Teleprinter - Knowledge

458:, entered the teleprinter field with their Model 1P, a page printer, which was soon superseded by the improved Model 2P. In 1925 Creed acquired the patents for Donald Murray's Murray code, a rationalised Baudot code. The Model 3 tape printer, Creed’s first combined start-stop machine, was introduced in 1927 for the Post Office telegram service. This machine printed received messages directly on to gummed paper tape at a rate of 65 words per minute. Creed created his first keyboard perforator, which used compressed air to punch the holes. He also created a reperforator (receiving perforator) and a printer. The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals on to paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper. This was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System, which could run at an unprecedented 200 words per minute. His system was adopted by the 915: 704:

bit", which is always a space. Following the start bit, the character is represented by a fixed number of bits, such as 5 bits in the ITA2 code, each either a mark or a space to denote the specific character or machine function. After the character's bits, the sending machine sends one or more stop bits. The stop bits are marking, so as to be distinct from the subsequent start bit. If the sender has nothing more to send, the line simply remains in the marking state (as if a continuing series of stop bits) until a later space denotes the start of the next character. The time between characters need not be an integral multiple of a bit time, but it must be at least the minimum number of stop bits required by the receiving machine.

50: 1040: 635: 376:, and a tape transmitter for sending the message from the punched tape. At the receiving end of the line, a printing mechanism would print on a paper tape, and/or a reperforator could be used to make a perforated copy of the message. As there was no longer a direct correlation between the operator's hand movement and the bits transmitted, there was no concern about arranging the code to minimize operator fatigue, and instead Murray designed the code to minimize wear on the machinery, assigning the code combinations with the fewest punched holes to the most 1396: 436: 1192:

total of 33 years of continuous production. Very few complex machines can match that record. The production run was stretched somewhat by World War II—the Model 28 was scheduled to replace the Model 15 in the mid-1940s, but Teletype built so many factories to produce the Model 15 during World War II, it was more economical to continue mass production of the Model 15. The Model 15, in its receive only, no keyboard, version was the classic "news Teletype" for decades.

3905: 1287: 335: 1145: 3915: 1074: 3894: 196: 36: 283:. Teleprinters were invented in order to send and receive messages without the need for operators trained in the use of Morse code. A system of two teleprinters, with one operator trained to use a keyboard, replaced two trained Morse code operators. The teleprinter system improved message speed and delivery time, making it possible for messages to be flashed across a country with little manual intervention. 3925: 2783: 1184:. In 1984, the divestiture of the Bell System resulted in the Teletype name and logo being replaced by the AT&T name and logo, eventually resulting in the brand being extinguished. The last vestiges of what had been the Teletype Corporation ceased in 1990, bringing to a close the dedicated teleprinter business. Despite its long-lasting trademark status, the word 411:, who was vice president of the Western Cold Storage Company. Krum was interested in helping Pearne, so space was set up in a laboratory in the attic of Western Cold Storage. Frank Pearne lost interest in the project after a year and left to get involved in teaching. Krum was prepared to continue Pearne’s work, and in August, 1903 a patent was filed for a ' 835:

could read the priority code from the hole pattern and might even feed a "FLASH PRIORITY" tape into a reader while it was still coming out of the punch. Routine traffic often had to wait hours for relay. Many teleprinters had built-in paper tape readers and punches, allowing messages to be saved in machine-readable form and edited

324:. It was thus an example of a synchronous data transmission system. House's equipment could transmit around 40 instantly readable words per minute, but was difficult to manufacture in bulk. The printer could copy and print out up to 2,000 words per hour. This invention was first put in operation and exhibited at the 473:, Airways Division, Flight Service Station Airway Radio Stations system in 1928, carrying administrative messages, flight information and weather reports. By 1938, the teleprinter network, handling weather traffic, extended over 20,000 miles, covering all 48 states except Maine, New Hampshire, and South Dakota. 834:

punch (or "reperforator") and reader, allowing messages received to be resent on another circuit. Complex military and commercial communications networks were built using this technology. Message centers had rows of teleprinters and large racks for paper tapes awaiting transmission. Skilled operators

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for a mechanical teleprinter data transmission rate using the 5-bit ITA2 code that was popular in the 1940s and for several decades thereafter. Such a machine would send 1 start bit, 5 data bits, and 1.42 stop bits. This unusual stop bit time is actually a rest period to allow the mechanical printing

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page printer'. In 1904, Krum filed a patent for a 'type wheel printing telegraph machine' which was issued in August, 1907. In 1906 Charles Krum's son, Howard Krum, joined his father in this work. It was Howard who developed and patented the start-stop synchronizing method for code telegraph systems,

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that same year. He linked two 28-key piano-style keyboards by wire. Each piano key represented a letter of the alphabet and when pressed caused the corresponding letter to print at the receiving end. A "shift" key gave each main key two optional values. A 56-character typewheel at the sending end was

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devised an electromagnetic printing telegraph machine. It used pulses of electricity created by rotating a dial over contact points to release and stop a type-wheel turned by weight-driven clockwork; a second clockwork mechanism rotated a drum covered with a sheet of paper and moved it slowly upwards

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wires and similar services commonly used 66 speed services. There was some migration to 75 and 100 speed as more reliable devices were introduced. However, the limitations of HF transmission such as excessive error rates due to multipath distortion and the nature of ionospheric propagation kept many

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Teletype machines tended to be large, heavy, and extremely robust, capable of running non-stop for months at a time if properly lubricated. The Model 15 stands out as one of a few machines that remained in production for many years. It was introduced in 1930 and remained in production until 1963, a

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company obtained their patent for a start-stop synchronizing method for code telegraph systems, which made possible the practical teleprinter, Kleinschmidt filed an application titled "Method of and Apparatus for Operating Printing Telegraphs" which included an improved start-stop method. The basic

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operators continue to use this mode of communication today, though most use computer-interface sound generators, rather than legacy hardware teleprinter equipment. Numerous modes are in use within the "ham radio" community, from the original ITA2 format to more modern, faster modes, which include

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interrupts a telephone signal. The marking condition is when the circuit is closed (current is flowing), the spacing condition is when the circuit is open (no current is flowing). The "idle" condition of the circuit is a continuous marking state, with the start of a character signalled by a "start

