946:: Ancient Mesoamerica resources at
10806:Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest
10484:The Early History of Greater Mexico
10212:, first English ed.). Norman:
9618:from the original on 8 October 2018
9560:Handbook of Middle American Indians
9395:. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers.
9251:10.22201/iia.24486221e.1974.0.23307
8940:. New Aspects of Antiquity series.
8655:Hispanic American Historical Review
8555:Journal of Anthropological Research
7298:Smith, Dinitia (18 February 1999).
7166:Van Dam, Andrew (27 October 2023).
6337:. New York: Routledge. p. 30.
4677:
2773:The Aztecs greatly appreciated the
2348:Nahuas' metaphysics centers around
2228:
1318:Luis de Santa MarĂa Nanacacipactzin
906:depicting the departure from AztlĂĄn
795:. An example is Jerome A. Offner's
56:
12432:Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
11411:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia
10471:
10237:(in Nahuatl languages and English)
9818:. University of California Press.
9544:– via World Digital Library.
9474:(1996). "Humboldt and Aztec Art".
9400:Peterson, Jeanette Favrot (2014).
8602:The Aztec image in Western thought
7853:. University of New Mexico Press.
7697:Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory
7375:from the original on 12 April 2018
7191:
6886:from the original on 21 April 2023
4814:
4438:List of Mexico-Tenochtitlan rulers
4280:The Aztec Image in Western Thought
4261:
4147:, line 1, with stations named for
521:and spanning Mesoamerica from the
57:
12536:
11423:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador
11394:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia
10931:
10166:, 1st English ed.). Norman:
10124:, 1st English ed.). Norman:
9959:The Fabulous Life of Diego Rivera
9814:Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio (1996).
9497:The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs
9283:Law and Politics in Aztec Texcoco
9227:The Oxford Handbook of The Aztecs
9180:The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs
9141:The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs
9106:The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs
9051:from the original on 12 July 2017
8982:The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs
8393:. University of New Mexico Press.
8316:. University of New Mexico Press.
8266:Hajovsky, Patrick Thomas (2015).
7510:. University of California Press.
7452:The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs
5938:, pp. 204, 211â212, 221â222.
4865:from the original on 7 July 2014.
3361:Aztec "Sunstone" or Calendarstone
3311:The first Aztec murals were from
3261:paper made from bark (e.g., from
2191:. Built on a series of islets in
1664:Social and political organization
797:Law and Politics in Aztec Texcoco
471:far beyond the Valley of Mexico,
353:empire, whose dominant power was
12515:Pre-Columbian cultures of Mexico
12464:
11416:Archaeological sites in Colombia
11389:Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil
9121:Montes de Oca, Mercedes (2013).
8736:Fifteen Poets of the Aztec World
8505:Humboldt, Alexander von (2014).
8090:RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics
8004:. University of Oklahoma Press.
7387:
7363:O'Leary, Devin D. (3 May 2007).
7356:
7322:
7185:
7159:
6362:. University of Oklahoma Press.
6360:Fifteen Poets of the Aztec World
6351:
6326:
5979:
5947:
5941:
5878:(6395). Science.org: 1288â1292.
4624:"Why are Aztecs called Mexicas?"
4591:
4488:
4401:
4387:
4373:
4244:
4221:
3739:Modern Mexico flag, depicting a
3225:), bowls and plates for eating (
3199:
3187:
3175:
2939:
2923:
2904:
2881:
2857:
2830:
2810:
2790:
2691:Human sacrifice in Aztec culture
1867:Triple Alliance and Aztec Empire
1720:uniform as tax pay method, from
1533:a monumental sculpture (Nahuatl
1427:Early rulers of the Aztec Empire
1140:
709:, who referred to themselves as
430:of 365 days intercalated with a
370:
265:
100:
11399:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile
10944:Aztecs / Nahuatl / Tenochtitlan
10602:. University of Nebraska Press.
9522:SahagĂșn, Bernardino de (1577).
9001:. University of Oklahoma Press.
8509:. University of Chicago Press.
8079:Cooper AlarcĂłn, Daniel (1997).
7879:Dialectologia et Geolinguistica
7822:Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. (1998).
7442:
5859:
5843:
5827:
5809:
5793:
5781:
5346:
4973:
4938:
4802:
4790:
4579:
4562:
4550:
4536:
4523:
4511:
4499:
4311:to an early draft of his novel
4042:National Museum of Anthropology
4022:National Museum of Anthropology
3964:in a major traffic roundabout (
3349:National Museum of Anthropology
2893:National Museum of Anthropology
2685:Human sacrifice and cannibalism
2360:as manifest in the supreme god
1583:, with his cultural translator
1039:, and also city-states such as
371:definitions of Aztec and Aztecs
361:polities or peoples of central
317:ethnic groups of central Mexico
10948:University of Minnesota Duluth
10899:Zantwijk, Rudolph van (1985).
10716:University of California Press
10647:University of California Press
10096:(1971) . Fernando Horcasitas;
9939:. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
9866:(3rd, rev. ed.). London:
9710:. University Press of Florida.
9666:(first ed.). Malden, MA:
9476:Colonial Latin American Review
9438:; Patricia A. Andrews (eds.).
9233:Noguera Auza, Eduardo (1974).
8857:LĂłpez LujĂĄn, Leonardo (2005).
8771:Estudios de la Cultura Nahuatl
7678:University of California Press
6358:Portilla, Miguel LeĂłn (1992).
5821:in Tonan, in Tota, Huehueteotl
5110:Beekman & Christensen 2003
4751:
4739:
4689:
4665:
4654:
4642:
4481:
3770:Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl
3596:José Sarmiento de Valladares,
3416:
3240:
2239:Historic center of Mexico City
2035:, and they combined gold with
1825:Tlatelolco archaeological site
1553:The next ruler was Ahuitzotl (
1158:Rulers subject to Azcapotzalco
962:Toribio de Benavente Motolinia
632:. Prior of the arrival of the
616:
613:and artistic accomplishments.
13:
1:
12343:Spanish Conquest of Guatemala
11404:Archaeological sites in Chile
10598:Gutierrez, Natividad (1999).
10412:Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin
10037:. New Edition. Translated by
9862:Townsend, Richard F. (2009).
9754:. Stanford University Press.
9562:. Vol. 3. pp. 3â44.
9384:10.1525/ae.1995.22.4.02a00060
9316:10.1525/aa.1983.85.2.02a00130
8453:. University of Texas Press.
8444:. Cambridge University Press.
8023:. University of Texas Press.
7699:. Cambridge University Press.
7371:. Vol. 16, no. 18.
6285:Karttunen & Lockhart 1980
5892:10.1126/science.360.6395.1288
5852:, sec. 2f, citing Caso 1958;
4608:
3931:Francisco del Paso y Troncoso
3794:La Historia Antigua de MĂ©xico
3768:, such as those collected by
3598:Duke of Moctezuma de Tultengo
3483:Nahuas § Colonial Period
2724:Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan
2270:Symbolism of the Templo Mayor
2256:. This was where most of the
2201:Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan
2187:, now the site of modern-day
1675:Social class in Aztec society
1386:who saw him as a competitor.
1256:Colonial indigenous governors
821:The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule
487:; these allied to defeat the
363:Mexico in the prehispanic era
12500:Cannibalism in North America
12437:Mesoamerican writing systems
12394:
11433:Archaeological sites in Peru
10753:University Press of Colorado
10613:University of Oklahoma Press
10429:University of Oklahoma Press
10386:University of Oklahoma Press
10325:University of Oklahoma Press
10214:University of Oklahoma Press
10168:University of Oklahoma Press
10126:University of Oklahoma Press
9935:Whitmore, Thomas M. (1992).
9907:10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.01.019
9272:Nowotny, Karl Anton (2005).
9253:(inactive 5 September 2024).
9152:. University of Texas Press.
8791:University of Oklahoma Press
8744:University of Oklahoma Press
8330:University of Oklahoma Press
8296:10.1525/ae.1977.4.1.02a00070
8270:. University of Texas Press.
7870:Indian women of early Mexico
7577:Holt, Rinehart & Winston
6490:The Aztecs: New Perspectives
4433:Indigenous peoples of Mexico
4346:) from 2000 was directed by
3786:Carlos de SigĂŒenza y GĂłngora
3375:, representing a serpentine
3347:The Coatlicue statue in the
3338:
3249:Page from the pre-Columbian
2479:". Other major deities were
2020:and of luxury goods such as
1656:were forcibly replaced with
1627:massacre in the Great Temple
1540:
1497:and Motecuzoma I's daughter
1310:CristĂłbal de GuzmĂĄn Cecetzin
1047:in the valley of Mexico and
473:conquering other city-states
7:
12520:Pre-Columbian civilizations
12333:Spanish Conquest of YucatĂĄn
10845:University of Arizona Press
10265:School of American Research
10118:Libro de los dioses y ritos
10102:Book of the Gods and Rites
9816:Mexico at the World's Fairs
9746:Soustelle, Jacques (1970).
8587:Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl
8232:University of Arizona Press
8170:10.1080/1356932042000246977
8019:Chipman, Donald E. (2005).
7985:. Oxford University Press.
7673:The Essential Codex Mendoza
6526:Nicholson & Berger 1968
6335:The Course of Mexican Music
4859:Online Etymology Dictionary
4366:
3894:Antonio LĂłpez de Santa Anna
3774:Hernando Alvarado Tezozomoc
3166:
3037:("Place of Many Deer") and
2769:Art and cultural production
2607:
2337:
2136:
2090:
1936:Agriculture and subsistence
1780:Women in Aztec civilization
1286:Diego de Alvarado Huanitzin
1099:. In 1299, Colhuacan ruler
939:Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc
595:alphabetic texts in Nahuatl
447:From the 13th century, the
10:
12541:
12359:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
12262:Uaxaclajuun UbÊŒaah KÊŒawiil
10418:; Susan Schroeder (eds.).
10375:; Susan Schroeder (eds.).
10005:Primary sources in English
9957:Wolfe, Bertram D. (2000).
9715:Smith, Michael E. (2005).
9706:Smith, Michael E. (2008).
9662:Smith, Michael E. (1997).
9281:Offner, Jerome A. (1983).
9182:. Oxford University Press.
9134:(3rd ed.). McFarland.
8682:Lacadena, Alfonso (2008).
8440:Hirth, Kenneth G. (2016).
8102:10.1086/resv47n1ms20167660
7776:Cambridge University Press
7504:Barlow, Robert H. (1949).
6866:Minahan, James B. (2009).
6136:Historical Social Research
4758:Smith, Michael E. (2014).
4696:Lucia, Kristin De (2018).
4158:
4154:
3927:JoaquĂn GarcĂa Icazbalceta
3828:Teocalli of the Sacred War
3790:Francisco Javier Clavijero
3700:, subject communities. In
3585:
3545:
3518:Andrés de Tapia Motelchiuh
3486:
3480:
3477:Colonial period, 1521â1821
3420:
3409:
3323:. One mural discovered in
2955:
2932:Metropolitan Museum of Art
2745:, depicted for example in
2688:
2611:
2550:
2455:and martial deity and the
2404:
2400:
2362:
2341:
2157:
1983:
1930:
1878:
1777:
1727:The highest class was the
1672:
1564:
1549:Ahuitzotl in Codex Mendoza
1452:Moteuczomatzin Ilhuicamina
1430:
1270:Andrés de Tapia Motelchiuh
885:
874:
870:
337:, the capital city of the
61:
12460:
12402:
12393:
12313:
12236:
12211:
12182:
12157:
12132:
12107:
12082:
12051:
12026:
12001:
11970:
11933:
11908:
11871:
11840:
11815:
11786:
11779:
11774:
11769:
11764:
11762:
11757:
11584:Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia)
11369:
11201:
11058:
11022:
10453:Zorita, Alonso de (1963)
10194:Ruiz de AlarcĂłn, Hernando
10059:The Conquest of New Spain
10054:DĂaz del Castillo, Bernal
9780:University of Texas Press
9708:Aztec City-State Capitals
9633:Aztec Imperial Strategies
9488:10.1080/10609169608569894
9446:University of Texas Press
9391:Pasztory, Esther (1983).
