430:
represent a survival from the pagan tradition of casting votive offerings into water. He speculates that the contemporary practice of throwing a coin into a fountain for good luck is a further survival of the custom. He then discusses the evidence for ritual foundation deposits under buildings, noting the widespread
Medieval deposition of an animal's head or jaw in a construction's foundations, presumably for protective magical purposes. Proceeding to deal with the Late- and Post-Medieval deposition of pots under foundations, he looks at their place in churches, where it was believed that they aided the acoustics. Continuing with this theme, he discusses the British folk custom of burying a horse's head under the floor to improve a building's acoustics, speculating as to whether this was a survival of the pagan foundation deposit custom. Rounding off the chapter, Merrifield examines magical items that have been intentionally placed in the walls, chimneys and roofs of buildings in Britain, in particular the widespread use of dead cats and old shoes.
341:
418:
470:, and his involvement with the witch bottle tradition. Merrifield's final chapter, "The ritual of superstition: recognition and potential for study", provides an overview of the entire book, highlighting the evidence of ritual continuity from pre-Christian periods to the present day. Pointing out what he sees as areas of further exploration for archaeologists, he calls for a "systematic investigation" of the subject.
337:. He specifies particular definitions for words such as "ritual", "religion" and "superstition", arguing that such terms must be used with precision by archaeologists. Offering a case study, he describes how Neolithic stone axes were adopted as amulets or talismans in the later Roman Iron Age onward in Britain, and that as such archaeologists should expect to find them in non-prehistoric contexts.
320:
in southern
Britain. Merrifield laments the fact that the majority of archaeologists, particularly those studying literate, historical periods, have avoided ritual explanations for unusual phenomena in the archaeological record; he believes that they exhibit a "ritual phobia". He contrasts this view
304:
In his preface, Merrifield noted that while archaeologists studying prehistoric periods have paid increasing attention to the evidence for ritual and magic in the archaeological record, their counterparts working in later historical periods have failed to follow their lead. Presenting this book as a
293:
they have now acquired an aura of sensationalism that has discouraged investigation. In spite of the great interest of this aspect of human behaviour, no synthesis has hitherto been made of the considerable information that is available from archaeological and historical sources, except within a few
183:
in rivers and other bodies of water. He moves on to explore the rituals surrounding death and burial, suggesting areas where this ritual activity is visible in the burial record of multiple societies. Merrifield goes on to discuss the archaeological evidence for ritual practices in
Christian Europe,
513:
praised the "cautious and balanced arguments" of
Merrifield's work. She opined that it should be read by every archaeologist as a corrective to what she thought was their widespread ignorance of folklore, noting that the wide array of evidence for ritual behaviour in the archaeological record would
413:
through the "cult of the blessed dead", the veneration of saints and martyrs, throughout the Middle Ages. Discussing the ritual use of
Christian relics, he also looks at votive offerings that were presented in a Christian context at shrines and churches, paying particular reference to the tradition
380:
on land, in particular looking at the evidence for deposition in ditches, shafts and wells. He rounds off the chapter by examining evidence for Iron Age rituals that took place at the commencement and termination of building constructions. Chapter three, "Rituals of Death", deals with the religious
453:
significance. He rounds off the chapter with an examination of Post-Medieval curses and charms containing the written word, citing examples that have been found by archaeologists across
Britain, hidden inside various parts of buildings. In the seventh chapter, "Charms against witchcraft", he deals
429:
Chapter five, "Survivals, revivals and reinterpretations", continues
Merrifield's exploration of ritual practices in Christian Europe. He examines Late- and Post-Medieval items that have been deposited in rivers, including swords and pilgrimage souvenirs, speculating that their deposition might
571:
journal, Gilchrist referenced
Merrifield's study, noting that it offered a "rare contribution" to the archaeology of ritual and magic in Britain. In particular she highlighted his belief that many archaeologists dealing with literate cultures exhibited a "ritual phobia" as accurate.
271:, Merrifield noted that the book's bias was to the archaeology of London, and that this was particularly evident in its use of illustrations. He dedicated the book to the memory of H.S. Toms, the former Curator of Brighton Museum and a one-time assistant to the archaeologist
498:, by putting various charms then in museum exhibits – such as dead cats, buried shoes and witch bottles – into the wider context of ritual activity. He opined that it was "a little disappointing" that the examples were almost all from London and the
408:
The fourth chapter, "From
Paganism to Christianity", explores the continuing practice of ritual in Christian Europe. Discussing the early Roman Catholic Church's demonisation of pagan deities, Merrifield states that the Church continued propagating a form of
381:
rituals accompanying death and burial, and their visibility in the archaeological record. It explains the three main ways in which human communities have dealt with the corpses of the dead: through exposing them to elements and scavengers, through
260:, organising the collection in preparation for the country's independence from the British Empire in March 1957. Returning to the Guildhall Museum, Merrifield compiled the first detailed study of Roman London for 35 years, which was published as
162:
by discussing how archaeologists have understood magic and ritual practices in past societies, opining that on the whole it had been a neglected area of study. Looking at the archaeological evidence for ritual activity in the
454:
with archaeological evidence for a variety of Early Modern and Modern
British spells designed to ward off malevolent witchcraft. After briefly discussing the role of holed stone charms, he looks at the evidence for
414:
of offering bent coins to shrines in Late Medieval England. Examining the construction of churches on earlier pagan ritual sites, he deals with evidence for the destruction of pagan statues by the early Christians.