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synchronised to coincide with a similar wheel at the receiving end. If the key corresponding to a particular character was pressed at the home station, it actuated the typewheel at the distant station just as the same character moved into the printing position, in a way similar to the (much later)

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manufacturing arm since 1930, was founded in 1906 as the Morkrum Company. In 1925, a merger between Morkrum and Kleinschmidt Electric Company created the Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Company. The name was changed in December 1928 to Teletype Corporation. In 1930, Teletype Corporation was purchased by the

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character forced the carriage to move to the same position on the next line) to teleprinters. In modern computing and communications a few control characters, such as carriage return and line feed, have retained their original functions (although they are often implemented in software rather than

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Both wire-service and private teleprinters had bells to signal important incoming messages and could ring 24/7 while the power was turned on. For example, ringing 4 bells on UPI wire-service machines meant an "Urgent" message; 5 bells was a "Bulletin"; and 10 bells was a FLASH, used only for very

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In 1908, a working teleprinter was produced by the Morkrum Company (formed between Joy Morton and Charles Krum), called the Morkrum Printing Telegraph, which was field tested with the Alton Railroad. In 1910, the Morkrum Company designed and installed the first commercial teletypewriter system on

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designed in 1874 a system using a five-unit code, which began to be used extensively in that country from 1877. The British Post Office adopted the Baudot system for use on a simplex circuit between London and Paris in 1897, and subsequently made considerable use of duplex Baudot systems on their

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known as the Teletypesetter code (TTS) used by news wire services. It was first demonstrated in 1928 and began to see widespread use in the 1950s. Through the use of "shift in" and "shift out" codes, this six-bit code could represent a full set of upper and lower case characters, digits, symbols

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Kleinschmidt machines, with the military as their primary customer, used standard military designations for their machines. The teleprinter was identified with designations such as a TT-4/FG, while communication "sets" to which a teleprinter might be a part generally used the standard Army/Navy

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was developed in the late 1920s, and was used through most of the 20th century for business communications. The main difference from a standard teleprinter is that Telex includes a switched routing network, originally based on pulse-telephone dialing, which in the United States was provided by

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Another measure of the speed of a teletypewriter was in total "operations per minute (OPM)". For example, 60 speed was usually 368 OPM, 66 speed was 404 OPM, 75 speed was 460 OPM, and 100 speed was 600 OPM. Western Union Telexes were usually set at 390 OPM, with 7.0 total bits instead of the

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was born. Morse's instrument used a current to displace the armature of an electromagnet, which moved a marker, therefore recording the breaks in the current. Cooke & Wheatstone received a British patent covering telegraphy in 1837 and a second one in 1840 which described a type-printing

987:, each one selected independently by one of the 14 bits during transmission. Because it does not use a fixed character set, but instead builds up characters from smaller elements, the ETK printing element does not require modification to switch between Latin, Cyrillic, and Greek characters. 620: 1429:

character was printed. Printing was unidirectional; if the user wanted to delete what had been typed, further characters were printed to indicate that previous text had been cancelled. When video displays first became available the user interface was initially exactly the same as for an

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can cause two carriers to randomly and independently fade to different depths. Since modern computer equipment cannot easily generate 1.42 bits for the stop period, common practice is to either approximate this with 1.5 bits, or to send 2.0 bits while accepting 1.0 bits receiving.

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A Model 20 Teletype machine with a paper tape punch ("reperforator") was installed at subscriber newspaper sites. Originally these machines would simply punch paper tapes and these tapes could be read by a tape reader attached to a "Teletypesetter operating unit" installed on a

901:(control E) signal, if enabled. This was commonly used to identify a station; the operator could press the key to send the station identifier to the other end, or the remote station could trigger its transmission by sending the ENQ character, essentially asking "who are you?" 2827: 2068: 1357:. The "operating unit" was essentially a tape reader which actuated a mechanical box, which in turn operated the Linotype's keyboard and other controls, in response to the codes read from the tape, thus creating type for printing in newspapers and magazines. 707:

When the line is broken, the continuous spacing (open circuit, no current flowing) causes a receiving teleprinter to cycle continuously, even in the absence of stop bits. It prints nothing because the characters received are all zeros, the ITA2 blank (or

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became the most common form of digital communications used in amateur radio. Soon, advanced multimode electronic interfaces such as the AEA PK-232 were developed, which could send and receive not only packet, but various other modulation types including

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Samuel Morse was one of the pioneers of electric telegraphy. Prompted by receiving news of his wife's death too late to attend her funeral, Morse was determined to improve the speed of long distance communications (which at that point relied on horse

2814: 856:), was also common, especially among military users. Ships, command posts (mobile, stationary, and even airborne) and logistics units took advantage of the ability of operators to send reliable and accurate information with a minimum of training. 2801: 1512:, but some of them (e.g. Solaris & recent Linux) have replaced pty files by a pts folder (where "pt" stands for "pseudoterminal" instead). In many computing contexts, "TTY" has become the name for any text terminal, such as an external 799:(20.0 ms per bit), a "75 speed" machine is geared at 56.9 baud (17.5 ms per bit), a "100 speed" machine is geared at 74.2 baud (13.5 ms per bit), and a "133 speed" machine is geared at 100.0 baud (10.0 ms per bit). 60 speed became the 1051:(est. 1908) started to manufacture teleprinters in order to provide Italian post offices with modern equipment to send and receive telegrams. The first models typed on a paper ribbon, which was then cut and glued into telegram forms. 2840: 999:

to pursue a different design of teleprinter. In 1944 Kleinschmidt demonstrated their lightweight unit to the Signal Corps and in 1949 their design was adopted for the Army's portable needs. In 1956, Kleinschmidt Labs merged with

671:: the asynchronous code design was intimately linked with the start-stop electro-mechanical design of teleprinters. (Early systems had used synchronous codes, but were hard to synchronize mechanically). Other codes, such as 2049: 1328:

customers from connecting to TWX customers. Telex is still in use in some countries for certain applications such as shipping, news, weather reporting and military command. Many business applications have moved to the

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Some teleprinters had a "Here is" key, which transmitted a fixed sequence of 20 or 22 characters, programmable by breaking tabs off a drum. This sequence could also be transmitted automatically upon receipt of an