8538:10.1017/s0956536105050030
8364:University of Texas Press
8141:10.1017/S0956536101122078
7891:10.1515/dialect-2015-0004
7849:Bueno, Christina (2016).
7841:10.1525/ap3a.1998.8.1.145
7742:University of Texas Press
7718:10.1017/S0956536115000358
7641:Aztec Imperial Strategies
7607:Aztec Imperial Strategies
7397:. Native American Films.
7286:Martz & Lawrence 1998
6956:Berdan & Anawalt 1997
6872:. ABC-CLIO. p. 718.
6778:Himmerich y Valencia 1991
6667:Matthew & Oudijk 2007
6261:Berdan & Anawalt 1997
5031:Berdan & Anawalt 1997
4268:2020 United States census
4088:William Hickling Prescott
3717:
2575:how the earth was created
2477:Quetzalcoatl Tlamacazqueh
1748:The second class was the
1654:Aztec religious practices
349:, previously part of the
12471:Civilizations portal
11428:Cultural periods of Peru
10706:Lockhart, James (1993).
10269:University of Utah Press
9946:Acta Geoscientica Sinica
9778:(4th ed.). Austin:
9345:Rutgers University Press
9171:10.1215/00141801-2414190
8934:Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo
8918:. New Directions Books.
8816:Lockhart, James (1992).
8567:10.1086/jar.58.2.3631036
8470:Latin American Antiquity
8442:The Aztec Economic World
8275:Harner, Michael (1977).
8000:Carrasco, Pedro (1999).
7981:Carrasco, David (2012).
7950:Carrasco, David (2000).
7695:Berdan, Frances (2014).
6980:Galindo Leal et al. 2017
6754:MorfĂn & Storey 2016
6165:OrtĂz de Montellano 1990
6122:OrtĂz de Montellano 1983
5566:Berdan & Smith 1996a
5542:Berdan & Smith 1996b
4547:, pp. ix, 147:n#3).
4474:
3437:Landesmuseum WĂŒrttemberg
3296:, were painted by Aztec
3045:represented by a tooth (
3001:to signify the syllable
2325:. In the Puebla Valley,
1881:Aztec Empire: Government
1438:Motecuzoma I Ilhuicamina
1262:Juan VelĂĄzquez Tlacotzin
1233:Motecuzoma II Xocoyotzin
1201:Motecuzoma I Ilhuicamina
966:first twelve Franciscans
955:Bernal DĂaz del Castillo
609:, as well as remarkable
577:Bernal DĂaz del Castillo
39:latest accepted revision
12365:HernĂĄn PĂ©rez de Quesada
11211:Mesoamerican chronology
10811:Oxford University Press
9427:Oxford University Press
9303:American Anthropologist
8598:Keen, Benjamin (1971).
7925:Oxford University Press
7549:10.1023/a:1024519712257
6333:Sturman, Janet (2016).
5974:Miller & Taube 1993
5820:
4453:Mesoamerican chronology
4357:Necuepaliztli in Aztlan
4119:Language and placenames
3985:Mexican National palace
3638:again added in 1992 by
3622:. In 1865, (during the
3025:(moss) over a mountain
2952:Writing and iconography
2868:, (in the big square):
2547:Mythology and worldview
2350:
2285:Other major city-states
2266:Eduardo Matos Moctezuma
1852:
1763:
1759:
1742:
1603:
1522:
1478:
1474:
970:Fray Juan de Torquemada
11068:Archaeological periods
10884:10.1006/jaar.2000.0372
10556:; Tom Cubbins (eds.).
10295:SahagĂșn, Bernardino de
10243:SahagĂșn, Bernardino de
9961:. Cooper Square Press.
9952:(Supplement 1): 79â81.
9472:Quiñones Keber, Eloise
9419:Pilcher, J.M. (2017).
9239:Anales de AntropologĂa
9130:Mora, Carl J. (2005).
9043:McCaa, Robert (1997).
8973:The Aztec Templo Mayor
8312:Haskett, R.S. (1991).
8257:Greene, Doyle (2012).
6643:RodrĂguez-AlegrĂa 2017
6083:Elson & Smith 2001
5948:King, Authors: Heidi.
4599:Ăngel MarĂa Garibay K.
4165:List of Mexican dishes
4131:
4092:The Conquest of Mexico
4053:
3987:
3962:monument to Cuauhtemoc
3948:
3943:, inaugurated 1887 by
3941:Monument to Cuauhtémoc
3875:Maximilian of Habsburg
3839:
3810:Alexander von Humboldt
3802:Antonio de LeĂłn y Gama
3752:
3668:RepĂșblica de españoles
3664:RepĂșblica de españoles
3604:
3562:
3505:
3440:
3351:
3275:in tlilli, in tlapalli
3254:
3147:Juan Bautista de Pomar
3092:
3069:Music, song and poetry
3006:conquest events, etc.
2986:
2707:
2627:
2566:
2420:
2241:
2180:
2169:
2106:
2064:
2055:Trade and distribution
2000:
1952:
1876:
1828:
1793:
1724:
1710:
1696:
1621:
1595:Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin
1591:
1550:
1507:Isthmus of Tehuantepec
1447:
1097:Queen Chimalxochitl II
1032:Oto-Manguean languages
1018:
907:
856:Alexander von Humboldt
807:When used to describe
745:Nahuatl pronunciation:
732:Nahuatl pronunciation:
715:Nahuatl pronunciation:
674:Nahuatl pronunciation:
661:Nahuatl pronunciation:
648:
640:
548:, the Spanish founded
375:Alexander von Humboldt
87:
68:Aztec (disambiguation)
66:. For other uses, see
18:The Aztec civilization
12505:Mesoamerican cultures
12371:List of Conquistadors
12258:Kʌinich Janaabʌ Pakal
11669:Quebrada de Humahuaca
11088:Caddoan Mississippian
10745:LĂłpez Austin, Alfredo
10607:Hassig, Ross (1985).
10321:Eloise Quiñones Keber
10122:El calendario antiguo
9966:Zender, Marc (2008).
9402:Visualizing Guadalupe
9343:. New Brunswick, NJ:
8836:LĂłpez Austin, Alfredo
8783:LeĂłn-Portilla, Miguel
8732:LeĂłn-Portilla, Miguel
8720:Leon-Portilla, Miguel
8684:"A Nahuatl Syllabary"
8638:10.1353/tam.2001.0036
8398:Haugen, J.D. (2009).
8389:Hassig, Ross (2016).
7734:Boone, Elizabeth Hill
5866:Wade, Lizzie (2018).
5667:, pp. 18, 37â38.
4428:Indigenismo in Mexico
4361:exploitation B movies
4317:, but his publisher,
4126:
4076:Antiquities of Mexico
4063:Jean-Frédéric Waldeck
4035:
3982:
3939:
3923:Manuel Orozco y Berra
3910:JosĂ© Fernando RamĂrez
3871:Second Mexican Empire
3822:
3738:
3624:Second Mexican Empire
3595:
3555:
3496:
3487:Further information:
3465:feathers coming from
3435:in Nahuatl (c. 1520,
3430:
3412:Serpents in Aztec Art
3410:Further information:
3405:Stone of Motecuzoma I
3346:
3280:There are few extant
3248:
3229:), pots for cooking (
3122:in xochitl in cuicatl
3076:
3057:= deer) and a thorn (
2965:
2872:(night and fate) and
2838:Double-headed serpent
2753:essential amino acids
2702:
2621:
2564:Codex Fejérvåry-Mayer
2560:
2459:of the Mexica tribe;
2414:
2391:Mesoamerican ballgame
2236:
2175:
2167:
2098:
2062:
1998:
1943:
1874:
1818:
1787:
1716:
1702:
1690:
1616:
1574:
1548:
1445:
1063:) means "people from
1012:
987:Bernardino de SahagĂșn
937:of Amecameca-Chalco;
899:
877:History of the Aztecs
833:Uto-Aztecan languages
777:Aztec Triple Alliance
736:[teËnotÍĄÊkaÊ]
665:[asËteËkatÍĄÉŹ]
646:
624:
591:Bernardino de SahagĂșn
571:in Mexico City; from
534:Spanish conquistadors
78:
12338:Francisco de Montejo
12266:Jasaw Chan KÊŒawiil I
11379:Andean civilizations
11306:Shaft tomb tradition
10938:Aztecs at Mexicolore
10593:on 21 February 2007.
10564:. pp. 233â263.
10554:Elizabeth Hill Boone
10527:. pp. 326â347.
10425:Arthur J.O. Anderson
10416:Arthur J.O. Anderson
10382:Arthur J.O. Anderson
10373:Arthur J.O. Anderson
10313:Arthur J.O. Anderson
10257:Arthur J.O. Anderson
10114:Miguel LeĂłn-Portilla
10106:The Ancient Calendar
10062:. Penguin Classics.
9775:Aztec and Maya Myths
9695:Mogens Herman Hansen
9668:Blackwell Publishing
9639:. pp. 137â151.
9532:] (in Spanish).
9372:American Ethnologist
9148:Mundy, B.E. (2015).
8944:(trans.). New York:
8282:American Ethnologist
8045:. pp. 370â393.
7338:Macmillan Publishers
7103:CĂĄceres-Lorenzo 2015
6970:, pp. 176, 227.
6567:Matos Moctezuma 2017
5776:Matos Moctezuma 1988
5764:Matos Moctezuma 1987
5643:, pp. 184, 193.
4705:Current Anthropology
4409:Civilizations portal
4235:after a painting by
4104:Hubert Howe Bancroft
4046:Aztec Calendar Stone
3919:Antonio GarcĂa Cubas
3859:First Mexican Empire
3504:Spanish labor system
2889:Aztec calendar stone
2748:Codex Magliabechiano
2705:Codex Magliabechiano
2624:Aztec calendar stone
2445:rain and storm deity
1969:could feed 180,000.
1669:Nobles and commoners
882:Sources of knowledge
719:[meËËÊiÊkaÊ]
685:) mean "people from
607:religious traditions
367:Spanish colonial era
220:Fall of Tenochtitlan
12304:Manco Inca Yupanqui
11609:Manteño-Huancavilca
11078:Ancestral Puebloans
10543:Gillespie, Susan D.
10300:Primeros Memoriales
10035:Letters from Mexico
9899:2018JArSR..19..958V
9868:Thames & Hudson
9724:Scientific American
9436:Victoria R. Bricker
9429:. pp. 184â185.
9079:Thames & Hudson
8946:Thames & Hudson
8526:Ancient Mesoamerica
8429:Woman's Art Journal
8224:Gillespie, Susan D.
8119:Ancient Mesoamerica
7706:Ancient Mesoamerica
7264:, pp. 112â120.
7238:Cooper AlarcĂłn 1997
7192:Bureau, US Census.
7172:The Washington Post
7156:, pp. 184â185.
7142:Van Essendelft 2018
7031:Tenorio-Trillo 1996
6941:Quiñones Keber 1996
6919:, pp. 450â455.
6907:, pp. 260â270.
6856:, pp. 310â370.
6844:, pp. 121â135.
6780:, pp. 195â196.
6557:, pp. 152â153.
6438:, pp. 150â151.
6414:, pp. 292â299.
5884:2018Sci...360.1288W
5742:, pp. 196â200.
5631:, pp. 181â196.
5607:, pp. 171â179.
5556:, pp. 141â147.
5544:, pp. 209â216.
5469:, pp. 152â153.
5457:, pp. 153â154.
5409:, pp. 220â236.
5385:, pp. 101â110.
5343:, pp. 100â101.
5307:, pp. 404â407.
5256:, pp. 161â162.
5244:, pp. 158â159.
5045:, pp. 242â249.
4084:John Lloyd Stephens
3970:Paseo de la Reforma
3867:AgustĂn de Iturbide
3844:Virgin of Guadalupe
3745:prickly pear cactus
3660:RepĂșblica de indios
3423:Mexican featherwork
3282:Aztec-painted books
3029:spelling the word "
2916:Templo Mayor Museum
2799:Templo Mayor Museum
2758:Cannibals and Kings
2573:In another myth of
2178:Templo Mayor Museum
2160:Mexico-Tenochtitlan
2154:Mexico-Tenochtitlan
1485:Axayacatl and Tizoc
1278:Pablo Xochiquentzin
1133:Early Mexica rulers
1113:prickly pear cactus
951:Diego Muñoz Camargo
947:Juan Bautista Pomar
867:still more common.
