863:
847:
957:
316:
941:
800:
154:
909:
881:
819:
584:
653:, therefore using at least eleven ASCII characters for each byte stored (9% efficiency). The ASCII "N" and "P" characters differed in four bit positions, providing excellent protection from single punch errors. Alternative schemes named BHLF (Begin-High-Low-Finish) and B10F (Begin-One-Zero-Finish) were also available where either "L" and "H" or "0" and "1" were also available to represent data bits, but in both of these encoding schemes, the two data-bearing ASCII characters differ in only one bit position, providing very poor single punch error detection.
702:
359:
768:
30:
925:
831:
514:
897:
276:, to lubricate the reader and punch mechanisms. The oil impregnation usually made the paper somewhat translucent and slippery, and excess oil could transfer to clothing or any surfaces it contacted. Later optical tape readers often specified non-oiled opaque paper tape, which was less prone to depositing oily debris on the optical sensors and causing read errors. Another innovation was fanfold paper tape, which was easier to store compactly and less prone to tangling, as compared to rolled paper tape.
463:
38:
22:
229:
784:
452:
192:. The tape, punched with the keyboard, was later read by the caster, which produced lead type according to the combinations of holes in up to 31 positions. The tape reader used compressed air, which passed through the holes and was directed into certain mechanisms of the caster. The system went into commercial use in 1897 and was in production well into the 1970s, undergoing several changes along the way.
334:", or small circular pieces of paper. Managing the disposal of chad was an annoying and complex problem, as the tiny paper pieces had a tendency to escape containment and to interfere with the other electromechanical parts of the teleprinter equipment. Chad from oiled paper tape was particularly problematic, as it tended to clump and build up, rather than flowing freely into a collection container.
221:
478:. Operators typed in the message to the paper tape, and then sent the message at the maximum line speed from the tape. This permitted the operator to prepare the message "off-line" at the operator's best typing speed, and permitted the operator to correct any error prior to transmission. An experienced operator could prepare a message at 135 words per minute (WPM) or more for short periods.
127:. The resulting paper tape, also called a "chain of cards", was stronger and simpler both to create and to repair. This led to the concept of communicating data not as a stream of individual cards, but as one "continuous card" (or tape). Paper tapes constructed from punched cards were widely used throughout the 19th century for controlling looms. Many professional
685:. With the wire services coming into a device that would punch paper tape, rather than the Linotype operator having to retype all the incoming stories, the paper tape could be put into a paper tape reader on the Linotype and it would create the lead slugs without the operator re-typing the stories. This also allowed newspapers to use devices, such as the
649:(8 bits) would be represented by a highly redundant character framing sequence starting with a single uppercase ASCII "B", eight ASCII characters where a "0" would be represented by a "N" and a "1" would be represented by a "P", followed by an ending ASCII "F". These ten-character ASCII sequences were separated by one or more
350:
read chadless tape in later high-speed readers which used optical sensing. However, the mechanical tape readers used in most standard-speed equipment had no problem with chadless tape, because they sensed the holes by means of blunt spring-loaded mechanical sensing pins, which easily pushed the paper flaps out of the way.
260:. Later, optical readers made use of the sprocket holes to generate timing pulses. The sprocket holes were slightly closer to one edge of the tape, dividing the tape into unequal widths, to make it unambiguous which way to orient the tape in the reader. The bits on the narrower width of the tape were generally the
341:. This machine would punch a received teleprinter signal into tape and print the message on it at the same time, using a printing mechanism similar to that of an ordinary page printer. The tape punch, rather than punching out the usual round holes, would instead punch little U-shaped cuts in the paper, so that no
96:
634:. A significant variety of encoding formats were developed for use in computer and ROM/EPROM data transfer. Encoding formats commonly used were primarily driven by those formats that EPROM programming devices supported and included various ASCII hex variants as well as a number of proprietary formats.