392:(Line Feed) codes. A few of Baudot's codes moved to the positions where they have stayed ever since: the NULL or BLANK and the DEL code. NULL/BLANK was used as an idle code for when no messages were being sent. 1319:

type modems served over lines whose physical interface was identical to regular telephone lines. In many cases, the TWX service was provided by the same telephone central office that handled voice calls, using

372:(1865–1945, originally from New Zealand), prompted by his development of a typewriter-like keyboard. The Murray system employed an intermediate step, a keyboard perforator, which allowed an operator to punch a 1703:

In 1954 at MIT, researchers experimenting with direct keyboard input to computers. Until then, computer users fed their programs into a computer using punched cards or paper tape. Douglas Ross… believed… a

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applications for government and industry, such as integrating the accounting, billing, management, production, purchasing, sales, shipping and receiving departments within an organization to speed internal

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This allowed higher production rates for the Linotype, and was used both locally, where the tape was first punched and then fed to the machine, as well as remotely, using tape transmitters and receivers.

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Earlier teleprinters had three rows of keys and only supported upper case letters. They used the 5 bit ITA2 code and generally worked at 60 to 100 words per minute. Later teleprinters, specifically the

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only.) Special versions of teleprinters had FIGS characters for specific applications, such as weather symbols for weather reports. Print quality was poor by modern standards. The ITA2 code was used

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were reserved for teleprinter use. German systems did "dialing" via the keyboard. Typed "chat" was possible, but because billing was by connect time, it was common to prepare messages in advance on

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Company in 1924. The new company combined the best features of both their machines into a new typewheel printer for which Kleinschmidt, Howard Krum, and Sterling Morton jointly obtained a patent.

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telegraph with steel type fixed at the tips of petals of a rotating brass daisy-wheel, struck by an "electric hammer" to print Roman letters through carbon paper onto a moving paper tape. In 1841

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went into common generic usage in the news and telecommunications industries. Records of the United States Patent and Trademark Office indicate the trademark has expired and is considered dead.

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commonly used in newspapers, and typesetting instructions such as "flush left" or "center", and even "auxiliary font", to switch to italics or bold type, and back to roman ("upper rail").

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created a real-time circuit between two machines, so that anything typed on one machine appeared at the other end immediately. US and UK systems had telephone dials, and prior to 1981 five

1315:" which initially also used rotary dialing and Baudot code, carried to the customer premises as pulses of DC on a metallic copper pair. TWX later added a second ASCII-based service using 883:), and so on. Commands to control non-printing operations were transmitted in exactly the same way as printable characters by sending control characters with defined functions (e.g., the 1559:

Although printing news, messages, and other text at a distance is still universal, the dedicated teleprinter tied to a pair of leased copper wires was made functionally obsolete by the

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so that the type-wheel printed its signals in a spiral. The critical issue was to have the sending and receiving elements working synchronously. Bain attempted to achieve this using

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radio circuits where selective fading is present. Selective fading causes the mark signal amplitude to be randomly different from the space signal amplitude. Selective fading, or

2371: 1583:. This made it possible for a home or laptop computer to replace teleprinters, saving money, complexity, space and the massive amount of paper which mechanical machines used. 1023:

made their first commercial installation of a printing telegraph with the Postal Telegraph Company in Boston and New York in 1910. It became popular with railroads, and the

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in the 1977 Models 763/765, the first and one of the few commercial products to use the technology. In these units their storage capability essentially acted as a form of

1942: 1031:. Morkrum merged with their competitor Kleinschmidt Electric Company to become Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Corporation shortly before being renamed the Teletype Corporation. 983:, all characters (letters, digits, and punctuation) printed by the ETK are built from 14 basic elements on a print head, very similar to the 14 elements on a modern 583:"Loop" systems, where anything typed on any machine on the loop printed on all the machines. American police departments used such systems to interconnect precincts. 875:

A typewriter or electromechanical printer can print characters on paper, and execute operations such as move the carriage back to the left margin of the same line (

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in early stages of development, united to form one large corporation – Western Union Telegraph Co. – to carry on the business of telegraphy on the Hughes system.

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in the 1950s, teleprinters were adapted to allow typed data to be sent to a computer, and responses printed. Some teleprinter models could also be used to create

139:(either from typed input or from data received from a remote source) and to read back such tape for local printing or transmission. A teleprinter attached to a 819:

users at 60 and 66 speed. Most audio recordings in existence today are of teleprinters operating at 60 words per minute, and mostly of the Teletype Model 15.

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configured to provide point to point or point to multipoint service. More than two teleprinters could be connected to the same wire circuit by means of a

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method similar to the 5-bit code used by other teleprinters. However, instead of a more-or-less arbitrary mapping between 5-bit codes and letters in the

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activating electromechanical mechanisms to move a physical printer carriage) but many others are no longer required and are used for other purposes.

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for daily transmission of the newspaper's contents. The Creed Model 7 page printing teleprinter was introduced in 1931 and was used for the inland

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Instead of wasting time and money in patent disputes on the start-stop method, Kleinschmidt and the Morkrum Company decided to merge and form the

2716: 1647: 1008:, forming the SCM Corporation. By 1979, the Kleinschmidt division was turning to Electronic Data Interchange and away from mechanical products. 564:

Broadcast systems such as weather information distribution and "news wires", which were received on "wire machines". Examples were operated by

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introduced an improved machine built on the work of Royal Earl House. In less than two years, a number of small telegraph companies, including

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electromechanical printer; expensive and scarce video terminals could be used interchangeably with teleprinters. This was the origin of the

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start-stop procedure, however, is much older than the Kleinschmidt and Morkrum inventions. It was already proposed by D'Arlincourt in 1870.

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Model 35 = same as Model 28 but for 8 level ASCII-plus-parity-bit, used as heavy-duty computer terminal, optional tape punch and reader

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Teleprinter T 1000 electronic teleprinter (processor based) 50-75-100 Bd. Tape punch and reader attachments ND/NDL/SEU V21modem model

1211:= same as Model 32 but for 8 level ASCII-plus-parity-bit, used as computer terminal, optional tape punch and reader, 72 char./line. 1177: 420:

Postal Telegraph Company lines between Boston and New York City using the "Blue Code Version" of the Morkrum Printing Telegraph.