864:William H. Prescott
678:[asËteËkaÊ]
573:Indigenous writings
382:post-classic period
313:post-classic period
29:Page version status
12427:Columbian exchange
12417:Portal:Mesoamerica
11569:La Tolita (Tumaco)
11384:Indigenous peoples
11123:Hopewell tradition
11050:Indigenous peoples
10693:on 19 January 2020
10560:. Washington, DC:
10305:Thelma D. Sullivan
10202:J. Richard Andrews
9635:. Washington, DC:
9448:. pp. 53â69.
8881:"Aztec Philosophy"
8583:Karttunen, Frances
7643:. Washington, DC:
7637:Berdan, Frances F.
7609:. Washington, DC:
7603:Berdan, Frances F.
7304:The New York Times
7288:, pp. iv, ix.
7223:has generic name (
6321:LeĂłn-Portilla 1992
6309:Montes de Oca 2013
5868:"Feeding the Gods"
5854:Leon-Portilla 1963
5838:Leon-Portilla 1963
5331:, pp. 99â100.
5074:LeĂłn-Portilla 2002
4906:LeĂłn-Portilla 2000
4829:Vocabulario.com.mx
4811:, pp. 193â197
4799:, pp. 176â182
4748:, pp. 174â175
4381:Mesoamerica portal
4340:The Other Conquest
4314:The Plumed Serpent
4274:In popular culture
4132:
4054:
3992:Mexican Revolution
3988:
3949:
3915:Francisco Pimentel
3902:Ignacio Altamirano
3840:
3772:, and writings of
3753:
3605:
3563:
3542:Population decline
3506:
3498:Codex Kingsborough
3451:, named after the
3441:
3381:Coyolxauhqui Stone
3352:
3306:Karl Anton Nowotny
3255:
3157:gender parallelism
3152:Cantares Mexicanos
3093:
2987:
2708:
2628:
2567:
2421:
2387:ceremonial warfare
2358:monistic pantheism
2242:
2181:
2170:
2107:
2065:
2001:
1953:
1877:
1829:
1794:
1725:
1711:
1697:
1622:
1592:
1589:Lienzo de Tlaxcala
1551:
1448:
1187:Independent rulers
1129:of Tenochtitlan.
1019:
943:Alva Ixtlilxochitl
908:
749:[ËkoËlwaÊ]
649:
641:
501:marriage alliances
94:Aztec civilization
88:
35:
12482:
12481:
12478:
12477:
12452:Pre-Columbian art
12388:
12387:
12382:Francisco Pizarro
12348:Pedro de Alvarado
11664:PucarĂĄ de Tilcara
10914:978-0-8061-1677-8
10854:978-0-8165-1182-2
10820:978-0-19-517611-7
10792:978-0-521-65204-9
10762:978-0-87081-445-7
10725:978-0-520-07875-8
10673:Kaufman, Terrence
10656:978-0-520-07734-8
10622:978-0-8061-1911-3
10571:978-0-88402-239-8
10534:978-0-292-70153-3
10512:978-0-521-35165-2
10493:978-0-13-091543-6
10486:. Prentice Hall.
10465:(1994 paperback).
10438:978-0-8061-2950-1
10395:978-0-8061-2921-1
10378:Quauhtlehuanitzin
10350:DurĂĄn, Fray Diego
10334:978-0-8061-2909-9
10317:Charles E. Dibble
10278:978-0-87480-082-1
10253:Charles E. Dibble
10223:978-0-8061-1832-1
10177:978-0-8061-2649-4
10135:978-0-8061-0889-6
10077:978-0-14-044123-9
9877:978-0-500-28791-0
9825:978-0-520-20267-2
9789:978-0-292-78130-6
9677:978-0-631-23015-1
9646:978-0-88402-211-4
9568:Smith, Michael E.
9514:978-0-19-934196-2
9455:978-0-292-77650-0
9411:978-0-292-73775-4
9354:978-0-8135-1562-5
9292:978-0-521-23475-7
9200:. Dumbarton Oaks.
9088:978-0-500-05068-2
8955:978-0-500-39024-5
8925:978-0-8112-1385-1
8868:978-0-8263-2958-5
8849:978-0-19-514255-6
8838:(2001). "Aztec".
8827:978-0-8047-1927-8
8800:978-0-8061-3364-5
8753:978-0-8061-2441-4
8613:978-0-8135-0698-2
8516:978-0-226-86506-5
8460:978-0-292-73108-0
8373:978-0-292-73139-4
8339:978-0-8061-2121-5
8241:978-0-8165-1095-5
8071:978-0-521-65204-9
8052:978-0-292-70153-3
8030:978-0-292-72597-3
8011:978-0-8061-3144-3
7992:978-0-1953-7938-9
7965:978-0-8070-4642-5
7934:978-0-19-509427-5
7872:. pp. 25â54.
7860:978-0-8263-5732-8
7785:978-0-521-39130-6
7751:978-0-292-70876-1
7687:978-0-520-20454-6
7654:978-0-88402-211-4
7620:978-0-88402-211-4
7586:978-0-03-055736-1
6792:, pp. 30â33.
6768:, pp. 75â95.
6500:978-1-57607-921-8
6383:Hodge et al. 1993
6323:, pp. 14â15.
6203:, pp. 66â69.
6061:, pp. 44â50.
6049:, pp. 33â37.
6037:, pp. 41â44.
6013:, pp. 31â33.
5836:, sec 2f, citing
5593:Noguera Auza 1974
5529:, pp. 90â91.
5517:, pp. 61â62.
5505:, pp. 14â47.
5431:Noguera Auza 1974
5358:The Yucatan Times
5295:, pp. 52â53.
5283:, pp. 51â53.
5271:, pp. 91â98.
5220:, pp. 78â81.
5208:, pp. 74â75.
5196:, pp. 64â74.
5172:, pp. 60â62.
5160:, pp. 44â45.
5124:, pp. 41â43.
5100:, pp. 25â28.
4672:LĂłpez Austin 2001
4630:. 4 November 2023
4628:mexicanroutes.com
4443:Maya civilization
4423:History of Mexico
4348:Salvador Carrasco
4344:La Otra Conquista
4145:Mexico City Metro
4071:Lord Kingsborough
3798:William Robertson
3632:Duke of Moctezuma
3613:Viceroy of Mexico
3602:viceroy of Mexico
3469:, Guatemala, and
2669:New Fire Ceremony
2099:A folio from the
1991:Crafts and trades
1774:Family and gender
1733:or nobility. The
1619:Leandro Izaguirre
1353:
1352:
1302:Esteban de GuzmĂĄn
1153:) of Tenochtitlan
1091:to the west. The
1087:to the south and
974:Monarquia Indiana
941:of Tenochtitlan;
634:European settlers
556:peoples into the
505:imperial ideology
398:) and commoners (
369:(1521â1821). The
365:, as well as the
257:
256:
47:16 September 2024
26:
16:(Redirected from
12532:
12525:Valley of Mexico
12469:
12468:
12467:
12391:
12390:
12377:Spanish Conquest
12354:Spanish Conquest
12329:Spanish Conquest
12318:Spanish Conquest
11760:
11759:
11009:
11002:
10995:
10986:
10985:
10926:
10906:
10895:
10866:
10837:Schroeder, Susan
10832:
10801:Restall, Matthew
10796:
10774:
10740:
10737:
10702:
10700:
10698:
10692:
10681:
10668:
10634:
10603:
10594:
10592:
10582:. Archived from
10551:
10538:
10521:Cline, Howard F.
10516:
10497:
10450:
10407:
10346:
10290:
10238:
10235:
10189:
10147:
10116:(translation of
10089:
9999:
9997:
9995:
9989:
9976:The PARI Journal
9972:
9962:
9953:
9940:
9931:
9918:
9881:
9858:
9829:
9810:
9801:
9765:
9753:
9742:
9740:
9738:
9732:
9721:
9711:
9702:
9689:
9658:
9627:
9625:
9623:
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9576:
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9541:
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9491:
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9430:
9415:
9396:
9387:
9366:
9335:
9296:
9277:
9268:
9262:
9254:
9222:
9213:(5): 1â3, 5â28.
9201:
9192:
9183:
9174:
9153:
9144:
9135:
9126:
9117:
9100:
9060:
9058:
9056:
9039:
9002:
8993:
8976:
8967:
8929:
8908:
8906:
8904:
8872:
8853:
8831:
8812:
8778:
8765:
8740:Norman, Oklahoma
8727:
8715:
8713:
8711:
8705:
8692:The PARI Journal
8688:
8678:
8649:
8617:
8605:
8594:
8578:
8549:
8520:
8501:
8464:
8445:
8436:
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8421:
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8394:
8385:
8351:
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8308:
8298:
8271:
8262:
8253:
8219:
8217:
8203:
8194:
8181:
8152:
8134:
8113:
8084:
8075:
8056:
8039:Cline, Howard F.
8034:
8015:
7996:
7977:
7946:
7912:
7902:
7873:
7864:
7845:
7843:
7818:
7789:
7763:
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7691:
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7463:
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7391:
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7380:
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7354:
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7326:
7320:
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7317:
7315:
7295:
7289:
7283:
7277:
7271:
7265:
7259:
7253:
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7229:
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7222:
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7208:
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7163:
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7127:
7118:
7112:
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7094:
7088:
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7058:
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7004:
6998:
6992:
6983:
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6805:
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6775:
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6757:
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6727:
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6715:
6706:
6700:
6694:
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6676:
6670:
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6658:
6652:
6646:
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6634:
6624:
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6612:
6606:
6600:
6594:
6588:
6582:
6576:
6570:
6564:
6558:
6552:
6541:
6535:
6529:
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6517:
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6514:
6512:
6484:
6475:
6469:
6463:
6457:
6451:
6445:
6439:
6433:
6427:
6421:
6415:
6409:
6403:
6397:
6386:
6380:
6374:
6373:
6355:
6349:
6348:
6330:
6324:
6318:
6312:
6306:
6300:
6294:
6288:
6282:
6276:
6270:
6264:
6258:
6252:
6246:
6240:
6234:
6228:
6222:
6216:
6210:
6204:
6198:
6192:
6186:
6180:
6174:
6168:
6162:
6156:
6150:
6144:
6143:
6131:
6125:
6119:
6110:
6104:
6098:
6092:
6086:
6080:
6074:
6073:, pp. 7â19.
6068:
6062:
6056:
6050:
6044:
6038:
6032:
6026:
6020:
6014:
6008:
6002:
6001:
5999:
5997:
5983:
5977:
5971:
5965:
5964:
5962:
5960:
5945:
5939:
5933:
5927:
5926:
5924:
5922:
5863:
5857:
5847:
5841:
5831:
5825:
5823:
5813:
5807:
5797:
5791:
5785:
5779:
5773:
5767:
5761:
5755:
5752:LĂłpez LujĂĄn 2005
5749:
5743:
5737:
5731:
5725:
5719:
5713:
5704:
5698:
5692:
5686:
5680:
5674:
5668:
5662:
5656:
5650:
5644:
5638:
5632:
5626:
5620:
5614:
5608:
5602:
5596:
5590:
5581:
5575:
5569:
5563:
5557:
5551:
5545:
5539:
5530:
5524:
5518:
5512:
5506:
5500:
5494:
5488:
5482:
5476:
5470:
5464:
5458:
5452:
5446:
5440:
5434:
5428:
5422:
5416:
5410:
5404:
5398:
5392:
5386:
5380:
5374:
5373:
5371:
5369:
5360:. 21 July 2017.
