450:, as the wartime boom for cotton goods ended, while foreign competition cut into their markets. Although manufacturers tried to reduce the oversupply by forming industry associations to regulate competition, their favored solution to the crisis was to squeeze more work out of their employees through what workers called the "stretch-out": speeding up production by increasing the number of looms assigned to each factory hand, limiting break times, paying workers by piece rates, and increasing the number of supervisors to keep workers from slowing down, talking or leaving work.
443:, had started moving South in the 1880s. By 1933 Southern mills produced more than seventy percent of cotton and woolen textiles in more modern mills, drawing on the pool of dispossessed farmers and laborers willing to work for roughly forty percent less than their Northern counterparts. As was the rest of economic life, the textile industry was strictly segregated and drew only from white workers in the Piedmont. Until 1965, when passage of the Civil Rights Act broke the color line in hiring, less than 2% of textile workers were African American.
570:'s Horse Creek Valley struck to force employers to live up to the code, only to face special deputies, highway patrolmen and a machine-gun unit of the National Guard sent to keep the mills open. When the NIRA's special board came to Horse Creek, it did not respond to the workers' complaints, but urged them to return to work. When they attempted to do so, the mill owners not only refused to allow the workers back, but evicted them from company housing. The NIRA took no action to stop the employers from violating the codes.
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535:(UTW), which had no more than 15,000 members in February, 1933, grew to 250,000 members by June, 1934, of whom roughly half were cotton mill workers. Textile workers also put tremendous faith in the NIRA to bring an end to the stretch-out, or at least temper its worst features. As one union organizer said, textile workers in the South saw the NIRA as something that "God has sent to them."
845:, and martial law was declared in the city. At least one striker was killed by National Guardsmen as the soldiers evicted families from mill-owned homes. Some consider the 1935 strike in LaGrange to be the last throes of the General Textile Strike. Ironically, President Roosevelt was a friend and frequent visitor of Cason Callaway, President of Callaway Mills at the time.
872:; when they were forced to do so by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, researchers found that African Americans were accepted overall by other employees, although they continued to face discrimination in job training and advancement. By the time this occurred, many jobs in the textile industry were already moving overseas, a trend that accelerated in the 1980s.
637:, outpacing the union organizers and employing "flying squadrons" which traveled by truck and on foot from mill to mill, calling the workers out. In Gastonia, where authorities had violently suppressed a strike led by the National Textile Workers Union in 1929, an estimated 5,000 people marched in the September 3rd
812:
The strike was, in fact, already falling apart, particularly in the South, where local government refused to provide any relief assistance to strikers and there were few sympathetic churches or unions to provide support. Although the union had pledged before the walkout began to feed strikers, it was
832:
In fact, the strike was a total defeat for the union, particularly in the South. The union had not forced the mill owners to recognize it or obtained any of its economic demands. The employers refused, moreover, to reinstate strikers throughout the South, while the Cotton
Textile National Industrial
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on Monday, August 13, 1934 to address the crisis. The UTW drew up a list of demands for the industry as a whole: a thirty-hour week, minimum wages ranging from $ 13.00 to $ 30.00 a week, elimination of the stretch-out, union recognition, and reinstatement of workers fired for their union activities.