184:
highlighting areas of ritual continuance from earlier pagan periods, in particular the deposition of metal goods in water. Looking at the evidence for foundation deposits in European buildings that likely had
29:
433:
In the sixth chapter, "Written spells and charms", Merrifield discusses the use of the written word in magical contexts. Highlighting archaeological examples from the ancient
532:
as "a masterly study of an unusual subject." The importance of Merrifield's book was discussed by the Englishman Brian Hoggard, an independent researcher who authored a 2004
401:
of the body, Merrifield then looks at the effect of Christianity on burials in Europe, arguing that it brought a new intimacy with the dead through the collection of
344:
Merrifield noted that archaeologists studying Neolithic and Bronze Age Europe regularly recognised the ritual significance of monuments, such as this stone circle at
205:. In the ensuing years, the book has been widely cited by scholars as an influential and pioneering text in the study of the archaeology of ritual and magic.
397:. Discussing evidence for rituals of separation through which the deceased is separated from the world of the living, including those that deal with the
352:
In the second chapter, "Offerings to earth and water in Pre-Roman and Roman Times", Merrifield explores the various forms of archaeological evidence for
554:
was the "notable exception" to a trend in which archaeological studies of magic were restricted to small journals, magazines and newspaper articles.
264:(1965). Following the creation of the Museum of London in 1975, he became its deputy director, a post which he held until his retirement in 1978.
33:
The first edition cover of the book, depicting a 17th-century bellarmine witch-bottle found in an old mill-stream, Great College Street, London
421:
An example of the Sator Square, a magical practice widely found throughout Europe from ancient times to the present day; this example is from
950:
229:
393:, Merrifield discusses ways in which these beliefs might be visible in the archaeological record, such as through the deposition of
960:
923:
878:
308:
Chapter one, "Ritual and the archaeologist", begins by describing the ritual deposits from the pre-Roman Iron Age sites of
188:
purposes, he then looks at several examples of written charms and spells which have survived in the archaeological record.
143:
in Europe, containing a particular emphasis on London and South East England. It was written by the English archaeologist
118:
902:
945:
236:
in 1935, he developed a lifelong interest in the religious and magical beliefs of England. After serving in the
965:
275:; in his dedication, Merrifield noted that Toms had been his "first mentor in archaeology and folk studies".
348:, England, but that those studying later periods of history often neglected to consider ritual explanations.
405:, which was in contrast to the pagan beliefs of the Roman Empire, which portrayed the deceased as unclean.
955:
309:
257:
543:
538:
467:
322:
221:
244:, he returned to working at Brighton Museum, but in 1950 was appointed Assistant Keeper of the
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862:
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The influential nature of Merrifield's work was also recognised by the medieval archaeologist
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in archaeological contexts, before also discussing squares that contained numerical data with
562:
547:
806:
567:
536:
entitled "The archaeology of counter-witchcraft and popular magic". Being published in the
510:
491:
462:. Proceeding to focus on 19th- and 20th-century examples, Merrifield discusses the case of
294:
very restricted fields. A broad survey of the ritual customs of Europe is attempted here."
272:
197:
8:
849:
502:, but described the book as "lucidly written, carefully argued, and well illustrated."
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received predominantly positive reviews in academic peer-reviewed journals such as
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372:, as well as that in support of ritual offerings in bodies of water such as the
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377:
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285:"Ritual and magic were formerly part of everyday life, but by association with
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437:, he looks at inscriptions on lead tablets that were buried in cemeteries and
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817:. Vol. 68. London: The Society of Antiquaries of London. p. 129.
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132:
60:
827:"Magic for the Dead? The Archaeology of Magic in Later Medieval Burials"
896:. Vol. 100, no. 1. London: The Folklore Society. p. 128.
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382:
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newspaper, the Museum of London archaeologist Peter Marsden described
340:
867:
Beyond the Witch Trials: Witchcraft and Magic in Enlightenment Europe
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317:
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422:
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313:
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rectifier, he outlines his intentions and the study's limitations.
217:
869:. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press. pp.
441:, both places associated with the dead. Moving on to the use of
252:. Over a six-month period in 1956 and 1957, he was stationed in
402:
136:
253:
176:
565:. In an academic paper published in a 2008 edition of the
863:"The archaeology of counter-witchcraft and popular magic"
840:. London: The Society for Medieval Archaeology: 119–160.