5350:
5344:
5338:
5332:
5326:
5320:
5314:
5308:
5302:
5296:
5290:
5284:
5278:
5272:
5266:
5257:
5251:
5245:
5239:
5233:
5227:
5221:
5215:
5209:
5203:
5197:
5191:
5185:
5179:
5173:
5167:
5161:
5155:
5149:
5143:
5137:
5131:
5125:
5119:
5113:
5107:
5101:
5095:
5089:
5083:
5077:
5071:
5065:
5059:
5046:
5040:
5034:
5028:
5019:
5013:
5007:
5001:
4995:
4989:
4983:
4977:
4971:
4965:
4959:
4953:
4947:
4942:
4936:
4930:
4921:
4915:
4909:
4903:
4894:
4888:
4879:
4876:Chimalpahin 1997
4873:
4867:
4866:
4851:
4845:
4844:
4842:
4840:
4821:
4812:
4806:
4800:
4794:
4788:
4787:
4755:
4749:
4743:
4737:
4736:
4702:
4693:
4687:
4681:
4675:
4669:
4663:
4658:
4652:
4646:
4640:
4639:
4637:
4635:
4620:
4602:
4595:
4589:
4583:
4577:
4566:
4560:
4554:
4548:
4540:
4534:
4527:
4521:
4515:
4509:
4503:
4491:
4485:
4411:
4406:
4405:
4404:
4397:
4392:
4391:
4390:
4383:
4378:
4377:
4376:
4353:Retorno a AztlĂĄn
4248:
4225:
4151:and Cuauhtemoc.
4136:Nahuatl language
4002:Mexican muralism
3904:, a disciple of
3644:Isabel Moctezuma
3630:, thus becoming
3620:Grandee of Spain
3572:fall of the city
3559:Florentine Codex
3369:Coatlicue statue
3286:Codex Borbonicus
3203:
3191:
3179:
3135:of Texcoco, and
2943:
2927:
2908:
2885:
2866:Codex Borbonicus
2861:
2834:
2814:
2794:
2365:
2364:
2355:
2258:human sacrifices
2237:Great Temple in
2229:The Great Temple
1950:Florentine Codex
1860:Michael E. Smith
1601:
1556:
1492:
1457:
1377:
1369:
1345:
1338:
1331:
1144:
1137:
1136:
1015:Valley of Mexico
983:Florentine Codex
949:of Texcoco, and
900:A page from the
781:Robert H. Barlow
751:
746:
738:
733:
721:
716:
680:
675:
668:, singular) and
667:
662:
581:Florentine Codex
449:Valley of Mexico
422:calendric system
321:Nahuatl language
299:
294:
293:
290:
289:
286:
283:
280:
277:
274:
271:
249:
242:
235:
120:Nahuatl language
104:
90:
89:
21:
12540:
12539:
12535:
12534:
12533:
12531:
12530:
12529:
12485:
12484:
12483:
12474:
12465:
12463:
12456:
12398:
12389:
12379:
12368:
12362:
12356:
12345:
12341:
12335:
12331:
12320:
12306:
12302:
12298:
12294:
12285:
12281:
12277:
12275:Quemuenchatocha
12273:
12264:
12260:
12251:
12247:
12243:
12204:
12073:
11982:
11956:
11945:
11892:Human Sacrifice
11889:
11881:Human Sacrifice
11878:
11852:
11825:Mayan Languages
11753:
11365:
11197:
11054:
11035:Genetic history
11018:
11013:
10934:
10929:
10915:
10855:
10821:
10793:
10763:
10738:
10726:
10712:Lockhart, James
10696:
10694:
10690:
10679:
10657:
10623:
10586:
10572:
10549:
10535:
10513:
10494:
10474:
10472:Further reading
10469:
10468:
10439:
10396:
10335:
10279:
10251:. vols. IâXII.
10236:
10224:
10178:
10136:
10078:
10007:
10002:
9993:
9991:
9987:
9970:
9878:
9847:10.2307/3519831
9826:
9790:
9762:
9736:
9734:
9730:
9719:
9678:
9647:
9621:
9619:
9615:
9574:
9539:
9537:
9515:
9456:
9412:
9355:
9293:
9256:
9255:
9089:
9054:
9052:
8956:
8926:
8902:
8900:
8869:
8850:
8828:
8801:
8754:
8709:
8707:
8703:
8686:
8667:10.2307/2506768
8614:
8517:
8461:
8417:
8415:
8374:
8340:
8242:
8208:Gibson, Charles
8132:10.1.1.723.2681
8072:
8053:
8031:
8012:
7993:
7966:
7935:
7861:
7786:
7752:
7688:
7655:
7621:
7587:
7565:Berdan, Frances
7525:
7523:
7454:. Vol. 1.
7445:
7440:
7439:
7438:
7430:
7426:
7418:
7414:
7404:
7402:
7393:
7392:
7388:
7378:
7376:
7361:
7357:
7347:
7345:
7328:
7327:
7323:
7313:
7311:
7296:
7292:
7284:
7280:
7272:
7268:
7260:
7256:
7248:
7244:
7236:
7232:
7220:
7219:
7210:
7209:
7202:
7200:
7190:
7186:
7176:
7174:
7164:
7160:
7152:
7148:
7140:
7136:
7128:
7121:
7113:
7109:
7101:
7097:
7089:
7085:
7077:
7073:
7065:
7061:
7053:
7049:
7041:
7037:
7029:
7025:
7017:
7013:
7005:
7001:
6993:
6986:
6978:
6974:
6966:
6962:
6954:
6947:
6939:
6935:
6927:
6923:
6915:
6911:
6903:
6899:
6889:
6887:
6880:
6864:
6860:
6852:
6848:
6840:
6836:
6824:
6820:
6812:
6808:
6800:
6796:
6788:
6784:
6776:
6772:
6764:
6760:
6752:
6748:
6740:
6736:
6728:
6724:
6716:
6709:
6701:
6697:
6689:
6685:
6677:
6673:
6665:
6661:
6653:
6649:
6641:
6637:
6625:
6621:
6613:
6609:
6601:
6597:
6589:
6585:
6577:
6573:
6565:
6561:
6553:
6544:
6536:
6532:
6524:
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6510:
6508:
6501:
6485:
6478:
6470:
6466:
6458:
6454:
6446:
6442:
6434:
6430:
6422:
6418:
6410:
6406:
6398:
6389:
6381:
6377:
6370:
6356:
6352:
6345:
6331:
6327:
6319:
6315:
6307:
6303:
6295:
6291:
6283:
6279:
6271:
6267:
6259:
6255:
6247:
6243:
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5049:
5041:
5037:
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5014:
5010:
5002:
4998:
4990:
4986:
4982:, pp. 9â21
4978:
4974:
4966:
4962:
4954:
4950:
4943:
4939:
4931:
4924:
4916:
4912:
4904:
4897:
4889:
4882:
4874:
4870:
4853:
4852:
4848:
4838:
4836:
4825:"NĂĄhuatl: AR-Z"
4823:
4822:
4815:
4807:
4803:
4795:
4791:
4756:
4752:
4744:
4740:
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4528:
4524:
4516:
4512:
4504:
4500:
4495:
4494:
4486:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4418:Atamalqualiztli
4407:
4402:
4400:
4393:
4388:
4386:
4379:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4319:Alfred A. Knopf
4276:
4264:
4262:Ethnic identity
4257:
4249:
4240:
4229:Las Tortilleras
4226:
4170:Mexican cuisine
4167:
4157:
4128:Metro Moctezuma
4121:
4040:in 1910 at the
4030:
4017:Agustin Fuentes
3974:Alfredo Chavero
3906:Ignacio RamĂrez
3836:atl-tlachinolli
3733:
3720:
3609:Pedro Moctezuma
3590:
3584:
3550:
3544:
3491:
3485:
3479:
3425:
3419:
3414:
3341:
3264:Trema micrantha
3243:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3207:
3204:
3196:
3195:
3192:
3184:
3183:
3180:
3169:
3161:Macuilxochitzin
3089:State of Mexico
3071:
2960:
2954:
2947:
2944:
2935:
2934:(New York City)
2928:
2919:
2909:
2900:
2886:
2877:
2864:Page 12 of the
2862:
2853:
2846:Cedrela odorata
2835:
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2815:
2806:
2795:
2771:
2697:
2689:Main articles:
2687:
2616:
2610:
2555:
2553:Aztec mythology
2549:
2449:Huitzilopochtli
2429:Huitzilopochtli
2409:
2403:
2395:human sacrifice
2346:
2340:
2287:
2268:, in his essay
2254:Huitzilopochtli
2252:, the other to
2231:
2162:
2156:
2139:
2093:
2057:
2037:precious stones
1993:
1988:
1944:Cultivation of
1938:
1933:
1883:
1869:
1813:
1788:Folio from the
1782:
1776:
1703:Folio from the
1685:
1673:Main articles:
1671:
1666:
1575:The meeting of
1569:
1563:
1543:
1487:
1440:
1435:
1429:
1349:
1135:
1081:Huitzilopochtli
1057:
1007:
894:
884:
879:
873:
860:Triple Alliance
744:
731:
714:
696:Huitzilopochtli
673:
660:
619:
583:created by the
527:Atlantic oceans
497:Basin of Mexico
455:on unpromising
438:Huitzilopochtli
297:
268:
264:
253:
224:
164:
150:Human sacrifice
83:in 1519 within
71:
60:
55:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
34:
22:
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12255:
12238:
12237:Notable Rulers
12234:
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12206:Neo-Inca State
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10989:
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10966:
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10956:
10950:
10941:
10933:
10932:External links
10930:
10928:
10927:
10913:
10896:
10878:(3): 245â284.
10867:
10853:
10833:
10819:
10797:
10791:
10779:MacLeod, Murdo
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10333:
10309:H.B. Nicholson
10291:
10277:
10239:
10222:
10190:
10176:
10148:
10134:
10112:. Foreword by
10090:
10076:
10050:
10039:Anthony Pagden
10031:Cortés, Hernan
10028:
10014:The Essential
10009:
10008:
10006:
10003:
10001:
10000:
9963:
9954:
9941:
9932:
9919:
9882:
9876:
9859:
9841:(3): 343â379.
9830:
9824:
9811:
9802:
9788:
9770:Taube, Karl A.
9766:
9760:
9743:
9712:
9703:
9690:
9676:
9659:
9645:
9628:
9593:10.2307/482619
9587:(3): 153â186.
9564:
9555:
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9492:
9482:(2): 277â297.
9468:
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9378:(4): 756â785.
9367:
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9310:(2): 403â406.
9297:
9291:
9278:
9269:
9230:
9223:
9202:
9193:
9184:
9175:
9165:(2): 329â355.
9154:
9145:
9143:. p. 189.
9136:
9127:
9118:
9101:
9087:
9061:
9040:
9020:10.2307/205693
9014:(3): 397â431.
9003:
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8679:
8661:(4): 606â643.
8650:
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8618:
8612:
8595:
8579:
8561:(2): 203â224.
8550:
8521:
8515:
8502:
8482:10.2307/971799
8476:(2): 130â157.
8465:
8459:
8446:
8437:
8424:
8395:
8386:
8372:
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8318:
8309:
8289:(1): 117â135.
8272:
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8254:
8240:
8220:
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8182:
8164:(2): 205â219.
8153:
8125:(2): 157â174.
8114:
8085:
8076:
8070:
8057:
8051:
8035:
8029:
8016:
8010:
7997:
7991:
7978:
7964:
7954:. Boston, MA:
7947:
7933:
7917:Campbell, Lyle
7913:
7874:
7865:
7859:
7846:
7834:(1): 145â152.
7819:
7807:10.2307/414607
7801:(3): 437â452.
7790:
7784:
7764:
7750:
7730:
7712:(1): 209â219.
7701:
7692:
7686:
7667:
7653:
7633:
7619:
7599:
7585:
7561:
7543:(2): 111â164.
7532:
7512:
7501:
7481:10.2307/978159
7475:(3): 345â349.
7464:
7446:
7444:
7441:
7437:
7436:
7424:
7422:, p. 212.
7412:
7386:
7355:
7321:
7290:
7278:
7266:
7254:
7242:
7230:
7184:
7158:
7146:
7134:
7119:
7107:
7095:
7093:, p. 363.
7083:
7081:, p. 336.
7071:
7059:
7057:, p. 147.