609:
In
Columbus, Georgia, a city on the Alabama border, the Georgia Webbing and Tape Company had been on strike since July. On August 10, 1934 Reuben Sanders was killed in a scuffle between strikebreakers and strikers. "Eight thousand people viewed Sander's body as it lay in state at the Central Textile
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When the mill owners made the cotton mill employees' hours larger still further – with the blessing of the NRA – without raising their hourly wage rates in May, 1934, the UTW threatened a national strike. This talk was largely bluster; the union had made no preparations for a strike that
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The NIRA quickly promulgated a code for the cotton industry regulating workers' hours and establishing a minimum wage; it also established a committee to study the problem of workloads. In the meantime, however, the employers responded to the new minimum wages by increasing the pace of work. When
863:
The 1934 defeat was less cataclysmic in the North, in that the strike was in fact, a number of separate events, commencing at different times in separate industries and in furtherance of local goals. Northern employers were not as ruthless in blacklisting workers and the TWOC made some headway in
648:
Some workers converted their experience into a nearly messianic belief in the power of unionism to take them out of bondage. One labor official made the connection in
Biblical terms: "The first strike on record was the strike in which Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt. They too struck
527:
The NIRA rarely, if ever, lived up to its promises: employers usually dominated the panels that created these codes, which often offered far less than what workers and their unions demanded, and the NIRA and the codes themselves were toothless, since the Act did not provide any effective means to
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The union might have escaped this disaster if it had characterized the strike as a first step, rather than attempting to pass it off as a victory. That, however, would have required that the union also devote the resources necessary to follow up with renewed, systematic organizing efforts in the
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It is not clear whether the UTW expected to have this much success so easily and so quickly in the South; it had only shallow roots and few regular organizers in that region. But
Southern textile workers had a good deal of experience in confronting management, both by impromptu strikes and other
453:
The stretch-out sparked hundreds of strikes throughout the
Southeast: by one count, there were more than eighty strikes in South Carolina in 1929 alone. While most of them were short-lived, these strikes were almost all spontaneous walkouts, without any union – or other – leadership.
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in a factory. Governor Green declared martial law in the area on
September 11, after picketers armed with rocks, flowerpots and broken headstones from a nearby cemetery battled troops armed with machine guns, in a 36-hour incident that resembled a civic insurrection. Casualty figures vary. A
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to augment their forces by swearing in special deputies, often their own employees or local residents opposed to the strike; in other cases they simply hired private guards to police the areas around the plant. Violence between guards and picketers broke out almost immediately. The major known
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Music also played an important role in the strike as radio stations looking for an audience located themselves near mill stations spreading information to workers and giving them a better sense of community. The stations would mainly play music that was popular and well known among the workers.
652:
Textile workers in the North went out on strike in great numbers as well, although they were spread more evenly across different industries and had more diverse grievances than the
Southern cotton mill workers. Within a week, almost 400,000 textile workers nationwide had left their jobs and the
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At that point the mediation board that
Roosevelt had appointed in the first week of the strike issued its report. As was typical of federal commissions of this era, the board temporized, urging further studies of the economic plight of the employers and the effects of the stretch-out on their
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President
Roosevelt announced his support for the report, then urged employees to return to work and the manufacturers to accept the commission's recommendations. The UTW took the opportunity to declare victory and held a number of parades to celebrate the end of the strike.
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also mobilized the Guard, but did not declare martial law. Instead the state labor commissioner met with picketers during the second week of the strike and brought about a reduction in tensions by urging strikers to respect the law and not hurl epithets at strikebreakers.
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immediate aftermath of the strike, instead of concerning itself with the futile effort to win reinstatement for discharged strikers through the
Textile Labor Board. The memory of blacklisting and defeat soured many Southern textile workers on unions for decades.
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took up this theme, announcing that he would deputize the state's "mayors, sheriffs, peace officers and every good citizen" to maintain order, then called out the National Guard with orders to shoot to kill any picketers who tried to enter the mills. Governor
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The delegates, especially those from the southern states, voted overwhelmingly to strike the cotton mills on September 1, 1934 if these demands were not met. They planned to bring out the woolen, silk and rayon workers at a date to be set later.
524:(NRA). It was to oversee the creation of codes of conduct for particular industries that would reduce overproduction, raise wages, control hours of work, guarantee the rights of workers to form unions, and stimulate an economic recovery.
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By August 1934, workers had filed nearly 4,000 complaints to the labor board protesting "code chiseling" by their employers; the board found in favor of only one worker. Union supporters often lost their jobs and found themselves
867:
Anti-union sentiment in the South kept wages low for decades, but also acted as a catalyst for development later when industries moved there from the North and Midwest because of lower costs. Employers resisted integrating
748:, when guardsmen fired into the crowd attempting to storm the Woonsocket Rayon Plant. Governor Green then asked the federal government to send federal troops; the Roosevelt administration ignored the request.
665:
The mill owners were initially taken by surprise by the scope of the strike. They immediately took the position that these flying squadrons were, in fact, coercing their employees to go out on strike.