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teleprinter circuits were not directly connected to switching equipment. Instead, these private line circuits were connected to

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Landline teleprinter operations began in 1849, when a circuit was put in service between Philadelphia and New York City.

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readers and fast printers replaced teleprinters for most purposes, but teleprinters continued to be used as interactive

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designation system such as AN/FGC-25. This includes Kleinschmidt teleprinter TT-117/FG and tape reperforator TT-179/FG.

652:(ITA2). This was limited to 32 codes (2 = 32). One had to use "FIGS" (for "figures") and "LTRS" (for "letters") keys to 3633: 2676: 763:, used ASCII code, an innovation that came into widespread use in the 1960s as computers became more widely available. 1126:

PC-Telex Teleprinter with dedicated dot matrix printer Connected to IBM compatible PC (as used by Telkom South Africa)

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was sometimes used to prepare input for the computer session off line and to capture computer output. The popular

3623: 1690: 3618: 2692: 2066:, KLEINSCHMIDT, E., "METHOD OF AND APPARATUS FOR OPERATING PRINTING TELEGRAPHS", issued May 1, 1919 1129:

T4200 Teletex Teleprinter With two floppy disc drives and black and white monitor/daisy wheel typewriter (DOS2)

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to closely regulate the speed of the clockwork. It was patented, along with other devices, on April 21, 1841.

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Latifiyan, Pouya (Winter 2021). "Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication network and surrounding technologies".

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Model 38 = similar to Model 33, but for 132 char./line paper (14 inches wide), optional tape punch and reader

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Teleprinters could use a variety of different communication channels. These included a simple pair of wires,

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The TTS produces aligned text, taking into consideration character widths and column width, or line length.

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device that can be used to send and receive typed messages through various communications channels, in both

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Teleprinter T 1200 electronic teleprinter (processor based) 50-75-100-200 Bd.Green LED text display, 1.44M

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service. It worked at a speed of 50 baud, about 66 words a minute, using a code based on the Murray code.

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Model 37 = improved version of the Model 35, higher speeds up to 150 Baud, optional tape punch and reader

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Model 43 = same but for 8 level ASCII-plus-parity-bit, to replace Model 33 and Model 35, paper tape acc.

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Model 32 = small lightweight machine (cheap production) 45-50-56-75 Baud, optional tape punch and reader

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system. Joy Morton needed to determine whether this was worthwhile and so consulted mechanical engineer

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mechanism to synchronize in the event that a garbled signal is received. This is true especially on

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instead of a printer (though the term "TTY" is still occasionally used to refer to them, such as in

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sufficient to type both letters and numbers, as well as some special characters. (The letters were

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Teleprinter T 1000 Receive only units as used by newsrooms for unedited SAPA/Reuters/AP feeds etc.

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Model 42 = new cheap production Baudot machine to replace Model 28 and Model 32, paper tape acc.

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In later years the incoming 6-bit current loop signal carrying the TTS code was connected to a

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in teleprinter circuits. The native mode of communication for a teleprinter is a simple series

108:. The introduction of teleprinters automated much of this work and eventually largely replaced 2724: 2389: 2148: 1997: 1629:, which made it easy to connect teleprinters and terminals emulating teleprinters to computers 1120: 3561: 3365: 3330: 3250: 3230: 3152: 3040: 2961: 731:. These teleprinter circuits were connected to switching equipment at the central office for 623: 608: 470: 136: 97: 2894: 3964: 3475: 3435: 3405: 3162: 3097: 2919: 2123: 1864: 1365: 1139: 444: 342: 301: 247:

The teleprinter evolved through a series of inventions by a number of engineers, including

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In addition to the 5-bit Baudot code and the much later seven-bit ASCII code, there was a

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that extended from the teleprinter located at the customer location to the common carrier

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There were a number of parallel developments on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In 1835

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operation because of the widespread availability of equipment at that speed and the U.S.

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the first computer in the world to allow its users to enter commands through a keyboard…

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Model 40 = new system processor based, w/ monitor screen, but mechanical "chain printer"

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head to emit copy, making them substantially quieter than contemporary teletypes using

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Distant Writing: A History of the Telegraph Companies in Britain between 1838 and 1868

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For the telecommunications system consisting of teleprinters connected by radio, see

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Teleprinters were also used to record fault printout and other information in some

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Computers used teleprinters for input and output from the early days of computing.

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had been developed decades earlier in the late 1830s and 1840s, then using simpler

2654:. Vol. II, no. 5. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. pp. 1195–1200 2358:"Other manufacturers of teleprinter machines that use the Hellschreiber principle" 603:, teleprinters were long used in combination with electromechanical or electronic 427:

filed a patent application for a typebar page printer. In 1919, shortly after the

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networks arranged in point-to-point and / or multipoint configurations supported

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Remote use played an essential role for distributing identical content, such as

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systems were an early form of E-mail, using electromechanical equipment. See

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A Teletype Model 33 ASR with paper tape reader and punch, as used for early

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Teleprinter Model 100 Ser 1 (end of the 1950s) – Used for Telex service

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Creed model 7E (page printing teleprinter with overlap cam and range finder)

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Creed model 444 (page printing teleprinter introduced in 1966, GPO type 15)

831: 752: 740: 736: 653: 521: 308: 287: 264: 248: 179: 166:

systems). Teleprinters are still widely used in the aviation industry (see

148: 132: 43: 395:

In the United States in 1902, electrical engineer Frank Pearne approached

311:

telegraph service was operational between Washington, D.C., and New York.

3810: 3460: 3370: 3355: 3315: 3275: 2772: 2415: 2023: 1709: 1705: 1580: 1521: 1369: 815: 792: 744: 700: 692: 676: 627: 527: 403:, seeking a sponsor for research into the practicalities of developing a 400: 121: 2047:, KLEINSCHMIDT, E., "TELEGRAPH PRINTER", issued Apr 14, 1916 1824: 1671: 341:

telegraph, an early (1855) teleprinter built by Siemens and Halske. The

3815: 3522: 3220: 3129: 3085: 3055: 3033: 2812:, "Telegraph receiver (Type 14 Teletype)", issued February 1930 2387: 1995: 1453: 1387:

for storage, editing, and eventual feed to a phototypesetting machine.