7047:
7035:
7023:
7021:, p. 417.
7011:
6999:
6984:
6972:
6960:
6945:
6933:
6921:
6909:
6897:
6878:
6858:
6846:
6834:
6818:
6806:
6794:
6782:
6770:
6758:
6756:, p. 189.
6746:
6734:
6722:
6707:
6695:
6683:
6671:
6659:
6647:
6635:
6619:
6607:
6603:Soustelle 1970
6595:
6593:, p. 278.
6583:
6579:Nicholson 1981
6571:
6559:
6542:
6538:Nicholson 1971
6530:
6518:
6499:
6476:
6464:
6452:
6440:
6428:
6426:, p. 292.
6416:
6404:
6387:
6375:
6368:
6350:
6343:
6325:
6313:
6311:, p. 160.
6301:
6289:
6277:
6273:Tomlinson 1995
6265:
6263:, p. 116.
6253:
6249:Whittaker 2009
6241:
6229:
6217:
6205:
6201:Soustelle 1970
6193:
6181:
6169:
6157:
6145:
6126:
6111:
6099:
6087:
6075:
6063:
6051:
6039:
6027:
6025:, p. 745.
6015:
6003:
5978:
5976:, p. 172.
5966:
5940:
5928:
5858:
5842:
5826:
5808:
5792:
5780:
5768:
5756:
5744:
5732:
5730:, p. 152.
5720:
5705:
5693:
5691:, p. 126.
5681:
5669:
5657:
5645:
5633:
5621:
5609:
5597:
5582:
5570:
5558:
5546:
5531:
5519:
5507:
5495:
5483:
5471:
5459:
5447:
5435:
5423:
5421:, p. 154.
5411:
5399:
5397:, p. 110.
5387:
5375:
5345:
5333:
5321:
5309:
5297:
5285:
5273:
5258:
5246:
5234:
5222:
5210:
5198:
5186:
5174:
5162:
5150:
5148:, p. 173.
5138:
5126:
5114:
5102:
5090:
5078:
5066:
5047:
5035:
5020:
5018:, p. 134.
5008:
4996:
4984:
4972:
4960:
4948:
4937:
4922:
4910:
4895:
4880:
4868:
4846:
4813:
4801:
4789:
4750:
4738:
4717:10.1086/700916
4711:(6): 741â764.
4688:
4686:, pp. 4â7
4676:
4664:
4653:
4641:
4614:
4613:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4604:
4603:
4590:
4585:singular form
4578:
4561:
4557:Gillespie 1989
4549:
4535:
4522:
4510:
4497:
4496:
4493:
4492:
4479:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4414:
4413:
4412:
4398:
4384:
4368:
4365:
4307:gave the name
4300:Quetzalcoatlus
4275:
4272:
4263:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4250:
4243:
4241:
4227:
4220:
4156:
4153:
4120:
4117:
4029:
4026:
3968:) of the wide
3947:in Mexico City
3824:Motecuhzoma II
3766:Aztec writings
3732:
3729:
3719:
3716:
3583:
3580:
3546:Main article:
3543:
3540:
3481:Main article:
3478:
3475:
3433:xicalcoliuhqui
3421:Main article:
3418:
3415:
3401:Stone of Tizoc
3340:
3337:
3242:
3239:
3205:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3186:
3185:
3181:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3171:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3129:Nezahualcoyotl
3070:
3067:
2981:is synonym of
2956:Main article:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2945:
2938:
2936:
2929:
2922:
2920:
2910:
2903:
2901:
2887:
2880:
2878:
2863:
2856:
2854:
2836:
2829:
2827:
2823:British Museum
2816:
2809:
2807:
2796:
2789:
2770:
2767:
2686:
2683:
2614:Aztec calendar
2612:Main article:
2609:
2606:
2551:Main article:
2548:
2545:
2519:(a fire god);
2505:Chalchiutlicue
2501:Mictlancihuatl
2497:Mictlantecutli
2489:Tonacatecuhtli
2457:tutelary deity
2405:Main article:
2402:
2399:
2379:Aztec calendar
2344:Aztec religion
2342:Main article:
2339:
2336:
2286:
2283:
2230:
2227:
2158:Main article:
2155:
2152:
2147:classic period
2138:
2135:
2092:
2089:
2056:
2053:
1992:
1989:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1868:
1865:
1812:
1803:
1778:Main article:
1775:
1772:
1718:Jaguar warrior
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1565:Main article:
1562:
1559:
1542:
1539:
1531:Stone of Tizoc
1515:Tarascan state
1486:
1483:
1439:
1436:
1431:Main article:
1428:
1425:
1398:Nezahualcoyotl
1364:Huitzilihhuitl
1351:
1350:
1348:
1347:
1340:
1333:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1314:
1313:
1306:
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1176:
1175:
1172:Huitzilihhuitl
1168:
1167:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1154:
1146:
1145:
1134:
1131:
1056:
1053:
1006:
1003:
903:Codex Boturini
883:
880:
875:Main article:
872:
869:
817:Charles Gibson
785:ancient Mexico
700:tutelary deity
618:
615:
565:archaeological
558:Spanish Empire
255:
254:
252:
251:
244:
237:
229:
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106:
105:
97:
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58:
36:
30:
27:
25:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12537:
12526:
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12366:
12360:
12355:
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12330:
12327:
12324:
12323:Hernån Cortés
12319:
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11997:
11994:
11992:
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11808:
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11607:
11605:
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11600:
11597:
11595:
11592:
11590:
11587:
11585:
11582:
11580:
11577:
11575:
11572:
11570:
11567:
11565:
11562:
11560:
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11550:
11547:
11545:
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11540:
11537:
11535:
11532:
11530:
11527:
11525:
11522:
11520:
11517:
11515:
11512:
11510:
11507:
11505:
11502:
11500:
11497:
11495:
11492:
11490:
11487:
11485:
11481:
11478:
11476:
11473:
11471:
11468:
11466:
11463:
11461:
11458:
11456:
11453:
11451:
11448:
11446:
11443:
11441:
11438:
11434:
11431:
11430:
11429:
11426:
11424:
11421:
11417:
11414:
11413:
11412:
11409:
11405:
11402:
11401:
11400:
11397:
11395:
11392:
11390:
11387:
11385:
11382:
11380:
11377:
11376:
11374:
11372:
11371:South America
11368:
11362:
11359:
11357:
11354:
11352:
11349:
11347:
11344:
11342:
11339:
11337:
11334:
11332:
11329:
11327:
11324:
11322:
11319:
11317:
11314:
11312:
11309:
11307:
11304:
11302:
11299:
11297:
11294:
11292:
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11284:
11282:
11279:
11277:
11274:
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11269:
11267:
11264:
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11254:
11252:
11249:
11247:
11244:
11242:
11239:
11237:
11234:
11232:
11229:
11227:
11224:
11222:
11219:
11217:
11214:
11212:
11209:
11208:
11206:
11204:
11200:
11194:
11193:Weeden Island
11191:
11189:
11186:
11184:
11181:
11179:
11176:
11174:
11171:
11169:
11168:Poverty Point
11166:
11164:
11161:
11159:
11156:
11154:
11151:
11149:
11146:
11144:
11141:
11139:
11136:
11134:
11133:Mississippian
11131:
11129:
11126:
11124:
11121:
11119:
11116:
11114:
11111:
11109:
11106:
11104:
11101:
11099:
11096:
11094:
11091:
11089:
11086:
11084:
11081:
11079:
11076:
11074:
11071:
11069:
11066:
11065:
11063:
11061:
11060:North America
11057:
11051:
11048:
11046:
11043:
11041:
11038:
11036:
11033:
11031:
11030:Paleo-Indians
11028:
11027:
11025:
11021:
11017:
11010:
11005:
11003:
10998:
10996:
10991:
10990:
10987:
10980:
10979:
10974:
10970:
10967:
10965:
10962:
10960:
10957:
10954:
10951:
10949:
10945:
10942:
10939:
10936:
10935:
10924:
10920:
10916:
10910:
10905:
10904:
10897:
10893:
10889:
10885:
10881:
10877:
10873:
10868:
10864:
10860:
10856:
10850:
10846:
10842:
10838:
10834:
10830:
10826:
10822:
10816:
10812:
10808:
10807:
10802:
10798:
10794:
10788:
10784:
10780:
10776:
10772:
10768:
10764:
10758:
10754:
10750:
10746:
10742:
10735:
10731:
10727:
10721:
10717:
10713:
10709:
10704:
10689:
10685:
10678:
10674:
10670:
10666:
10662:
10658:
10652:
10648:
10644:
10640:
10636:
10632:
10628:
10624:
10618:
10614:
10610:
10605:
10601:
10596:
10590:
10585:
10581:
10577:
10573:
10567:
10563:
10559:
10555:
10548:
10544:
10540:
10536:
10530:
10526:
10522:
10518:
10514:
10508:
10504:
10499:
10495:
10489:
10485:
10481:
10477:
10476:
10464:
10463:0-8061-2679-5
10460:
10456:
10452:
10448:
10444:
10440:
10434:
10430:
10426:
10422:
10417:
10413:
10409:
10405:
10401:
10397:
10391:
10387:
10383:
10379:
10374:
10370:
10366:
10363:
10362:0-8061-2649-3
10359:
10355:
10351:
10348:
10344:
10340:
10336:
10330:
10326:
10322:
10318:
10314:
10310:
10306:
10302:
10301:
10296:
10292:
10288:
10284:
10280:
10274:
10270:
10266:
10262:
10258:
10254:
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10249:
10244:
10240:
10233:
10229:
10225:
10219:
10215:
10211:
10207:
10203:
10199:
10195:
10191:
10187:
10183:
10179:
10173:
10169:
10165:
10161:
10157:
10153:
10149:
10145:
10141:
10137:
10131:
10127:
10123:
10119:
10115:
10111:
10107:
10103:
10099:
10095:
10091:
10087:
10083:
10079:
10073:
10069:
10068:Penguin Books
10065:
10061:
10060:
10055:
10051:
10048:
10047:0-300-03724-4
10044:
10040:
10036:
10032:
10029:
10026:
10025:0-520-20454-9
10022:
10018:
10017:
10016:Codex Mendoza
10011:
10010:
9986:
9982:
9978:
9977:
9969:
9964:
9960:
9955:
9951:
9947:
9942:
9938:
9933:
9929:
9925:
9920:
9916:
9912:
9908:
9904:
9900:
9896:
9892:
9888:
9883:
9879:
9873:
9869:
9865:
9860:
9856:
9852:
9848:
9844:
9840:
9836:
9831:
9827:
9821:
9817:
9812:
9808:
9803:
9799:
9795:
9791:
9785:
9781:
9777:
9776:
9771:
9767:
9763:
9761:9780804707213
9757:
9752:
9751:
9744:
9729:
9725:
9718:
9713:
9709:
9704:
9700:
9696:
9691:
9687:
9683:
9679:
9673:
9669:
9665:
9660:
9656:
9652:
9648:
9642:
9638:
9634:
9629:
9614:
9610:
9606:
9602:
9598:
9594:
9590:
9586:
9582:
9581:
9573:
9569:
9565:
9561:
9556:
9552:
9547:
9535:
9531:
9527:
9526:
9520:
9516:
9510:
9506:
9502:
9498:
9493:
9489:
9485:
9481:
9477:
9473:
9469:
9465:
9461:
9457:
9451:
9447:
9443:
9442:
9437:
9432:
9428:
9424:
9423:
9417:
9413:
9407:
9403:
9398:
9394:
9389:
9385:
9381:
9377:
9373:
9368:
9364:
9360:
9356:
9350:
9346:
9342:
9337:
9333:
9329:
9325:
9321:
9317:
9313:
9309:
9305:
9304:
9298:
9294:
9288:
9284:
9279:
9275:
9270:
9266:
9260:
9252:
9248:
9244:
9240:
9236:
9231:
9228:
9224:
9220:
9216:
9212:
9208:
9203:
9199:
9194:
9190:
9185:
9181:
9176:
9172:
9168:
9164:
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9155:
9151:
9146:
9142:
9137:
9133:
9128:
9124:
9119:
9115:
9111:
9107:
9102:
9098:
9094:
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9084:
9080:
9076:
9075:
9070:
9066:
9062:
9050:
9046:
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9037:
9033:
9029:
9025:
9021:
9017:
9013:
9009:
9004:
9000:
8995:
8991:
8987:
8983:
8978:
8974:
8969:
8965:
8961:
8957:
8951:
8947:
8943:
8939:
8935:
8931:
8927:
8921:
8917:
8916:
8910:
8898:
8894:
8890:
8886:
8882:
8878:
8877:Maffie, James
8874:
8870:
8864:
8860:
8855:
8851:
8845:
8841:
8837:
8833:
8829:
8823:
8819:
8814:
8810:
8806:
8802:
8796:
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8788:
8784:
8780:
8776:
8772:
8767:
8763:
8759:
8755:
8749:
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8721:
8717:
8702:
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8694:
8693:
8685:
8680:
8676:
8672:
8668:
8664:
8660:
8656:
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8647:
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8639:
8635:
8631:
8627:
8623:
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8615:
8609:
8604:
8603:
8596:
8592:
8588:
8584:
8580:
8576:
8572:
8568:
8564:
8560:
8556:
8551:
8547:
8543:
8539:
8535:
8531:
8527:
8522:
8518:
8512:
8508:
8503:
8499:
8495:
8491:
8487:
8483:
8479:
8475:
8471:
8466:
8462:
8456:
8452:
8447:
8443:
8438:
8434:
8430:
8425:
8413:
8409:
8405:
8401:
8396:
8392:
8387:
8383:
8379:
8375:
8369:
8365:
8361:
8357:
8353:
8349:
8345:
8341:
8335:
8331:
8327:
8323:
8319:
8315:
8310:
8306:
8302:
8297:
8292:
8288:
8284:
8283:
8278:
8273:
8269:
8264:
8260:
8255:
8251:
8247:
8243:
8237:
8233:
8229:
8225:
8221:
8216:
8215:
8209:
8205:
8201:
8196:
8192:
8188:
8183:
8179:
8175:
8171:
8167:
8163:
8159:
8154:
8150:
8146:
8142:
8138:
8133:
8128:
8124:
8120:
8115:
8111:
8107:
8103:
8099:
8096:(1): 82â106.