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wholly unable to fulfill this promise. While roughly half of the textile workers in North and South Carolina and roughly three fourths in Georgia were on strike at this point, with similar figures in
492:, while those employers who survived laid off workers and increased the amount and pace of work for their employees even further. Textile workers across the region, from worsted workers in
864:
organizing these plants in the years that followed. Those victories were impermanent, however, as much of northern industry either went South or went bankrupt in the years that followed.
1045:
Thomas Lyons, "Review of Timothy Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980." EH.Net Economic History Services, Jun 18 1999.
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Thomas Lyons, "Review of Timothy Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980." EH.Net Economic History Services, Jun 18 1999
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856:, faced similar problems organizing in the South; the CIO's postwar organizing drive in the South fell apart chiefly because of its inability to organize textile workers there.
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camp for trial by a military tribunal. While the state only interned a hundred or so picketers, the show of force effectively ended picketing throughout most of the state.
606:. While the strike was popular, it was also ineffective: many employers welcomed it as a means of cutting their expenses, since they had warehouses full of unsold goods.
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employees. It urged the President to create a new Textile Labor Relations Board to hear workers' complaints and urged employers not to discriminate against strikers.
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the labor board set a forty-hour work week, mill owners required the same amount of work in those forty hours as they had in the previous fifty- to sixty-hour week.
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formed the Textile Workers Organizing Committee (TWOC) three years later, TWOC focused on northern manufacturers outside the cotton industry. TWOC's successor, the
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size. When the NRA promised to give the UTW a seat on the board, balanced by the addition of another industry representative, the UTW canceled the planned strike.
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1028:(Interviews with former mill workers, their children & grandchildren, labor organizers, mill owners, and others who experienced/were affected by the strikes)
520:(NIRA) appeared to change things. The NIRA, which Roosevelt signed in June 1933, called for cooperation among business, labor and government and established the
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declared martial law in the third week of the strike and directed the National Guard to arrest all picketers throughout the state, holding them in a former
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Mill owners had seen the strike threat as more empty talk from the union. The White House took a largely "hands off" attitude, leaving it to the first
17:
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to discourage wavering employees from joining the strike. That tactic did not work, however, everywhere: workers at Pepperell Mills' plant in
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The strike represented the high point for union hopes of organizing textile workers in the South for the next several decades. When the
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Testing the New Deal:The General Textile Strike of 1934 in the American South (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 116-117
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Testing the New Deal:The General Textile Strike of 1934 in the American South (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 116-117
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Taylor, Gregory S., "The History of the North Carolina Communist Party." Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2009, p. 22
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504:, engaged in hundreds of isolated strikes, even though there were thousands of unemployed workers desperate to take their places.
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parade. The next day union organizers estimated that 20,000 out of the 25,000 textile workers in the county were out on strike.
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1238:. Fred W Morrison Series in Southern Studies. 468 pages. University of North Carolina Press; Reprint edition. November 1, 1995.
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While the UTW called off its plans for a strike, local leaders thought differently. The UTW locals in the northern part of
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465:, which were violently suppressed by local police and vigilantes. Here again, workers were often more militant than their
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Relations Board never ceded any authority to any other board. Thousands of strikers never returned to work in the mills.
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1353:. United Textile Workers of America; Philadelphia, Women's Trade Union League, New York. 1929. Marion, N.C. strike.
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Class Struggle Official Organ of the Communist League of Struggle (Adhering to the International Left Opposition)
1317:. Fred W. Morrison Series in Southern Studies. 440 pages. University of North Carolina Press. September 1, 1989.
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went out even though the guard was sent to prevent the arrival of flying squadrons rumored to be coming from
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made matters worse. The economic collapse drove a number of New England and Mid-Atlantic manufacturers into
821:, workers had started to drift back to work and struck plants were reopening, if with only skeleton crews.
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granite marker erected at one of the battle sites names four workers who died in the Saylesville conflict.
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in South in cooperation with Apprentice-Training Service. Reprinted through the courtesy of TEXTILE WORLD
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Even so, the promise of the right to join a union had an electrifying effect on textile workers: the
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481:. The Communist Party founded the NTWU in its short-lived attempt to create revolutionary unions.
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Authorities ordered out the National Guard elsewhere in the second week of the strike. Governor
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They said it couldn't be done, a history of the Textile Workers Union of America, AFL-CIO, CLC.
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1371:. War Manpower Commission, Bureau of Training, Apprentice-Training Service, Washington. 1944.