1286: 1251: 1242: 1091: 611:. Being limited to text only was an acceptable trade-off for security. 600: 517: 459: 396: 373: 291: 113: 93: 1376:, and more, to different publications across wide geographical areas. 1104:

Teleprinter Model T100 ND (single current) NDL (double current) models

35: 16:

Device for transmitting messages in written form by electrical signals

3800: 3265: 3080: 2847: 2571: 1597: 1487: 1384: 1101:

Teleprinter Model 100 Ser. 11 – Later version with minor changes

880: 664: 554: 494: 334: 212:

it could be more easily read if subdivided by principle of operation.

128: 101: 2609:. Dr. David M. MacMillan. digital reprint by www.CircuitousRoot.com. 1144: 3795: 3785: 3702: 3527: 3350: 2799:, "Telegraph printer (Type 12 Teletype)", issued April 1928 2784:

Mass.gov: TTY explanation and government best practices for TTY use

2687:

A. G. Hobbs, G8GOJ; E. W. Yeomanson, G3IIR; A.C. Gee, G2UK (1983).

2474: 1330: 1048: 836: 748: 672: 557:. Military organizations had similar but separate systems, such as 546: 2309: 1536:-to-RS-232 converter attached to a computer's USB port, or even a 1202:= Baudot version, 45-50-56-75 Baud, optional tape punch and reader 1196:

Model 15 = Baudot version, 45 Baud, optional tape punch and reader

1073: 3790: 3775: 2993: 1233:

Several different high-speed printers like the "Ink-tronic" etc.

1077: 1020: 719:

Teleprinter circuits were generally leased from a communications

619: 573: 558: 428: 412: 389: 1708:… could function as a keyboard input device… Thus in 1955 MIT's 92:

Initially, from 1887 at the earliest, teleprinters were used in

3820: 3780: 3102: 1529: 1494: 1311:

Western Union. AT&T developed a competing network called "

814:(FCC) restrictions to only 60 speed from 1953 to 1972. Telex, 500:

There were at least five major types of teleprinter networks:

3805: 3742: 3050: 2838:, "Frequency-Shift Teletypewriter", issued April 1970 2602: 2572:

W. David Sloan, Lisa Mullikin Parcell, ed. (April 10, 2002).

1568: 1517: 1475: 1457: 1449: 1400: 1306: 1295: 953:

Creed model 75 (page printing teleprinter introduced in 1958)

950:

Creed model 54 (page printing teleprinter introduced in 1954)

732: 709: 505: 490: 463: 140: 938:

Creed model 7 (page printing teleprinter introduced in 1931)

485:, dedicated non-switched telephone circuits (leased lines), 205:

may be in need of reorganization to comply with Knowledge's

154:

Teleprinters have largely been replaced by fully electronic

3747: 1483: 959:

Creed model 86 (printing reperforator using 7/8" wide tape)

796: 788: 163: 971:

The Gretag ETK-47 teleprinter developed in Switzerland by

2756:

A first-hand report of Teletype Corporation's early years

1560: 1548: 1533: 956:

Creed model 85 (printing reperforator introduced in 1948)

646: 577: 489:

that operated similarly to the public telephone network (

1333:

as most countries have discontinued telex/TWX services.

947:

Creed model 7/TR (non-printing teleprinter reperforator)

345:

to achieve synchronicity with the other end can be seen.

182:

for typed communications over ordinary telephone lines.

679:, were introduced but never became as popular as ITA2. 476: 2743:

AT&T offering two way service through switchboards

995:

In 1931, American inventor Edward Kleinschmidt formed

2522:. Chicago: Teletype Corporation. 1941. Archived from 2440:"Queensland Telecommunications Museum – Teleprinters" 1863:. Clarkson University. April 14, 2007. Archived from 830:

The teleprinter circuit was often linked to a 5-bit

787:

For example, a "60 speed" machine is geared at 45.5

2575:

American Journalism: History, Principles, Practices

2459:. Chicago: Armour Institute of Technology (thesis). 1745: 1743: 2606:The Linotype Handbook for Teletypesetter Operation 2222:, "Signaling system", issued 29 March 1944 941:Creed model 7B (50 baud page printing teleprinter) 1751:"Typewriter May Soon Be Transmitter of Telegrams" 1250:developed its own line of teletypes in 1971, the 795:per bit), a "66 speed" machine is geared at 50.0 599:) made it possible to securely encrypt voice and 3941: 2388:Colin Hempstead, William E. Worthington (2005). 2080: 2078: 1996:Colin Hempstead, William E. Worthington (2005). 1740: 879:), advance to the same column of the next line ( 2452: 1554: 416:which made possible the practical teleprinter. 19:"Teletype" redirects here. For other uses, see 2516:Adjustments, Type Bar Page Printer, (Model 15) 2109: 1774:"Type used for original morse telegraph, 1835" 1290:A Teletype Model 32 ASR used for Telex service 766:"Speed", intended to be roughly comparable to 219:to make improvements to the overall structure. 2863: 2733:. Hearst Magazines. April 1932. p. 577. 2725:"Teletype Messages Sent Through Switch Board" 2434: 2432: 2284: 2118:] (in German). Berlin: Militärverlag der 2075: 2274:"ASR 33 Teletype Rear View of Main Assembly" 2062: 2043: 1516:device, a user dialing into the system on a 1390: 524:and transmit them without pauses for typing. 3878:Global telecommunications regulation bodies 2715:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2683:On the role of the teleprinter code in WWII 2372:"The Hagelin - Gretener Cipher Teleprinter" 2087:The Worldwide History of Telecommunications 1627:Universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter 1422:became widely available in the late 1970s. 1107:Teleprinter Model T 150 (electromechanical) 368:During 1901, Baudot's code was modified by 3914: 2870: 2856: 2669:Colossus: Bletchley Park's Greatest Secret 2429: 1822: 469:A teleprinter system was installed in the 53:Example of teleprinter art: a portrait of 2456:The Morkrum System of Printing Telegraphy 2325:"Gretag ETK-47 14-bit teleprinter system" 2084: 1723: 1687:"History of the Modern Computer Keyboard" 1540:application in the window system using a 1270:in the 1973 Models 732/733 ASR and later 1266:and some had internal storage, initially 235:Learn how and when to remove this message 2416:"Morkum Printing Telegraph Page Printer" 2355: 2110:Deckert, Jürgen; Kösling, Heinz (1987). 2024:"Morkum Printing Telegraph Page Printer" 1853: 1394: 1285: 1178:American Telephone and Telegraph Company 1169:American Telephone and Telegraph Company 1143: 1110:Offline tape punch for creating messages 1072: 1038: 913: 891: 633: 618: 614: 434: 333: 48: 34: 2442:. Queensland Telecommunications Museum. 2391:Encyclopedia of 20th-century technology 2146: 1999:Encyclopedia of 20th Century Technology 1915:The World's Work: A History of Our Time 1133: 1068: 669:asynchronously with start and stop bits 630:, with 32 keys, including the space bar 176:Telecommunications Devices for the Deaf 3942: 2877: 2666: 2645: 2603:Mergenthaler Linotype Company (1951). 2266: 2167:"FAA HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY, 1926-1996" 1907: 909: 650:International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 639:International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 120:and machines communicating faster via 42:teleprinters in use in England during 2851: 2773:History of Teletypewriter Development 2646:Foster, Maximilian (September 1901). 2619: 2565: 2471:"History of The Teletype Corporation" 2311:Baudot.net: Creed & Company, Ltd. 1094:, a German company, founded in 1847. 864: 770:, is the standard term introduced by 641:development of the Baudot–Murray code 3924: 2779:"Some Notes on Teletype Corporation" 2246:Sam's Telecomms Documents Repository 1304:A global teleprinter network called 1254:. Their name came from the use of a 1236: 990: 477:Ways in which teleprinters were used 189: 2176:. December 17, 2005. Archived from 1803: 1666: 1528:on a computer's serial port or the 1471:In early operating systems such as 595:performance improvements thanks to 290:devised a recording telegraph, and 13: 2639: 2149:"Flight Service History 1920-1998" 2147:Schamel, John (October 19, 2016). 1918:. Vol. II. pp. 1195–1199 1908:Foster, Maximilian (August 1901). 1839:"Silent Key – Edward Kleinschmidt" 1645: 483:public switched telephone networks 14: 3976: 2749: 2648:"A Successful Printing Telegraph" 2360:. Dr. Edgar Gretener AG (Gretag). 2120:Deutschen Demokratischen Republik 1910:"A Successful Printing Telegraph" 1885: 1734:Civil Aviation Technology College 1717: 1689:. January 4, 2021. Archived from 1336: 842:Communication by radio, known as 812:Federal Communications Commission 497:links (telex-on-radio, or TOR). 439:Siemens t37h (1933) without cover 3923: 3913: 3904: 3903: 3892: 3513:Free-space optical communication 1524:device, a printing or graphical 1456:) instead of Baudot. The common 1006:Marchant Calculating Machine Co. 904: 194: 2613: 2596: 2551: 2533: 2507: 2489: 2473:. June 24, 2003. Archived from 2463: 2446: 2408: 2381: 2364: 2349: 2343:"ETK teletype equipment series" 2335: 2317: 2302: 2252: 2231: 2212: 2187: 2159: 2140: 2103: 2056: 2037: 2016: 1967: 1949: 1930: 1901: 1879: 1649:History Of Teletype Development 1047:Italian office equipment maker 699:that is interrupted, much as a 143:could also communicate through 1831: 1816: 1797: 1766: 1679: 1660: 1639: 1156:reader and punch, usable as a 861:error-checking of characters. 127:With the development of early 1: 3950:History of telecommunications 2541:"ASR 33 Teletype Information" 1633: 1425:Users typed commands after a 1027:adopted it in 1914 for their 1004:, which then merged with the 645:Most teleprinters used the 5- 514:North American Numbering Plan 3899:Telecommunication portal 3680:Telecommunications equipment 2768:A Gallery of Teletype Images 2085:Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). 1555:Obsolescence of teleprinters 1468:stem from the Teletype era. 7: 3416:Alexander Stepanovich Popov 2153:Air Traffic Control History 2089:. Wiley-IEEE. p. 302. 1586: 1180:and became a subsidiary of 1034: 930:built teleprinters for the 365:Inland Telegraph Services. 