751:
or Mylar tapes can be read many decades after manufacture, in contrast with magnetic tape that can deteriorate and become unreadable with time. The hole patterns of punched tape can be decoded by eye if necessary, and even editing of a tape is possible by manual cutting and splicing. Unlike magnetic
349:
A disadvantage to this technology was that, once punched, chadless tape did not roll up well for storage, because the protruding flaps of paper would catch on the next layer of tape so it could not be coiled up tightly. Another disadvantage that emerged in time, was that there was no reliable way to
481:
The line typically operated at 75 WPM, but it operated continuously. By preparing the tape "off-line" and then sending the message with a tape reader, the line could operate continuously rather than depending on continuous "on-line" typing by a single operator. Typically, a single 75 WPM
755:
Reliability of paper tape punching operations was a concern, so that for critical applications a new punched tape could be read after punching to verify the correct contents. Rewinding a tape required a takeup reel or other measures to avoid tearing or tangling the tape. In some uses, "fan fold"
236:
Data was represented by the presence or absence of a hole at a particular location. Tapes originally had five rows of holes for data across the width of the tape. Later tapes had more rows. A 1944 electro-mechanical programmable calculating machine, the
Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator or
345:
would be produced; the "hole" was still filled with a little paper trap-door. By not fully punching out the hole, the printing on the paper remained intact and legible. This enabled operators to read the tape without having to decipher the holes, which would facilitate relaying the message on to
692:
If an error was found at one position on the six-level tape, that character could be turned into a null character to be skipped by punching out the remaining non-punched positions with what was known as a “chicken plucker". It looked like a strawberry stem remover that, pressed with thumb and
672:
made similar cash registers around the same time. The tape could then be read into a computer and not only could sales information be summarized, billings could be done on charge transactions. The tape was also used for inventory tracking, recording department and class numbers of items sold.
551:
and RO – Receive Only models. As a side effect, punched tape became a popular medium for low-cost minicomputer data and program storage, and it was common to find a selection of tapes containing useful programs in most minicomputer installations. Faster optical readers were also common.
547:, capable of ten ASCII characters per second throughput) as a low-cost solution for keyboard input and printer output. The commonly specified Model 33 ASR included a paper tape punch/reader, where ASR stands for "Automatic Send/Receive" as opposed to the punchless/readerless KSR –
752:
tape, magnetic fields such as produced by electric motors cannot alter the punched data. In cryptography applications, a punched tape used to distribute a key can be rapidly and completely destroyed by burning, preventing the key from falling into the hands of an enemy.
306:
inch (17 mm) for five bit codes, and 1 inch (25 mm) for tapes with six or more bits. Hole spacing was 0.1 inches (2.5 mm) in both directions. Data holes were 0.072 inches (1.8 mm) in diameter; sprocket feed holes were 0.046 inches (1.2 mm).
756:
tape simplified handling as the tape would refold into a "takeup tank" ready to be re-read. The information density of punched tape was low compared with magnetic tape, making large datasets clumsy to handle in punched tape form.
283:
tape was often used. This tough, durable plastic film was usually thinner than paper tapes, but could still be used in many devices originally designed for paper media. The plastic tape was sometimes transparent, but usually was
562:
was often accomplished using a doubly encoded technique to compensate for the relatively high error rate of punches and readers. The low-level encoding was typically ASCII, further encoded and framed in various schemes such as
571:(primarily in ASCII hex characters) information helped with error detection. Efficiencies of such an encoding scheme are on the order of 35–40% (e.g., 36% from 44 8-bit ASCII characters being needed to represent sixteen
940:
1411:
1278:
83:. During the Second World War, high-speed punched tape systems using optical readout methods were used in code breaking systems. Punched tape was used to transmit data for manufacture of
862:
732:, that was temporarily connected to each security device that needed new keys. NSA has been trying to replace this method with a more secure electronic key management system (
403:
212:, some modern systems still measure the size of stored CNC programs in feet or meters, corresponding to the equivalent length if the data were actually punched on paper tape.
846:
830:
956:
493:
introduced a paper tape reader called RC 2000 that could read 2,000 characters per second; later they increased the speed further, up to 2,500 cps. As early as
880:
71:
in the 18th century. Use for telegraphy systems started in 1842. Punched tapes were used throughout the 19th and for much of the 20th centuries for programmable looms,
689:, to convert typing to lead type via tape. Even after the demise of Linotype and hot lead typesetting, many early phototypesetter devices utilized paper tape readers.
767:
924:
256:
A row of smaller sprocket holes was always punched to be used to synchronize tape movement. Originally, this was done using a wheel with radial teeth called a
482:
line supported three or more teletype operators working offline. Tapes punched at the receiving end could be used to relay messages to another station. Large
908:
799:
1546:
423:
1415:
607:
readers, and the medium was reasonably reliable in a manufacturing environment. Paper tape was an important storage medium for computer-controlled
1343:"Chapter 6. Microcomputer System Component Data Sheet - EPROMs and ROM: I. PROM and ROM Programming Instructions - B2. BPNF Paper Tape Format".