364:
of Britain. He provides an overview of the evidence for
458:, making reference to their relation to beliefs about
494:. He highlighted how the work would be of benefit to
937:
445:, Merrifield highlights various examples of the
321:with that of those archaeologists studying the
592:
590:
329:, who have widely accepted the ritual uses of
473:
587:
27:
216:(1913–1995) was born and raised in
416:
339:
486:was reviewed by John Hutchings for the
938:
389:. Looking at beliefs surrounding the
951:Academic studies of ritual and magic
909:. London: Independent Print Limited.
542:anthology, edited by the historians
517:
147:, the former deputy director of the
22:The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic
916:The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic
890:The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic
888:Hutchings, John (1989). "Review of
811:The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic
552:The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic
530:The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic
484:The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic
478:
269:The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic
193:The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic
160:The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic
135:study of the material evidence for
128:The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic
13:
901:Marsden, Peter (13 January 1995).
522:Writing Merrifield's obituary for
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977:
220:, and, following an education at
256:, Ghana, where he worked at the
100:Print (hardback & paperback)
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961:History books about witchcraft
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179:, as well as the offering of
903:"Obituary: Ralph Merrifield"
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918:. London: B.T. Batsford.
550:, Hoggard recounted that
514:surprise "many readers".
474:Reception and recognition
171:of Britain, he discusses
151:, and first published by
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846:10.1179/174581708x335468
376:. Merrifield deals with
262:The Roman City of London
258:National Museum of Ghana
16:Book by Ralph Merrifield
861:Hoggard, Brian (2004).
815:The Antiquaries Journal
539:Beyond the Witch Trials
507:The Antiquaries Journal
299:Ralph Merrifield, 1987.
222:Varndean Grammar School
203:The Antiquaries Journal
946:1987 non-fiction books
505:In a short review for
426:
349:
296:
230:London External Degree
966:Books about sacrifice
807:Ellis Davidson, Hilda
647:. pp. xiii–xiv.
563:University of Reading
420:
343:
283:
834:Medieval Archaeology
779:. pp. 167–186.
743:. pp. 185–195.
731:. pp. 159–184.
719:. pp. 137–158.
707:. pp. 107–136.
568:Medieval Archaeology
511:Hilda Ellis Davidson
492:The Folklore Society
273:Augustus Pitt Rivers
809:(1988). "Review of
765:Ellis Davidson 1988
695:. pp. 83–106.
623:. un-numbered page.
23:
823:Gilchrist, Roberta
683:. pp. 59–82.
671:. pp. 22–58.
548:Willem de Blécourt
460:witches' familiars
435:Graeco-Roman world
427:
358:pre-Roman Iron Age
350:
327:Bronze Age Britain
267:In the preface of
191:Upon publication,
165:pre-Roman Iron Age
21:
956:Archaeology books
925:978-0-7134-4870-2
880:978-0-7190-6660-3
659:. pp. 1–21.
559:Roberta Gilchrist
518:Wider recognition
158:Merrifield opens
141:magical practices
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89:Publication place
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246:Guildhall Museum
242:Second World War
214:Ralph Merrifield
186:magico-religious
149:Museum of London
145:Ralph Merrifield
80:Publication date
43:Ralph Merrifield
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525:The Independent
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378:votive deposits
370:human sacrifice
354:ritual deposits
331:chambered tombs
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287:fantasy fiction
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238:Royal Air Force
226:Brighton Museum
224:, he worked at
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181:votive deposits
177:human sacrifice
97:Media type
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464:James Murrell
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456:witch bottles
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439:amphitheatres
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447:Sator square
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399:decapitation
385:and through
374:River Thames
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234:anthropology
228:. Gaining a
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544:Owen Davies
496:folklorists
468:cunning man
395:grave goods
240:during the
61:Archaeology
940:Categories
635:. p. xiii.
576:References
425:in France.
411:polytheism
383:inhumation
209:Background
854:162339681
791:. p. 119.
611:. p. vii.
581:Footnotes
391:afterlife
387:cremation
323:Neolithic
318:hillforts
291:occultism
155:in 1987.
71:Publisher
894:Folklore
825:(2008).
488:Folklore
360:and the
346:Swinside
314:Danebury
279:Synopsis
218:Brighton
198:Folklore
167:and the
49:Language
871:167–186
561:of the
356:in the
248:in the
57:Subject
52:English
922:
877:
852:
423:Oppède
403:relics
366:animal
173:animal
137:ritual
131:is an
39:Author
850:S2CID
830:(PDF)
254:Accra
105:Pages
65:Magic
920:ISBN
875:ISBN
546:and
368:and
333:and
325:and
312:and
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175:and
139:and
114:ISBN
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