10: 3981: 3120:Telecommunications history 2789: 2671:. London: Atlantic Books. 2622:"Teletypes in Typesetting" 2394:. Routledge. p. 605. 2002:. Routledge. p. 605. 1977:, issued December 1918 1508:(for pseudo-tty), such as 1293: 1240: 1137: 1064:Olivetti Te400 (1975–1991) 1061:Olivetti Te300 (1968–1975) 1015: 868: 723:and consisted of ordinary 607:devices to provide secure 576:, and United Press (later 378:frequently used characters 185: 25: 18: 3887: 3829: 3766: 3728:Public Switched Telephone 3688: 3652: 3609: 3550: 3540:telecommunication circuit 3501:Fiber-optic communication 3484: 3246:Francis Blake (telephone) 3193: 3041:Optical telecommunication 2885: 1806:"3. Cooke and Wheatstone" 1460:communications settings, 1391:Teleprinters in computing 966: 922:Teleprinter No. 7 in 1930 504:Exchange systems such as 21:Teletype (disambiguation) 3639:Orbital angular-momentum 3076:Satellite communications 2915:Communications satellite 2453:Earle, Ralph H. (1917). 1825:"Distant Writing – Bain" 1281: 985:fourteen-segment display 934:'s teleprinter service. 570:National Weather Service 3518:Molecular communication 3341:Gardiner Greene Hubbard 3170:Undersea telegraph line 2905:Cable protection system 2761:March 12, 2009, at the 2497:"US trademark database" 1300:Telegraphy § Telex 1058:Olivetti T2 (1948–1968) 1055:Olivetti T1 (1938–1948) 977:start-stop transmission 210:. The reason given is: 178:(TDDs) are used by the 174:), and variants called 172:airline teletype system 158:which typically have a 3660:Communication protocol 3446:Charles Sumner Tainter 3261:Walter Houser Brattain 3206:Edwin Howard Armstrong 3014:Information revolution 2292:"TELETYPE MODEL 32ASR" 2239:"Introduction to RTTY" 1613:Siemens and Halske T52 1593:Letter-quality printer 1436:command-line interface 1404: 1374:classified advertising 1291: 1160: 1152:ASR teleprinter, with 1084: 1044: 975:in 1947 uses a 14-bit 923: 642: 631: 609:communication channels 593:information processing 440: 388:(Carriage Return) and 346: 58: 46: 3634:Polarization-division 3366:Narinder Singh Kapany 3331:Erna Schneider Hoover 3251:Jagadish Chandra Bose 3231:Alexander Graham Bell 2962:online video platform 2836:US Patent 3507997 2823:US Patent 1904164 2810:US Patent 1745633 2797:US Patent 1665594 2667:Gannon, Paul (2006). 2578:. McFarland. p. 2220:US Patent 2364357 2195:"AP teletype machine" 2064:US Patent 1463136 2045:US Patent 1448750 1975:US Patent 1286351 1940:, issued May 1908 1861:"David Edward Hughes" 1849:(9): 2. October 1977. 1563:, personal computer, 1551:telephone exchanges. 1452:code (with an eighth 1398: 1289: 1147: 1123:("stiffy") attachment 1076: 1042: 917: 892:Answer back mechanism 823:customary 7.42 bits. 691:are terms describing 637: 622: 615:Teleprinter operation 471:Bureau of Lighthouses 438: 337: 328:in New York in 1844. 302:centrifugal governors 98:Electrical telegraphy 52: 38: 3476:Vladimir K. Zworykin 3436:Almon Brown Strowger 3406:Charles Grafton Page 3061:Prepaid mobile phone 2989:Electrical telegraph 2689:Teleprinter handbook 2561:. February 17, 2022. 2529:on January 11, 2011. 2183:on November 5, 2013. 1957:US Patent 862402 1938:US Patent 888335 1604:system for telegrams 1571:, and the Internet. 1165:Teletype Corporation 1140:Teletype Corporation 1134:Teletype Corporation 1088:Siemens & Halske 1069:Siemens & Halske 1043:Olivetti Teleprinter 445:Morkrum-Kleinschmidt 343:centrifugal governor 112:operators versed in 3426:Johann Philipp Reis 3185:Wireless revolution 3147:The Telephone Cases 3004:Hydraulic telegraph 2260:"RTTY Demodulators" 2116:Teletype Technology 1656:on November 5, 2020 1621:secrets teleprinter 1617:Geheimfernschreiber 928:Creed & Company 920:Creed & Company 910:Creed & Company 589:computer revolution 452:Creed & Company 425:Edward Kleinschmidt 351:David Edward Hughes 326:Mechanics Institute 322:daisy wheel printer 277:Edward Kleinschmidt 261:David Edward Hughes 217:editing the article 106:telegraph operators 87:point-to-multipoint 3624:Frequency-division 3601:Telephone exchange 3471:Charles Wheatstone 3401:Jun-ichi Nishizawa 3376:Innocenzo Manzetti 3311:Reginald Fessenden 3046:Optical telegraphy 2879:Telecommunications 2545:www.pdp8online.com 2278:www.pdp8online.com 2112:Fernschreibtechnik 1762:, January 25, 1914 1759:The New York Times 1405: 1366:syndicated columns 1292: 1161: 1085: 1045: 924: 865:Control characters 643: 632: 628:Baudot teleprinter 456:Frederick G. Creed 450:In 1924 Britain's 441: 405:printing telegraph 382:control characters 347: 317:printing telegraph 281:Frederick G. Creed 156:computer terminals 59: 47: 3937: 3936: 3675:Store and forward 3670:Data transmission 3584:Network switching 3535:Transmission line 3381:Guglielmo Marconi 3346:Internet pioneers 3211:Mohamed M. Atalla 3180:Whistled language 2730:Popular Mechanics 2589:978-0-7864-1371-3 1888:"Five-unit codes" 1867:on April 22, 2008 1804:Roberts, Steven. 1602:message switching 1538:terminal emulator 1526:computer terminal 1491:operating systems 1446:Teletype Model 33 1264:acoustic couplers 1248:Texas Instruments 1237:Texas Instruments 1158:computer terminal 1150:Teletype Model 33 1081:Fernschreiber 100 997:Kleinschmidt Labs 991:Kleinschmidt Labs 871:Control character 761:Teletype Model 33 659:, for a combined 543:Message switching 493:), and radio and 487:switched networks 245: 244: 237: 207:layout guidelines 89:configurations. 79:electromechanical 3972: 3927: 3926: 3917: 3916: 3907: 3906: 3897: 3896: 3895: 3768:Notable networks 3758:Wireless network 3698:Cellular network 3690:Types of network 3665:Computer network 3552:Network topology 3466:Thomas A. Watson 3321:Oliver Heaviside 3306:Philo Farnsworth 3281:Daniel Davis Jr. 3256:Charles Bourseul 3216:John Logie Baird 2925:Data compression 2920:Computer network 2872: 2865: 2858: 2849: 2848: 2844: 2843: 2839: 2831: 2830: 2826: 2818: 2817: 2813: 2805: 2804: 2800: 2745: 2720: 2714: 2706: 2691:(2nd ed.). 