8095:
8091:
8086:
8082:
8077:
8073:
8067:
8063:
8058:
8054:
8048:
8044:
8040:
8036:
8032:
8026:
8022:
8017:
8013:
8007:
8003:
7998:
7994:
7988:
7984:
7979:
7975:
7971:
7967:
7961:
7957:
7953:
7948:
7944:
7940:
7936:
7930:
7926:
7922:
7918:
7914:
7910:
7906:
7901:
7896:
7892:
7888:
7884:
7880:
7875:
7871:
7866:
7862:
7856:
7852:
7847:
7842:
7837:
7833:
7829:
7825:
7820:
7816:
7812:
7808:
7804:
7800:
7796:
7791:
7787:
7781:
7777:
7774:. Cambridge:
7773:
7769:
7768:Brading, D.A.
7765:
7761:
7757:
7753:
7747:
7743:
7739:
7735:
7731:
7727:
7723:
7719:
7715:
7711:
7707:
7702:
7698:
7693:
7689:
7683:
7679:
7675:
7674:
7668:
7664:
7660:
7656:
7650:
7646:
7642:
7638:
7634:
7630:
7626:
7622:
7616:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7600:
7596:
7592:
7588:
7582:
7578:
7573:
7572:
7566:
7562:
7558:
7554:
7550:
7546:
7542:
7538:
7533:
7522:
7518:
7513:
7509:
7508:
7502:
7498:
7494:
7490:
7486:
7482:
7478:
7474:
7470:
7465:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7448:
7447:
7433:
7428:
7421:
7416:
7400:
7396:
7390:
7374:
7370:
7366:
7359:
7343:
7339:
7335:
7333:
7325:
7309:
7305:
7301:
7294:
7287:
7282:
7275:
7270:
7263:
7262:Carrasco 2012
7258:
7251:
7246:
7239:
7234:
7226:
7214:
7199:
7195:
7188:
7173:
7169:
7162:
7155:
7150:
7143:
7138:
7131:
7126:
7124:
7116:
7111:
7104:
7099:
7092:
7087:
7080:
7075:
7068:
7063:
7056:
7051:
7044:
7039:
7032:
7027:
7020:
7015:
7008:
7003:
6996:
6991:
6989:
6981:
6976:
6969:
6968:Peterson 2014
6964:
6957:
6952:
6950:
6942:
6937:
6930:
6929:Humboldt 2014
6925:
6918:
6913:
6906:
6901:
6885:
6881:
6879:9780313344978
6875:
6871:
6870:
6862:
6855:
6850:
6843:
6842:Carrasco 2012
6838:
6831:
6827:
6822:
6815:
6810:
6803:
6802:Ouweneel 1995
6798:
6791:
6790:Lockhart 1992
6786:
6779:
6774:
6767:
6762:
6755:
6750:
6743:
6742:Whitmore 1992
6738:
6731:
6726:
6719:
6714:
6712:
6704:
6699:
6692:
6687:
6680:
6679:Lockhart 1992
6675:
6668:
6663:
6656:
6651:
6644:
6639:
6632:
6628:
6623:
6616:
6611:
6605:, p. 67.
6604:
6599:
6592:
6591:Pasztory 1983
6587:
6580:
6575:
6568:
6563:
6556:
6551:
6549:
6547:
6539:
6534:
6527:
6522:
6506:
6502:
6496:
6492:
6491:
6483:
6481:
6473:
6468:
6461:
6456:
6449:
6444:
6437:
6432:
6425:
6424:Pasztory 1983
6420:
6413:
6412:Pasztory 1983
6408:
6401:
6396:
6394:
6392:
6384:
6379:
6371:
6369:9780806124414
6365:
6361:
6354:
6346:
6344:9781138843080
6340:
6336:
6329:
6322:
6317:
6310:
6305:
6298:
6293:
6286:
6281:
6274:
6269:
6262:
6257:
6250:
6245:
6238:
6233:
6226:
6225:Lacadena 2008
6221:
6214:
6209:
6202:
6197:
6190:
6185:
6178:
6177:Carrasco 2000
6173:
6166:
6161:
6154:
6149:
6142:(3): 276â283.
6141:
6137:
6130:
6123:
6118:
6116:
6108:
6103:
6096:
6091:
6084:
6079:
6072:
6067:
6060:
6055:
6048:
6043:
6036:
6031:
6024:
6019:
6012:
6007:
5992:
5988:
5982:
5975:
5970:
5955:
5951:
5944:
5937:
5932:
5917:
5913:
5909:
5905:
5901:
5897:
5893:
5889:
5885:
5881:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5862:
5855:
5851:
5846:
5839:
5835:
5830:
5822:
5817:
5812:
5805:
5801:
5796:
5789:
5784:
5777:
5772:
5765:
5760:
5753:
5748:
5741:
5736:
5729:
5724:
5717:
5712:
5710:
5702:
5697:
5690:
5685:
5678:
5673:
5666:
5661:
5654:
5649:
5642:
5641:Townsend 2009
5637:
5630:
5629:Townsend 2009
5625:
5618:
5617:Brumfiel 1998
5613:
5606:
5605:Townsend 2009
5601:
5594:
5589:
5587:
5579:
5574:
5567:
5562:
5555:
5550:
5543:
5538:
5536:
5528:
5523:
5516:
5515:Townsend 2009
5511:
5504:
5503:Lockhart 1992
5499:
5492:
5487:
5480:
5479:Burkhart 1997
5475:
5468:
5463:
5456:
5451:
5444:
5439:
5433:, p. 56.
5432:
5427:
5420:
5415:
5408:
5407:Townsend 2009
5403:
5396:
5395:Townsend 2009
5391:
5384:
5383:Townsend 2009
5379:
5363:
5359:
5355:
5349:
5342:
5341:Townsend 2009
5337:
5330:
5329:Townsend 2009
5325:
5319:, p. 99.
5318:
5317:Townsend 2009
5313:
5306:
5305:Carrasco 1999
5301:
5294:
5289:
5282:
5277:
5270:
5269:Townsend 2009
5265:
5263:
5255:
5250:
5243:
5238:
5232:, p. 51.
5231:
5226:
5219:
5218:Townsend 2009
5214:
5207:
5206:Townsend 2009
5202:
5195:
5194:Townsend 2009
5190:
5184:, p. 63.
5183:
5182:Townsend 2009
5178:
5171:
5170:Townsend 2009
5166:
5159:
5154:
5147:
5142:
5135:
5130:
5123:
5118:
5111:
5106:
5099:
5094:
5087:
5082:
5075:
5070:
5063:
5058:
5056:
5054:
5052:
5044:
5039:
5032:
5027:
5025:
5017:
5016:Campbell 1997
5012:
5005:
5000:
4993:
4992:Lockhart 1992
4988:
4981:
4976:
4969:
4964:
4957:
4952:
4946:
4941:
4934:
4933:Carrasco 1999
4929:
4927:
4919:
4914:
4907:
4902:
4900:
4892:
4887:
4885:
4878:, p. 73.