1269:
1386:
1362:
60:
device that consists of a long strip of paper through which small holes are punched. It was developed from and was subsequently used alongside
681:
Punched paper tape was used by the newspaper industry until the mid-1970s or later. Newspapers were typically set in hot lead by devices like
1364:
498:
626:
In the 1970s through the early 1980s, paper tape was commonly used to transfer binary data for incorporation in either mask-programmable
1495:
1366:(NB. This manual describes a "BPNF Paper Tape Format", a "Non-Intellec Hex Paper Tape Format" and a "PN Computer Punched Card Format".)
783:
1490:
382:, which dates back to the 19th century and had five holes. The Baudot code was superseded by modified five-hole codes such as the
818:
1539:
399:
1447:
1072:
1649:
1485:
1500:
119:
in 1725 to control looms. However, the paper tapes were expensive to create, fragile, and difficult to repair. By 1801,
1191:
1467:
1532:
1323:
567:, in which a binary value of "01011010" would be represented by the ASCII characters "5A". Framing, addressing and
467:
489:
Paper tape could be read into computers at up to 1,000 characters per second. In 1963, a Danish company called
419:
1654:
915:
615:
315:
1135:
896:
330:
Most tape-punching equipment used solid circular punches to create holes in the tape. This process created "
596:
1659:
1306:
Feichtinger, Herwig (1987). "1.8.5. Lochstreifen-Datenformate" [1.8.5. Paper tape data formats].
1241:
1344:
1277:. Rev 1 (printed September 1974 ed.). 1974-03-15 . p. 101. MCS180-0774-1K, MCS280-0974-1K.
162:
1377:
296:
Tape for punching was usually 0.00394 inches (0.100 mm) thick. The two most common widths were
1621:
947:
717:
153:
1139:
736:), but as of 2016, paper tape was apparently still being employed. The paper tape canister is a
716:
communications using a key stored on paper tape. During the last third of the 20th century, the
75:
communication, for input to computers of the 1950s and 1960s, and later as a storage medium for
1089:
189:
1437:
1181:
1111:
724:. The eight-level paper tapes were distributed under strict accounting controls and read by a
1062:
548:
367:
261:
120:
45:
with a small piece of five-hole tape connected in a circle – creating a physical program loop
650:
431:
209:
131:
operations still refer to those individuals who create the designs and machine patterns as
346:
another station in the network. Also, there was no "chad box" to empty from time to time.
8:
1664:
1315:
637:
A much more primitive as well as a much longer high-level encoding scheme was also used,
599:
equipment often used paper tape. A paper tape reader was smaller and less expensive than
583:
427:
1555:
1224:
986:
721:
686:
458:
Automatic Send and
Receive teleprinter with paper tape in both the reader and the punch
395:
375:
170:
1048:
Distant
Writing: A History of the Telegraph Companies in Britain between 1838 and 1868
123:
had developed machines to create paper tapes by tying punched cards in a sequence for
1615:
1470:. European Computer Manufacturers Association. November 1965. ECMA-10. Archived from
1443:
1350:
1319:
1187:
1068:
774:
701:
588:
544:
502:
483:
455:
383:
205:
174:
80:
29:
1228:
1043:
358:
177:
used for the automated preparation, storage and transmission of data in telegraphy.
1216:
1022:
740:
container that contains features to prevent undetected alteration of the contents.
737:
682:
627:
505:
could run at 5,000 cps using an optical tape reader designed by Arnold Lynch.
84:
42:
513:
272:
Many early machines used oiled paper tape, which was pre-impregnated with a light
135:
even though punched cards and paper tape were eventually phased out in the 1990s.
1001:
748:
661:
387:
185:
181:
426:(ASCII). This seven-level code was adopted by some teleprinter users, including
422:
led a project to develop a universal code for data processing, which became the
157:
Wheatstone slip with a dot, space and a dash punched, and perforator punch plate
1414:. National Security Agency Central Security Service. 2016-05-03. Archived from
709:
600:
518:
490:
407:
238:
201:
116:
1514:
1643:
618:
tape were developed so that heavily used production tapes would last longer.