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was committed by the Rhode Island State Guard. Four picketers were killed and 132 injured.
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throughout the industry. Workers, both north and south, wrote thousands of letters to the
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In March 1935, approximately 2,000 textile workers at Callaway Mills went on strike in
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Training new workers quickly in the textile industry. Comprehensive plan developed by
1093:"Music for the People: The Role of Music in the Southern Textile Strikes of 1929-34",
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saw seven picketers killed and thirty others wounded as they fled the picketline (
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to set up a meeting of the parties. The employers refused to meet with the union.
73:, a minimum wage of $ 20 a week, reinstatement of workers fired for union activity
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1456:"Treated Like Slaves": Textile Workers Write to Washington in the 1930s and 1940s
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Southern Workers and the Search For Community: Spartanburg County, South Carolina
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Habits of Industry: White Culture and the Transformation of the Carolina Piedmont
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Another picketer was shot to death the following day, about five miles away in
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Testing the New Deal: The General Textile Strike of 1934 in the American South
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Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Mangers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984
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Legacy: The Secret History of Proto-Fascism in America's Greatest Little City
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Legacy: The Secret History of Proto-Fascism in America's Greatest Little City
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The voice of Southern labor: radio, music, and textile strikes, 1929-1934
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after several thousand strikers and sympathizers trapped several hundred
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Throughout the 1920s, however, the mills faced an intractable problem of
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The textile industry, once concentrated in New England with outposts in
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Jumpcut magazine article on production and distribution of documentary
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Cheap and contented labor; the picture of a southern mill town in 1929
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On September 2, a picketer and mill guard died in a shootout in
1421:. Partial text of a history of the strike in Spartanburg, SC.
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deployed the Guard in a more tactical manner, sending them to
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means, and a deep well of bitterness against their employers.
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leadership: to take one striking example, the workers at the
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A Film by George Stoney, Judith Helfand, and Susanne Rostock
1163:. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. p. 166.
973:"The Uprising of '34 – West Georgia Textile Heritage Trail"
1332:. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2000
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The Uprising of '34 – West Georgia Textile Heritage Trail
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The General Textile Strike of 1934: From Maine to Alabama
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Textile and clothing labor disputes in the United States
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Rise Gonna Rise: a portrait of Southern textile workers.
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Murder of workers in labor disputes in the United States
1223:. Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York. 1979.
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of the larger strike to follow, cotton mill workers in
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Millowners persuaded local authorities throughout the
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Hall in the heart of the city on Sunday, August 12."
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That year also saw the massive strikes that began in
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61:Stretch-outs, reduction in real wages, retaliation
1360:Textile Workers Union of America, New York. , 21p
1279:. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2002
997:"Ceremony commemorates 1934 Saylesville Massacre"
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703:On September 2, guards killed two picketers in
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1266:Roscigno, Vincent J., and William F. Danaher.
1414:Southern Workers and the Search for Community
1253:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000
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181:United States textile workers' strike of 1934
33:United States textile workers' strike of 1934
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586:launched a strike that began on July 18 in
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1448:Georgia State University Lesson Plan on
85:Long-term formation of many union locals
613:The UTW called a special convention in
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1549:Labor disputes in Georgia (U.S. state)
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1142:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
995:DOTZENROD, Nicole (5 September 2018).
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574:First steps toward a national strike
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18:Textile workers' strike (1934)
1504:1930s strikes in the United States
1356:Textile Workers Union of America.
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918:New England Textile Strike of 1922
766:and York Manufacturing's plant in
633:The strike swept through Southern
193:labor history of the United States
25:
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1524:United Textile Workers of America
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946:"The Uprising of '34 Documentary"
913:1934 West Coast waterfront strike
908:United Textile Workers of America
649:against intolerable conditions".
471:Loray Mill in Gastonia walked out
102:United Textile Workers of America
1544:Labor disputes in North Carolina
1539:Labor disputes in South Carolina
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854:Textile Workers Union of America
653:textile industry was shut down.
522:National Recovery Administration
518:National Industrial Recovery Act
250:Textile strikes in United States
1509:1934 labor disputes and strikes
1383:The Uprising of '34 Documentary
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508:Rising hopes under the New Deal
51:East Coast of the United States
1534:Labor disputes in Rhode Island
1270:( U of Minnesota Press, 2004).