4877:
4872:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4850:
4834:
4830:
4826:
4820:
4818:
4810:
4805:
4798:
4793:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4754:
4747:
4742:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4699:
4692:
4685:
4680:
4673:
4668:
4662:
4657:
4651:
4645:
4629:
4625:
4619:
4615:
4600:
4594:
4588:
4582:
4575:
4571:
4565:
4558:
4553:
4546:
4545:Hajovsky 2015
4539:
4532:
4526:
4519:
4518:Lockhart 1992
4514:
4507:
4502:
4498:
4490:
4484:
4480:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4458:Mixtec people
4456:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4415:
4410:
4399:
4396:
4385:
4382:
4371:
4364:
4362:
4359:. In Mexican
4358:
4354:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4336:
4334:
4330:
4329:
4324:
4323:Gary Jennings
4320:
4316:
4315:
4310:
4306:
4305:D.H. Lawrence
4302:
4301:
4296:
4292:
4287:
4285:
4284:Benjamin Keen
4281:
4271:
4269:
4255:
4254:
4247:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4224:
4219:
4218:
4217:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4174:Aztec cuisine
4171:
4166:
4162:
4161:Aztec cuisine
4152:
4150:
4146:
4140:
4137:
4129:
4125:
4116:
4113:
4108:
4105:
4101:
4100:Benjamin Keen
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4080:
4078:
4077:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4038:Porfirio DĂaz
4034:
4025:
4023:
4018:
4014:
4009:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3998:
3993:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3958:
3954:
3953:Porfirio DĂaz
3946:
3945:Porfirio DĂaz
3942:
3938:
3934:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3916:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3898:Benito JuĂĄrez
3895:
3891:
3887:
3882:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3851:
3849:
3845:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3750:
3746:
3743:perched on a
3742:
3741:Mexican eagle
3737:
3728:
3724:
3715:
3713:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3678:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3655:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3640:Juan Carlos I
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3614:
3610:
3603:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3579:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3561:
3560:
3554:
3549:
3539:
3537:
3536:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3513:
3510:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3490:
3484:
3474:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3438:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3413:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3397:
3392:
3391:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3356:
3350:
3345:
3336:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3309:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3294:Codex Mendoza
3290:
3287:
3283:
3278:
3276:
3272:
3271:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3252:
3247:
3238:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3202:
3190:
3178:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3153:
3148:
3144:
3143:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3125:
3123:
3117:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3081:
3075:
3066:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3015:Codex Mendoza
3011:
3007:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2959:
2958:Aztec writing
2942:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2921:
2918:(Mexico City)
2917:
2913:
2907:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2860:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2842:Spanish cedar
2840:; 1450â1521;
2839:
2833:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2813:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2793:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2766:
2764:
2760:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2749:
2744:
2740:
2739:Marvin Harris
2735:
2733:
2732:is considered
2729:
2725:
2720:
2718:
2713:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2692:
2682:
2680:
2679:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2661:
2658:
2654:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2635:
2634:
2633:tonalpohualli
2625:
2620:
2615:
2605:
2603:
2599:
2596:
2590:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2565:
2559:
2554:
2544:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2493:Tonacacihuatl
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2398:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2385:, as well as
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2367:
2359:
2354:
2353:
2345:
2335:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2282:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2264:Archeologist
2262:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2240:
2235:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2174:
2166:
2161:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2115:Codex Mendoza
2112:
2104:
2103:
2102:Codex Mendoza
2097:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2069:
2061:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
1997:
1987:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1911:
1910:
1904:
1900:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1873:
1864:
1861:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1841:
1836:
1835:
1826:
1822:
1817:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1790:Codex Mendoza
1786:
1781:
1771:
1767:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1752:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1731:
1723:
1722:Codex Mendoza
1719:
1715:
1708:
1707:
1706:Codex Mendoza
1701:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1683:Aztec slavery
1680:
1679:Aztec society
1676:
1661:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1650:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1628:
1620:
1615:
1611:
1609:
1605:
1596:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1581:Hernån Cortés
1578:
1573:
1568:
1558:
1547:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1482:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1453:
1444:
1434:
1424:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1380:Ixtlilxochitl
1373:
1365:
1360:
1358:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1334:
1332:
1327:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1295:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1276:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1231:
1230:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1157:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1138:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1126:Huey Tlatoani
1122:
1118:
1114:
1111:perched on a
1110:
1105:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1037:Tula, Hidalgo
1033:
1028:
1027:Nahua peoples
1024:
1016:
1011:
1002:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
979:
975:
971:
967:
964:, one of the
963:
958:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
931:
930:Codex Mendoza
926:
922:
918:
914:
905:
904:
898:
893:
889:
888:Aztec codices
878:
868:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
844:
842:
838:
834:
830:
829:Nahua peoples
824:
822:
818:
814:
810:
809:ethnic groups
805:
802:
798:
794:
793:lingua franca
788:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
757:
755:
750:
742:
737:
729:
725:
720:
712:
708:
703:
701:
697:
692:
688:
684:
679:
671:
666:
658:
654:
645:
639:
635:
631:
628:
623:
614:
612:
611:architectural
608:
604:
600:
599:philosophical
596:
592:
589:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
561:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
538:Hernån Cortés
535:
530:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
511:
510:Huey Tlatoani
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
445:
443:
442:twin pyramids
439:
435:
434:
433:tonalpohualli
429:
428:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
402:
397:
396:
391:
387:
383:
378:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
341:or Tenochca,
340:
336:
332:
328:
327:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
301:
292:
262:
250:
245:
243:
238:
236:
231:
230:
228:
227:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
177:
175:
174:
171:
170:Aztec history
168:
167:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
117:
115:
114:
111:
110:Aztec society
108:
107:
103:
99:
98:
95:
92:
91:
86:
82:
77:
73:
69:
65:
48:
44:
40:
33:
28:
19:
12462:
12395:
12245:Moctezuma II
12215:
12202:Inca history
12127:Andean Music
12071:Architecture
12066:Architecture
12061:Architecture
12056:Architecture
12052:Architecture
12046:Gender Roles
11791:Tenochtitlan
11714:TimotoâCuica
11709:Tierradentro
11494:CasmaâSechin
11226:Chalcatzingo
10977:
10902:
10875:
10871:
10840:
10805:
10782:
10748:
10714:. Berkeley:
10707:
10695:. Retrieved
10688:the original
10683:
10645:. Berkeley:
10642:
10639:Hassig, Ross
10608:
10599:
10584:the original
10557:
10524:
10502:
10483:
10454:
10419:
10376:
10353:
10299:
10260:
10247:
10245:(1950â82) .
10209:
10197:
10163:
10160:Doris Heyden
10155:
10152:DurĂĄn, Diego
10121:
10117:
10110:Doris Heyden
10105:
10101:
10098:Doris Heyden
10094:DurĂĄn, Diego
10058:
10034:
10013:
9992:. Retrieved
9980:
9974:
9958:
9949:
9945:
9936:
9927:
9923:
9890:
9886:
9863:
9838:
9834:
9815:
9806:
9774:
9749:
9735:. Retrieved
9723:
9707:
9698:
9663:
9632:
9620:. Retrieved
9584:
9580:Ethnohistory
9578:
9559:
9550:
9538:. Retrieved
9529:
9524:
9496:
9479:
9475:
9440:
9420:
9401:
9392:
9375:
9371:
9340:
9307:
9301:
9282:
9273:
9259:cite journal
9242:
9238:
9226:
9210:
9206:
9197:
9188:
9179:
9162:
9159:Ethnohistory
9158:
9149:
9140:
9131:
9122:
9105:
9073:
9065:Miller, Mary
9053:. Retrieved
9011:
9007:
8998:
8981:
8972:
8942:Doris Heyden
8937:
8915:Quetzalcoatl
8914:
8901:. Retrieved
8884:
8858:
8839:
8817:
8786:
8774:
8770:
8735:
8723:
8708:. Retrieved
8696:
8690:
8658:
8654:
8629:
8626:The Americas
8625:
8601:
8590:
8586:
8558:
8554:
8529:
8525:
8506:
8473:
8469:
8450:
8441:
8432:
8428:
8418:19 September
8416:. Retrieved
8407:
8403:
8390:
8359:
8356:Hassig, Ross
8325:
8322:Hassig, Ross
8313:
8286:
8280:
8267:
8261:. McFarland.
8258:
8227:
8213:
8199:
8190:
8186:
8161:
8157:
8122:
8118:
8093:
8089:
8080:
8061:
8042:
8020:
8001:
7982:
7956:Beacon Press
7951:
7920:
7885:(1): 50â67.
7882:
7878:
7869:
7850:
7831:
7827:
7798:
7794:
7771:
7737:
7709:
7705:
7696:
7672:
7640:
7606:
7570:
7540:
7536:
7524:. Retrieved
7520:
7506:
7472:
7469:The Americas
7468:
7451:
7443:Bibliography
7427:
7415:
7403:. Retrieved
7389:
7377:. Retrieved
7368:
7358:
7346:. Retrieved
7337:
7331:
7324:
7312:. Retrieved
7303:
7293:
7281:
7269:
7257:
7245:
7233:
7201:. Retrieved
7197:
7187:
7175:. Retrieved
7171:
7161:
7154:Pilcher 2017
7149:
7137:
7115:Frazier 2006
7110:
7098:
7086:
7074:
7062:
7050:
7043:Helland 1990
7038:
7026:
7014:
7002:
6975:
6963:
6958:, p. 3.
6936:
6924:
6917:Brading 1991
6912:
6900:
6890:22 September
6888:. Retrieved
6868:
6861:
6849:
6837:
6829:
6821:
6814:Haskett 1991
6809:
6797:
6785:
6773:
6766:Chipman 2005
6761:
6749:
6737:
6730:Sanders 1992
6725:
6698:
6686:
6674:
6662:
6650:
6638:
6630:
6622:
6610:
6598:
6586:
6574:
6562:
6533:
6521:
6509:. Retrieved
6493:. ABC-CLIO.
6489:
6474:, p. 8.
6472:Nowotny 2005
6467:
6460:Nowotny 2005
6455:
6443:
6431:
6419:
6407:
6378:
6359:
6353:
6334:
6328:
6316:
6304:
6292:
6280:
6268:
6256:
6244:
6232:
6220:
6208:
6196:
6184:
6172:
6160:
6148:
6139:
6135:
6129:
6102:
6090:
6078:
6066:
6054:
6042:
6030:
6018:
6006:
5994:. Retrieved
5990:
5981:
5969:
5957:. Retrieved
5953:
5943:
5931:
5919:. Retrieved
5875:
5871:
5861:
5845:
5829:
5811:
5804:Barnett 2007
5795:
5783:
5771:
5759:
5747:
5735:
5723:
5696:
5684:
5672:
5660:
5648:
5636:
5624:
5612:
5600:
5573:
5568:, p. 7.
5561:
5549:
5522:
5510:
5498:
5486:
5474:
5462:
5450:
5443:Sanders 1971
5438:
5426:
5414:
5402:
5390:
5378:
5366:. Retrieved
5357:
5348:
5336:
5324:
5312:
5300:
5288:
5276:
5249:
5237:
5225:
5213:
5201:
5189:
5177:
5165:
5153:
5141:
5129:
5117:
5105:
5093:
5086:SahagĂșn 1577
5081:
5069:
5062:Batalla 2016
5038:
5011:
5006:, p. 2.
4999:
4994:, p. 1.
4987:
4975:
4963:
4958:, p. 4.
4951:
4940:
4935:, p. 4.
4913:
4871:
4858:
4849:
4837:. Retrieved
4828:
4804:
4792:
4770:(1): 19â22.
4767:
4763:
4753:
4741:
4708:
4704:
4691:
4679:
4674:, p. 68
4667:
4656:
4644:
4632:. Retrieved
4627:
4618:
4593:
4586:
4581:
4564:
4552:
4538:
4525:
4513:
4501:
4489:#Definitions
4483:
4356:
4352:
4343:
4339:
4337:
4333:Aztec Autumn
4332:
4326:
4312:
4309:Quetzalcoatl
4308:
4298:
4288:
4279:
4277:
4265:
4251:
4228:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4168:
4149:Moctezuma II
4141:
4133:
4109:
4096:Lucas AlamĂĄn
4091:
4081:
4074:
4066:
4055:
4010:
4006:Diego Rivera
3995:
3989:
3965:
3950:
3890:Indigenistas
3889:
3885:
3883:
3879:coat of arms
3852:
3841:
3835:
3813:
3805:
3793:
3782:D.A. Brading
3761:
3754:
3747:devouring a
3725:
3721:
3712:congregaciĂłn
3711:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3684:was renamed
3681:
3675:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3656:
3651:
3647:
3635:
3606:
3576:
3564:
3557:
3533:
3525:
3521:
3514:
3507:
3452:
3448:
3442:
3432:
3394:
3390:cuauhxicalli
3388:
3385:Coyolxauhqui
3357:
3353:
3317:Templo Mayor
3310:
3297:
3291:
3279:
3274:
3268:
3262:
3256:
3251:Codex Borgia
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3150:
3140:
3137:Cuacuauhtzin
3132:
3126:
3121:
3118:
3113:
3110:xochicuicatl
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3094:
3078:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3012:
3008:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2988:
2982:
2978:
2970:
2966:
2874:Quetzalcoatl
2870:Tezcatlipoca
2845:
2782:
2774:
2772:
2756:
2746:
2736:
2721:
2709:
2676:
2672:
2665:Xiuhmolpilli
2664:
2662:
2656:
2648:xiuhpohualli
2647:
2644:xiuhpohualli
2643:
2639:xiuhpohualli
2637:
2631:
2629:
2598:Coyolxauhqui
2591:
2572:
2568:
2529:Xochiquetzal
2517:Xiuhtecuhtli
2476:
2473:Tezcatlipoca
2461:Quetzalcoatl
2437:Tezcatlipoca
2433:Quetzalcoatl
2422:
2417:Codex Borgia
2371:Mesoamerican
2368:
2347:
2295:Azcapotzalco
2288:
2269:
2263:
2246:Templo Mayor
2243:
2219:
2209:
2196:
2193:Lake Texcoco
2185:Tenochtitlan
2182:
2140:
2123:
2108:
2100:
2070:
2066:
2030:
2002:
1986:Tlalcuahuitl
1971:
1966:
1954:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1887:Aztec Empire
1884:
1857:
1848:
1844:
1838:
1832:
1830:
1809:
1805:
1799:
1795:
1789:
1768:
1755:
1749:
1747:
1734:
1728:
1726:
1721:
1704:
1693:social class
1647:
1645:
1631:
1623:
1607:
1598:Xocoyotzin (
1593:
1577:Moctezuma II
1552:
1534:
1527:
1523:Michhuahqueh
1511:
1499:Atotoztli II
1488:
1468:
1464:xochiyaoyotl
1463:
1449:
1433:Aztec Empire
1402:
1391:
1372:Chimalpopoca
1361:
1354:
1180:Chimalpopoca
1164:Acamapichtli
1150:
1124:
1121:Acamapichtli
1117:Tenochtitlan
1106:
1089:Azcapotzalco
1060:
1058:
1051:in Morelos.