604:
536:
were being released, most manufacturers turned to the existing mass-produced
462:
124:
104:
1518:
37:
1609:
1524:
1471:
996:
665:
559:
533:
494:
342:
331:
139:
100:
76:
61:
57:
1161:
1504:
1207:
Hult, Ture (1963), "Presentation of a new high speed paper tape reader",
963:
837:
806:
725:
713:
693:
forefinger, could punch out the remaining positions, one hole at a time.
555:
540:
475:
435:
415:
379:
273:
150:
for player pianos were used to distribute popular music to mass markets.
72:
1376:"A. Serial Data Transfer Formats: ASCII BPNF, BHLF & B10F Formats".
1064:
CNC Control Setup for
Milling and Turning: Mastering CNC Control Systems
890:
systems still handled paper tape in the early 1970s (at left of console)
1597:
1220:
981:
976:
285:
250:
208:(CNC) machining applications, though paper tape has been superseded by
147:
143:
128:
21:
95:
991:
810:
608:
564:
391:
232:
Mylar punched tape was used for durability in industrial applications
228:
67:
Punched cards, and chains of punched cards, were used for control of
840:
computer used two paper tape reader/punches for offline data storage
245:
used paper tape with 74 rows. Australia's 1951 electronic computer,
1027:
931:
887:
790:
777:
code-breaking machine used paper tapes to hold data (replica shown)
568:
501:, used by Allied codebreakers, was capable of 2,000 cps while
411:
257:
242:
166:
108:
451:
1627:
1574:
1570:
363:
288:
to make it opaque enough for use in high-speed optical readers.
1508:
729:
668:, made cash registers around 1970 that would punch paper tape.
246:
621:
264:
when the code was represented as numbers in a digital system.
1580:
853:
669:
645:(Begin-Positive-Negative-Finish). In BNPF encoding, a single
631:
537:
280:
224:
Diagnostic minicomputer software on fanfold paper tape (1975)
220:
733:
705:
This secure paper tape canister shows evidence of tampering
646:
642:
638:
572:
200:
In the 21st century, punched tape is obsolete except among
68:
1268:"Appendix A: A Sample Program in PL/M: BNPF Object Tape".
614:
Premium black waxed and lubricated long-fiber papers, and
1330:(NB. The book contains a description of the BNPF format.)
1183:
Technical
Handbook for Radio Monitoring HF: Edition 2009
1091:
History of computers: The MARK computers of Howard Aiken
374:
Text was encoded in several ways. The earliest standard
474:
Punched tape was used as a way of storing messages for
138:
In 1842, a French patent by Claude Seytre described a
1468:"ECMA standard for Data Interchange on Punched Tape"
1234:
918:
high-speed fanfold reader/punch used optical sensing
337:
A variation on the tape punch was a device called a
111:
holes, used to pull the paper tape through the loom.
64:, the difference being that the tape is continuous.
1501:
Detailed description of two paper tape code systems
1301:
1299:
930:Paper tape loop controlling paper positioning in a
243:
IBM Selective
Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC)
1346:MCS-80 User's Manual (With Introduction to MCS-85)
641:(Begin-Negative-Positive-Finish), also written as
424:American Standard Code for Information Interchange
188:, which consisted of a keyboard and a composition
1314:] (in German) (2 ed.). Munich, Germany:
868:Paper tape readers for a word-processing system,
1641:
1296:
946:Late-1970s heavy-duty tape punch used by the US
486:networks were developed using these techniques.
1385:. GP Industrial Electronics. 1984. p. 43.