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685:followed suit on September 5.
661:Reaction from the authorities
623:National Labor Relations Board
559:asking for them to intervene.
479:National Textile Workers Union
183:, colloquially known later as
41:Sept. 1, 1934 - Sept. 23, 1934
13:
1:
1444:from Georgia State University
923:
1022:"Uprising of '34 Collection"
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473:under the leadership of the
215:The background to the strike
83:Blacklisting of many workers
7:
1399:South Carolina Encyclopedia
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354:Fulton Bag and Cotton Mills
211:, lasting twenty-two days.
10:
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1471:Vol. 4 #9/10. October 1934
1461:The General Textile Strike
1442:Uprising of '34 Collection
1026:Digital Library of Georgia
950:search.alexanderstreet.com
898:List of US strikes by size
772:New Bedford, Massachusetts
722:Honea Path, South Carolina
502:Greenville, South Carolina
27:United States labor action
1514:1934 in the United States
1363:War Manpower Commission.
789:Things were different in
734:Saylesville, Rhode Island
514:Franklin Delano Roosevelt
500:, to cotton millhands in
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1408:Georgia State University
746:Woonsocket, Rhode Island
459:Gastonia, North Carolina
187:was the largest textile
1490:. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
1404:Southern Labor Archives
1388:. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
890:Organized labour portal
562:In what proved to be a
528:enforce the standards.
516:and the passage of the
494:Lawrence, Massachusetts
463:Elizabethton, Tennessee
1197:, accessed 28 Mar 2008
1048:, accessed 28 Mar 2008
718:Chiquola Mill Massacre
533:United Textile Workers
1519:September 1934 events
1157:Smith, Scott (2011).
484:In the meantime, the
149:Casualties and losses
1095:Monthly Labor Review
716:On September 6, the
711:Saylesville Massacre
709:On September 3, the
498:Paterson, New Jersey
496:and silk weavers in
403:Lewiston-Auburn shoe
209:U.S. Southern states
195:, involving 400,000
167:One mill guard death
161:At least 162 injured
1475:The Uprising of '34
1450:The Uprising Of ’34
1435:The Uprising Of ’34
1426:The Uprising of '34
1386:alexanderstreet.com
1328:Waldrep III, G. C.
1302:. 166 pages. 2011.
1234:Flamming, Douglas.
693:incidents include:
553:Department of Labor
391:Los Angeles garment
309:New York shirtwaist
205:Mid-Atlantic states
185:The Uprising of '34
81:Defeat of the union
1381:Rostock, Susanne.
1298:2012-04-22 at the
944:Rostock, Susanne.
732:sent the Guard to
159:At least 18 deaths
1419:G. C. Waldrep III
1349:Lewis, Sinclair.
1275:Salmond, John A.
1170:978-1-4664-4098-2
1001:The Valley Breeze
843:LaGrange, Georgia
808:End of the strike
793:, where Governor
629:The strike begins
590:, then spread to
557:Eleanor Roosevelt
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467:trade union
416:1980s–2000s
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360:New England
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110:Mill owners
78:Resulted in
1498:Categories
1433:Impact of
1181:2012-04-04
1032:2023-04-12
1006:1 December
978:2023-04-12
955:2023-04-12
924:References
679:Ehringhaus
604:Birmingham
588:Huntsville
490:bankruptcy
437:New Jersey
378:Loray Mill
278:Mill Women
266:Mill Women
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668:Governor
639:Labor Day
475:communist
356:1914–1915
329:1912–1913
303:Skowhegan
58:Caused by
1296:Archived
1138:cite web
876:See also
760:Lewiston
690:Piedmont
596:Anniston
592:Florence
397:National
333:Hopedale
321:Lawrence
272:Paterson
207:and the
46:Location
1262:online.
791:Georgia
756:Augusta
600:Gadsden
584:Alabama
564:dry run
366:Passaic
197:textile
191:in the
90:Parties
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189:strike
125:Number
1210:Books
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1111:(PDF)
752:Maine
730:Green
477:-led
260:1800s
71:South
66:Goals
1334:ISBN
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817:and
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