1020:
976:. Dominican
973:
972:, author of
959:
945:of Texcoco,
928:
921:Latin script
909:
901:
845:
825:
820:
806:
796:
789:
758:
740:
727:
710:
707:Lake Texcoco
704:
669:
656:
650:
625:Aztec metal
603:mythological
569:Templo Mayor
562:
531:
508:
493:Azcapotzalco
477:Tenochtitlan
465:Aztec Empire
461:Lake Texcoco
453:Tenochtitlan
446:
431:
427:xiuhpohualli
425:
418:Quetzalcoatl
410:Tezcatlipoca
399:
393:
386:civilization
379:
355:Azcapotzalco
335:Tenochtitlan
331:Aztec Empire
324:
305:Mesoamerican
260:
258:
215:Moctezuma II
200:Aztec Empire
195:Aztec script
160:Templo Mayor
155:Tenochtitlan
93:
81:Aztec Empire
72:
64:Aztec Empire
46:
37:This is the
31:
12308:TĂșpac Amaru
12292:Manco CĂĄpac
12241:Moctezuma I
12152:Agriculture
12147:Agriculture
12142:Agriculture
12133:Agriculture
12076:Road System
11965:Mathematics
11830:Muysc Cubun
11684:San AgustĂn
11634:Monte Verde
11311:Teotihuacan
11203:Mesoamerica
11098:Coles Creek
11083:Anishinaabe
11040:Archaeology
10978:In Our Time
10973:BBC Radio 4
10480:Altman, Ida
10421:(continued)
10206:Ross Hassig
9893:: 958â967.
9069:Taube, Karl
9055:17 February
8532:(1): 1â10.
7900:10553/43280
7432:Greene 2012
7221:|last=
7130:Haugen 2009
7067:Franco 2004
6826:Gibson 1964
6703:Kubler 1942
6615:Berdan 2016
6555:Berdan 1982
6436:Berdan 1982
6297:Bright 1990
6237:Zender 2008
6179:, p. .
6153:Harner 1977
6071:Hassig 2001
5850:Maffie n.d.
5834:Maffie n.d.
5816:Maffie n.d.
5800:Maffie n.d.
5788:Maffie n.d.
5491:Hassig 2016
5254:Hassig 1988
5242:Hassig 1988
5098:Berdan 2014
4980:Gibson 1964
4945:Offner 1983
4918:Barlow 1945
4891:Barlow 1949
4661:Gibson 1964
4650:Offner 1983
4448:Mesoamerica
4331:(1980) and
4013:Octavio Paz
3997:indigenismo
3886:Hispanistas
3778:Chimalpahin
3749:rattlesnake
3652:encomiendas
3648:encomiendas
3636:de Tultengo
3535:encomiendas
3509:Mexico City
3445:featherwork
3417:Featherwork
3313:Teotihuacan
3270:Ficus aurea
3241:Painted art
3077:Frame drum
3061:) to spell
3021:(hand) and
2973:(moss). In
2969:(hand) and
2897:Mexico City
2803:Mexico City
2775:toltecayotl
2717:cannibalism
2712:sacrificing
2678:tzitzimimeh
2595:lunar deity
2521:Tlazolteotl
2513:Huehueteotl
2481:Tlaltecutli
2311:Chapultepec
2274:cosmovision
2189:Mexico City
2081:cacao beans
2026:featherwork
2018:flint tools
2008:fibers and
1756:mÄcehuallis
1751:mÄcehualtin
1658:Catholicism
1604:macehualtin
1585:La Malinche
1462:" (Nahuatl
1460:Flower Wars
1320:(1563â1565)
1312:(1557â1562)
1304:(1554â1557)
1296:(1541â1554)
1288:(1539â1541)
1280:(1532â1536)
1272:(1525â1530)
1251:(1520â1521)
1235:(1502â1520)
1227:(1486â1502)
1219:(1481â1486)
1211:(1469â1481)
1203:(1440â1469)
1195:(1427â1440)
1182:(1417â1427)
1174:(1396â1417)
1166:(1375â1395)
1069:Tlaxcalteca
1049:Cuauhnahuac
1023:Teotihuacan
978:Diego DurĂĄn
935:Chimalpahin
617:Definitions
550:Mexico City
542:Tlaxcalteca
420:), and the
408:(featuring
401:macehualtin
85:Mesoamerica
12489:Categories
12279:Tisquesusa
12253:Cuauhtémoc
12249:CuitlĂĄhuac
11579:Lauricocha
11549:Gran Chaco
11539:Cupisnique
11524:Chinchorro
11499:Chachapoya
11489:CaralâSupe
11331:Tlaxcaltec
11321:TeuchitlĂĄn
11236:ChupĂcuaro
11163:Plum Bayou
11158:Plaquemine
11128:Marksville
11093:Chichimeca
10843:. Tucson:
10064:J.M. Cohen
9864:The Aztecs
9664:The Aztecs
9540:31 January
9444:. Austin:
9425:. Oxford:
9077:. London:
8777:: 307â313.
8435:(2): 8â13.
8362:. Austin:
8230:. Tucson:
7740:. Austin:
7521:MexConnect
7198:Census.gov
7055:Wolfe 2000
7007:Bueno 2016
6995:Cline 1973
6718:McCaa 1997
6691:McCaa 1995
6655:Mundy 2014
6627:Mundy 2015
6448:Boone 2000
6107:Isaac 2002
6095:Isaac 2005
6059:Taube 1993
6047:Taube 1993
6035:Taube 1993
6023:Taube 2012
6011:Taube 1993
5991:Mythopedia
5987:"Ometeotl"
5936:Smith 1997
5740:Smith 1997
5728:Smith 2008
5716:Smith 2008
5701:Smith 2005
5689:Smith 1997
5677:Hirth 2016
5665:Hirth 2016
5653:Hirth 2016
5578:Smith 2000
5554:Smith 1996
5527:Smith 2008
5467:Smith 1997
5455:Smith 2008
5419:Smith 2008
5293:Smith 1997
5281:Smith 1997
5230:Smith 1997
5158:Smith 1997
5146:Smith 1984
5134:Smith 1984
5122:Smith 1997
5043:Boone 2000
5004:Smith 1997
4956:Smith 1997
4809:Cline 2000
4797:Smith 1997
4746:Smith 1997
4684:Smith 1997
4634:4 November
4609:References
4506:Smith 1997
4342:(Spanish:
4295:pterosaurs
4253:Chapulines
4237:Carl Nebel
4233:lithograph
4231:, an 1836
4159:See also:
4115:scholars.
4065:published
4036:President
3848:Juan Diego
3792:published
3586:See also:
3528:being the
3526:gobernador
3522:gobernador
3502:encomienda
3396:temalacatl
3329:Cipactonal
3302:Codex RĂos
3149:, and the
3106:Teocuicatl
3102:Yaocuicatl
2785:(Toltec).
2525:Xochipilli
2509:Xipe Totec
2375:calendrics
2331:Cuahnahuac
2319:Xochimilco
2278:Underworld
2221:tzompantli
2119:greenstone
1974:irrigation
1896:Xoconochco
1891:ethnically
1879:See also:
1821:Tlatelolco
1649:encomienda
1641:Tlaxcalans
1637:Cuauhtémoc
1633:CuitlĂĄhuac
1535:temalacatl
1475:Cihuacoatl
1421:Cuernavaca
1409:Xochimilco
1249:Cuauhtemoc
1241:Cuitlahuac
1151:tlahtoqueh
991:calendrics
886:See also:
724:Tlatelolco
585:Franciscan
546:Cuauhtémoc
205:Tlaxcallan
135:Philosophy
12300:Atahualpa
12296:Pachacuti
12271:Nemequene
12137:Chinampas
11959:Astronomy
11948:Astronomy
11928:Mythology
11923:Mythology
11918:Mythology
11913:Mythology
11909:Mythology
11739:Wankarani
11729:TuncahuĂĄn
11619:Marajoara
11574:Las Vegas
11460:Atacameño
11356:Xochipala
11296:Purépecha
11256:Epi-Olmec
11246:Cuicuilco
11188:Troyville
11178:St. Johns
10371:(1997) .
10297:(1997) .
10196:(1984) .
10154:(1994) .
10086:162351797
10056:(1963) .
9915:189685291
9609:145142543
9393:Aztec Art
9332:162218640
9245:: 53â87.
9036:145465056
8893:2161-0002
8762:243733946
8646:144513257
8575:163993224
8546:162825038
8498:163893131
8305:144736919
8178:162346920
8127:CiteSeerX
8110:157991841
7909:151429590
7726:164771165
7557:141990835
7497:147083453
7420:Mora 2005
7314:5 January
7250:Keen 1971
7091:Keen 1971
7079:Keen 1971
7019:Keen 1971
6905:Keen 1971
6854:Keen 1971
6400:Minc 2017
6213:Prem 1992
6189:Keen 2001
5921:6 October
5900:0036-8075
4839:30 August
4776:0720-5988
4733:150354407
4725:0011-3204
4574:Diel 2005
4570:Motolinia
4178:chocolate
4110:When the
4044:with the
3855:New Spain
3834:for war,
3702:cabeceras
3694:cabeceras
3686:cabeceras
3339:Sculpture
3325:Tlateloco
3298:tlacuilos
3235:molcaxitl
3114:tlahtolli
3085:Amecameca
3039:Huitztlan
2850:turquoise
2728:Ahuitzotl
2653:leap year
2485:Coatlicue
2303:Colhuacan
2212:ballcourt
2131:Purépecha
2045:turquoise
1978:aqueducts
1967:chinampas
1962:chinampas
1764:mayehqueh
1541:Ahuitzotl
1519:Michoacan
1495:Tezozomoc
1471:Tlacaelel
1450:In 1440,
1405:Culhuacan
1357:Tezozomoc
1225:Ahuitzotl
1209:Axayacatl
1085:Colhuacan
1045:Colhuacan
754:Culhuacan
728:Tenochcah
519:Guatemala
491:state of
303:) were a
130:Mythology
12396:See also
12314:Conquest
12287:Zoratama
11954:Calendar
11943:Calendar
11938:Calendar
11934:Calendar
11903:Religion
11898:Religion
11887:Religion
11876:Religion
11872:Religion
11861:Numerals
11855:Numerals
11816:Language
11796:Multiple
11734:Valdivia
11719:Tiwanaku
11679:Saladoid
11674:Quimbaya
11564:Kuhikugu
11544:Diaguita
11534:Chorrera
11351:Veraguas
11346:Veracruz
11326:Tlatilco
11138:Mogollon
11045:Cultures
11023:Americas
10923:11261299
10892:29613567
10863:21976206
10839:(1991).
10829:56695639
10803:(2004).
10771:36178551
10747:(1997).
10734:24703159
10697:14 March
10675:(2001).
10665:25007991
10641:(1992).
10631:11469622
10591:Reprint)
10580:34354931
10545:(1998).
10447:36017075
10404:36017075
10343:35848992
10267:and the
10232:10046127
10186:29565779
10100:(eds.).
9985:Archived
9930:: 47â81.
9798:29124568
9772:(1993).
9737:20 April
9728:Archived
9686:48579073
9655:27035231
9613:Archived
9570:(1984).
9534:Archived
9464:23693597
9363:20798977
9219:41263409
9097:27667317
9071:(1993).
9049:Archived
8964:17968786
8936:(1988).
8897:Archived
8879:(n.d.).
8809:47990042
8785:(2002).
8734:(1992).
8722:(1963).
8701:Archived
8622:Keen, B.
8593:: 15â64.
8412:Archived
8382:44167649
8358:(2001).
8348:17106411
8324:(1988).
8250:19353576
8226:(1989).
8210:(1964).
8193:: 75â86.
8149:25246053
7974:41368255
7943:32923907
7919:(1997).
7795:Language
7770:(1991).
7760:40939882
7736:(2000).
7663:27035231
7629:27035231
7567:(1982).
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