793:relied on paper tape to store data and programs
578:
1540:
1338:
1336:
1263:
1261:
743:
1554:
1014:
720:(NSA) used punched paper tape to distribute
279:For heavy-duty or repetitive use, polyester
25:Five- and eight-hole wide punched paper tape
1305:
1173:
1023:"How it was: Paper tapes and punched cards"
962:Punch tape as an element of facade mosaic,
630:(ROM) chips or their erasable counterparts
622:Data transfer for ROM and EPROM programming
1547:
1533:
1429:
1404:
1333:
1258:
1128:
470:'s Honolulu flight service station in 1964
115:Perforated paper tapes were first used by
1159:
418:, had six holes. In the early 1960s, the
33:Creed model 6S/2 5-hole paper tape reader
1515:Working paper tape punch/reader GNT 3601
1054:
1020:
700:
582:
512:
461:
450:
357:
314:
227:
219:
152:
94:
36:
28:
20:
1369:
1353:. October 1977 . pp. 6–76. 98-153D
1179:
1109:
824:A large-capacity industrial tape reader
1642:
1081:
1035:
400:International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2
366:as 7-bit ASCII, without a parity bit,
1528:
1435:
1116:Columbia University Computing History
676:
398:which was further developed into the
1439:Microprocessor-Based Control Systems
1379:XP640 EPROM Programmer - User Manual
1206:
1060:
241:, used paper tape with 24 rows, The
1200:
1169:, Synergetics SP Press, p. 211
1087:
1041:
319:Chadless 5-level Baudot paper tape
107:. The large holes on each edge are
13:
517:A 24-channel program tape for the
406:(USTTY). Other standards, such as
402:(ITA 2), and a variant called the
14:
1676:
1460:
1271:MCS-8 A Guide to PL/M programming
712:were invented in 1917 to encrypt
656:
466:Paper tape relay operation at US
446:
438:, stayed with the earlier codes.
169:. This technology was adopted by
1067:. Industrial Press. p. 20.
955:
939:
923:
907:
895:
879:
861:
845:
829:
817:
798:
782:
766:
508:
370:on the right—e.g. "W" is 1010111
310:
249:, used 3-inch (76 mm) wide
1436:Sinha, Naresh K. (1986-06-30).
1392:from the original on 2023-10-22
1284:from the original on 2022-01-29
852:Fanfold paper tape reader on a
696:
441:
394:) which was developed into the
99:A paper tape, constructed from
1153:
1103:
1021:Maxfield, Clive (2011-10-13).
420:American Standards Association
339:Chadless Printing Reperforator
1:
1136:"CSIRAC paper tape (replica)"
1110:da Cruz, Frank (April 2021).
1007:
869:
522:
320:
291:
195:
1486:A song mentioning paper tape
950:for secret code distribution
597:computer-aided manufacturing
579:Computer-aided manufacturing
404:American Teletypewriter code
362:The word "Knowledge", and a
267:
7:
1650:Computer storage tape media
1507:and the system used by the
970:
575:of binary data per frame).
353:
186:Monotype typesetting system
146:. By 1900, wide perforated
10:
1681:
1242:"Translation File Formats"
759:
744:Advantages and limitations
589:computer numerical control
558:transfer to or from these
499:Heath Robinson tape reader
215:
206:computer numerical control
165:used punched tape to send
90:
1590:
1563:
1442:. Springer. p. 264.
1308:Arbeitsbuch Mikrocomputer
1209:BIT Numerical Mathematics
1044:"3. Cooke and Wheatstone"
902:Eight-hole tape from 1974
41:Paper tape reader on the
1622:Optical mark recognition
1180:Proesch, Roland (2009).
948:National Security Agency
934:line printer (1959-1983)
805:Tape reader used with a
728:, such as the hand held
718:National Security Agency
326:punched at Teletype Corp
1312:Microcomputer work book
1160:Lancaster, Don (2010),
1140:Computer History Museum
611:machines, for example.
587:Paper tape reader on a
1293:(1+i+100+1+11+1 pages)
1247:. Data I/O Corporation
1163:TV Typewriter Cookbook
706:
592:
529:
471:
459:
371:
327:
262:least significant bits
233:
225:
158:
144:perforated paper rolls
112:
46:
34:
26:
1491:Various punched media
704:
651:whitespace characters
586:
549:Keyboard Send/Receive
516:
465:
454:
368:least significant bit
361:
318:
231:
223:
156:
121:Joseph Marie Jacquard
98:
54:perforated paper tape
40:
32:
24:
1655:History of computing
1318:. pp. 240–243.
1061:Smid, Peter (2010).
856:minicomputer (1960s)
142:that read data from
140:piano playing device
1496:Olympia Flexowriter
1316:Franzis-Verlag GmbH
1186:. Books on Demand.
434:). Others, such as
16:Data storage device
1660:Paper data storage
1556:Paper data storage
1412:"Tale of the Tape"
1221:10.1007/BF01935575
987:Friden Flexowriter
722:cryptographic keys
707:
687:Friden Flexowriter
677:Newspaper industry
593:
530:
472:
460:
396:Western Union code
376:character encoding
372:
328:
253:with twelve rows.