2682: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2652:The World's Work 2634: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2600: 2594: 2593: 2569: 2563: 2562: 2555: 2549: 2548: 2537: 2531: 2530: 2528: 2521: 2511: 2505: 2504: 2493: 2487: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2467: 2461: 2460: 2450: 2444: 2443: 2436: 2427: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2412: 2406: 2405: 2385: 2379: 2378: 2376: 2368: 2362: 2361: 2353: 2347: 2346: 2339: 2333: 2332: 2321: 2315: 2314: 2306: 2300: 2299: 2288: 2282: 2281: 2270: 2264: 2263: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2243: 2235: 2229: 2228: 2227: 2223: 2216: 2210: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2191: 2185: 2184: 2182: 2171: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2144: 2138: 2137: 2107: 2101: 2100: 2082: 2073: 2072: 2071: 2067: 2060: 2054: 2053: 2052: 2048: 2041: 2035: 2034: 2032: 2030: 2020: 2014: 2013: 1993: 1984: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1971: 1965: 1964: 1963: 1959: 1953: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1941: 1934: 1928: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1905: 1899: 1898: 1896: 1894: 1883: 1877: 1876: 1874: 1872: 1857: 1851: 1850: 1835: 1829: 1828: 1823:Steven Roberts. 1820: 1814: 1813: 1801: 1795: 1794: 1788: 1786: 1770: 1764: 1763: 1755: 1747: 1738: 1737: 1721: 1715: 1714: 1700: 1698: 1693:on March 2, 2021 1683: 1677: 1676: 1664: 1658: 1657: 1652:, archived from 1643: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1481: 1403:-based computing 1370:news agency news 1355:Linotype machine 1322:class of service 1182:Western Electric 1173:Western Electric 1121:3.5" floppy disk 1025:Associated Press 827:important news. 768:words per minute 725:telephone cables 566:Associated Press 313:Royal Earl House 257:Royal Earl House 240: 233: 229: 226: 220: 198: 197: 190: 180:hearing impaired 160:computer monitor 55:Dag Hammarskjöld 3980: 3979: 3975: 3974: 3973: 3971: 3970: 3969: 3955:Impact printing 3940: 3939: 3938: 3933: 3893: 3891: 3883: 3825: 3762: 3684: 3648: 3605: 3554: 3546: 3487: 3480: 3386:Robert Metcalfe 3241:Tim Berners-Lee 3189: 3009:Information Age 2881: 2876: 2841: 2834: 2828: 2821: 2815: 2808: 2802: 2795: 2792: 2763:Wayback Machine 2752: 2723: 2708: 2707: 2703: 2679: 2657: 2655: 2642: 2640:Further reading 2637: 2627: 2625: 2618: 2614: 2601: 2597: 2590: 2570: 2566: 2557: 2556: 2552: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2526: 2519: 2513: 2512: 2508: 2495: 2494: 2490: 2480: 2478: 2477:on June 3, 2008 2469: 2468: 2464: 2451: 2447: 2438: 2437: 2430: 2420: 2418: 2414: 2413: 2409: 2402: 2386: 2382: 2374: 2370: 2369: 2365: 2354: 2350: 2341: 2340: 2336: 2331:. July 4, 2016. 2323: 2322: 2318: 2308: 2307: 2303: 2290: 2289: 2285: 2272: 2271: 2267: 2258: 2257: 2253: 2241: 2237: 2236: 2232: 2225: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2203: 2201: 2193: 2192: 2188: 2180: 2169: 2165: 2164: 2160: 2145: 2141: 2134: 2108: 2104: 2097: 2083: 2076: 2069: 2061: 2057: 2050: 2042: 2038: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2021: 2017: 2010: 1994: 1987: 1980: 1973: 1972: 1968: 1961: 1955: 1954: 1950: 1943: 1936: 1935: 1931: 1921: 1919: 1906: 1902: 1892: 1890: 1886:Hobbs, Alan G. 1884: 1880: 1870: 1868: 1859: 1858: 1854: 1837: 1836: 1832: 1821: 1817: 1802: 1798: 1784: 1782: 1772: 1771: 1767: 1753: 1749: 1748: 1741: 1722: 1718: 1696: 1694: 1685: 1684: 1680: 1673:Distant Writing 1668:Roberts, Steven 1665: 1661: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1589: 1557: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1479: 1462:Start/Stop Bits 1393: 1339: 1302: 1294:Main articles: 1284: 1260:impact printing 1256:thermal printer 1245: 1239: 1142: 1136: 1071: 1037: 1018: 993: 969: 912: 907: 894: 877:carriage return 873: 867: 781:Rayleigh fading 617: 539:communications. 536:data processing 479: 409:Charles L. Krum 273:Charles L. Krum 241: 230: 224: 221: 215:Please help by 214: 199: 195: 188: 145:telephone lines 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3978: 3968: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3935: 3934: 3932: 3931: 3921: 3911: 3901: 3888: 3885: 3884: 3882: 3881: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3853: 3852: 3847: 3839: 3833: 3831: 3827: 3826: 3824: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3778: 3772: 3770: 3764: 3763: 3761: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3694: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3656: 3654: 3650: 3649: 3647: 3646: 3641: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3619:Space-division 3615: 3613: 3607: 3606: 3604: 3603: 3598: 3597: 3596: 3591: 3581: 3580: 3579: 3569: 3564: 3558: 3556: 3548: 3547: 3545: 3544: 3543: 3542: 3532: 3531: 3530: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3509: 3508: 3498: 3492: 3490: 3482: 3481: 3479: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3456:Camille Tissot 3453: 3448: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3431:Claude Shannon 3428: 3423: 3421:Tivadar Puskás 3418: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3398: 3393: 3391:Antonio Meucci 3388: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3361:Charles K. Kao 3358: 3353: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3336:Harold Hopkins 3333: 3328: 3323: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3273: 3268: 3263: 3258: 3253: 3248: 3243: 3238: 3236:Emile Berliner 3233: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3197: 3195: 3191: 3190: 3188: 3187: 3182: 3177: 3175:Videotelephony 3172: 3167: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3150: 3143: 3138: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3111: 3110: 3105: 3100: 3090: 3089: 3088: 3078: 3073: 3071:Radiotelephone 3068: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3038: 3037: 3036: 3026: 3021: 3016: 3011: 3006: 3001: 2996: 2991: 2986: 2981: 2976: 2975: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2957:Internet video 2949: 2948: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2922: 2917: 2912: 2907: 2902: 2897: 2891: 2889: 2883: 2882: 2875: 2874: 2867: 2860: 2852: 2846: 2845: 2832: 2819: 2806: 2791: 2788: 2787: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2775:by R.A. Nelson 2770: 2765: 2751: 2750:External links 2748: 2747: 2746: 2721: 2701: 2684: 2678:978-1843543312 2677: 2664: 2641: 2638: 2636: 2635: 2612: 2595: 2588: 2564: 2550: 2532: 2506: 2488: 2462: 2445: 2428: 2407: 2400: 2380: 2363: 2356:F. 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