234:
226:
171:Charles Wheatstone
159:
113:
47:
35:
27:
1637:
1636:
1616:Edge-notched card
1449:978-90-277-2287-4
1351:Intel Corporation
1088:Dalakov, Georgi,
1074:978-0-8311-3350-4
1042:Roberts, Steven.
836:This early-1960s
683:Linotype machines
545:Teletype Model 33
484:store and forward
175:Wheatstone system
81:CNC machine tools
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738:tamper-resistant
628:read-only memory
527:
524:
325:
324: 1975–1980
322:
305:
304:
300:
173:in 1857 for the
85:read-only memory
43:Harwell computer
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125:Jacquard looms
117:Basile Bouchon
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101:punched cards
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77:minicomputers
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62:punched cards
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56:is a form of
55:
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44:
39:
31:
23:
19:
1610:Punched card
1604:Punched tape
1603:
1476:. Retrieved
1472:the original
1438:
1431:
1420:. Retrieved
1416:the original
1406:
1394:. Retrieved
1378:
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1355:. Retrieved
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1286:. Retrieved
1270:
1249:. Retrieved
1236:
1215:(2): 93–96,
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1144:. Retrieved
1130:
1119:. Retrieved
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997:Tape library
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697:Cryptography
691:
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666:Dayton, Ohio
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613:
594:
554:
541:teleprinters
531:
495:World War II
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442:Applications
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137:
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114:
66:
58:data storage
53:
50:Punched tape
49:
48:
18:
1606:(mid-1800s)
1505:Baudot code
1112:"SSEC Tape"
964:Novosibirsk
914:This 1970s
873: 1970
838:Monrobot XI
807:UNIVAC 1105
726:fill device
714:teleprinter
556:Binary data
526: 1944
456:Teletype 33
416:Flexowriter
384:Murray code
274:machine oil
148:music rolls
73:teleprinter
1665:Telegraphy
1644:Categories
1598:Index card
1519:Musée Bolo
1478:2003-07-10
1422:2014-06-16
1401:(47 pages)
1396:2023-10-22
1357:2020-02-27
1288:2022-05-18
1251:2010-08-30
1146:2023-10-13
1121:2024-05-25
1097:2011-01-12
1008:References
982:Book music
977:Bit bucket
789:This 1959
616:Mylar film
292:Dimensions
286:aluminized
251:paper tape
196:Modern use
129:embroidery
1564:Antiquity
1521:, YouTube
992:Key punch
811:US Census
773:The 1943
609:wire-wrap
565:Intel Hex
392:line feed
268:Materials
202:hobbyists
167:telegrams
161:In 1846,
1583:(105 CE)
1511:computer
1387:Archived
1279:Archived
1229:61020497
1028:EE Times
971:See also
932:IBM 1403
888:IBM 1130
791:IBM 1620
775:Colossus
569:checksum
503:Colossus
432:Teletype
428:AT&T
412:FIELDATA
354:Encoding
133:punchers
109:sprocket
1628:Barcode
1624:(1930s)
1612:(1880s)
1600:(1640s)
1575:papyrus
1571:Writing
760:Gallery
410:(TTS),
301:⁄
216:Formats
91:History
87:chips.
1630:(1948)
1618:(1904)
1591:Modern
1509:ILLIAC
1446:
1322:
1227:
1190:
1142:. 2010
1071:
886:Large
730:KOI-18
632:EPROMs
497:, the
380:Baudot
247:CSIRAC
190:caster
1581:Paper
1558:media
1390:(PDF)
1383:(PDF)
1310:[
1282:(PDF)
1275:(PDF)
1245:(PDF)
1225:S2CID
1167:(PDF)
854:PDP-1
670:Sweda
573:bytes
538:ASCII
436:Telex
364:CR/LF
281:Mylar
204:. In
69:looms
1444:ISBN
1320:ISBN
1188:ISBN
1069:ISBN
734:EKMS
647:byte
643:BPNF
639:BNPF
414:and
390:and
378:was
343:chad
332:chad
79:and
1573:on
1217:doi
916:DEC
664:of
662:NCR
603:or
468:FAA
52:or
1646::
1517:,
1503:,
1349:.
1335:^
1298:^
1260:^
1223:,
1211:,
1138:.
1114:.
1046:.
1025:.
870:c.
523:c.
321:c.
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299:11
1548:e
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521:(
430:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
