Taphonomy - Knowledge

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non-entombed counter-parts by years at a time. Microbial mats maintained and stabilized the articulation of the joints and the skeleton of post-mortem organisms, as seen in frog carcasses for up to 1080 days after coverage by the mats. The environment within the entombed carcasses is typically described as anoxic and acidic during the initial stage of decomposition. These conditions are perpetuated by the exhaustion of oxygen by aerobic bacteria within the carcass creating an environment ideal for the preservation of soft tissues, such as muscle tissue and brain tissue. The anoxic and acidic conditions created by that mats also inhibit the process of autolysis within the carcasses delaying decay even further. Endogenous gut bacteria have also been described to aid the preservation of invertebrate soft tissue by delaying decay and stabilizing soft tissue structures. Gut bacteria form pseudomorphs replicating the form of soft tissues within the animal. These

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of pieces of an organism caused by natural events (i.e. floods, scavengers etc.). Accumulation occurs when there is a buildup of organic and/or inorganic materials in one location (scavengers or human behavior). When mineral rich groundwater permeates organic materials and fills the empty spaces, a fossil is formed. The final stage of taphonomy is mechanical alteration; these are the processes that physically alter the remains (i.e. freeze-thaw, compaction, transport, burial). It should be added that these stages are not only successive, they interplay. For example, chemical changes occur at every stage of the process, because of bacteria. Changes begin as soon as the death of the organism: enzymes are released that destroy the organic contents of the tissues, and mineralised tissues such as bone,

943: 888:. Biotaphonomy looks at how the decomposition and/or destruction of the organism has happened. The main factors that affect this branch are categorized into three groups: environmental factors; external variables, individual factors; factors from the organism itself (i.e. body size, age, etc.), and cultural factors; factors specific to any cultural behaviors that would affect the decomposition (burial practices). Geotaphonomy studies how the burial practices and the burial itself affects the surrounding environment. This includes soil disturbances and tool marks from digging the grave, disruption of plant growth and 1322: 1522:

fluvial environment may be colder than a terrestrial environment. The ecosystem of live organisms that scavenge on the organism in question and the abiotic items in rivers will differ than on land. Organisms within a river may also be physically transported by the flow of the river. The flow of the river can additionally erode the surface of the organisms found within it. The processes an organism may undergo in a fluvial environment will result in a slower rate of decomposition within a river compared to on land.

4384: 704: 36: 1442: 4433: 4373: 1342: 1195:, and many fossils are intrinsically obviously allochthonous, such as the presence of photoautotrophic plankton in a benthic deposit that must have sunk to be deposited. A fossil deposit may thus become biased towards exotic species (i.e. species not endemic to that area) when the sedimentology is dominated by gravity-driven surges, such as mudslides, or may become biased if there are very few endemic organisms to be preserved. This is a particular problem in 4421: 1063: 688: 991:

determining the behavioural patterns of extinct species is sometimes hard to justify. Moreover, the differences between faunal assemblages of animals and humans is not always so distinct, hyenas and humans display similar patterning in breakage and form similarly shaped fragments as the ways in which a bone can break are limited. Since large bones survive better than plants this also has created a bias and inclination towards

634:, events that occur after the burial. Since Efremov's definition, taphonomy has expanded to include the fossilization of organic and inorganic materials through both cultural and environmental influences. Taphonomy is now most widely defined as the study of what happens to objects after they leave the biosphere (living contexts), enter the lithosphere (buried contexts), and are subsequently recovered and studied. 742: 1170:

fossils after death than do those organisms living in non-depositing conditions. In continental environments, fossilization is likely in lakes and riverbeds that gradually fill in with organic and inorganic material. The organisms of such habitats are also liable to be overrepresented in the fossil record than those living far from these aquatic environments where burial by sediments is unlikely to occur.

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The taphonomic pathways involved in relatively inert substances such as calcite (and to a lesser extent bone) are relatively obvious, as such body parts are stable and change little through time. However, the preservation of "soft tissue" is more interesting, as it requires more peculiar conditions.

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A related problem is the slow changes that occur in the depositional environment of an area; a deposit may experience periods of poor preservation due to, for example, a lack of biomineralizing elements. This causes the taphonomic or diagenetic obliteration of fossils, producing gaps and condensation

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Because of the very select processes that cause preservation, not all organisms have the same chance of being preserved. Any factor that affects the likelihood that an organism is preserved as a fossil is a potential source of bias. It is thus arguably the most important goal of taphonomy to identify

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Fluvial taphonomy is concerned with the decomposition of organisms in rivers. An organism may sink or float within a river, it may also be carried by the current near the surface of the river or near its bottom. Organisms in terrestrial and fluvial environments will not undergo the same processes. A

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ends first leaving mostly bone cylinders behind, therefore it can be assumed a deposit with a high number of bone cylinders and a low number of bones with articular ends intact is therefore probably the result of carnivore activity. In practice John Speth applied these criteria to the bones from the

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There are five main stages of taphonomy: disarticulation, dispersal, accumulation, fossilization, and mechanical alteration. The first stage, disarticulation, occurs as the organism decays and the bones are no longer held together by the flesh and tendons of the organism. Dispersal is the separation

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on the bottom of water bodies. Coastal areas are often prone to high rates of erosion, and rivers flowing into the sea may carry a high particulate load from inland. These sediments will eventually settle out, so organisms living in such environments have a much higher chance of being preserved as

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and microbial activity influence the formation of fossils and the preservation of soft tissues. In these studies, microbial mats entomb animal carcasses in a sarcophagus of microbes—the sarcophagus entombing the animal's carcass delays decay. Entombed carcasses were observed to be more intact than

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There are limitations to this kind of taphonomic study in archaeological deposits as any analysis has to presume that processes in the past were the same as today, e.g that living carnivores behaved in a similar way to those in prehistoric times. There are wide variations among existing species so

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While taphonomic methodology can be applied and used to study a variety of materials such as buried ceramics and lithics, its primary application in archaeology involves the examination of organic residues. Interpretation of the post-mortem, pre-, and post-burial histories of faunal assemblages is

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embedded within the frog skin. The microbes that constitute the microbial mats in addition to forming a sarcophagus, secrete an exopolymeric substances (EPS) that drive biomineralization. The EPS provides a nucleated center for biomineralization. During later stages of decomposition heterotrophic

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Taphonomy is an important study for archaeologists to better interpret archaeological sites. Since the archaeological record is often incomplete, taphonomy helps explain how it became incomplete. The methodology of taphonomy involves observing transformation processes in order to understand their

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Taphonomic processes allow researchers of multiple fields to identify the past of natural and cultural objects. From the time of death or burial until excavation, taphonomy can aid in the understanding of past environments. When studying the past it is important to gain contextual information in

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It is a common misconception that anaerobic conditions are necessary for the preservation of soft tissue; indeed much decay is mediated by sulfate reducing bacteria which can only survive in anaerobic conditions. Anoxia does, however, reduce the probability that scavengers will disturb the dead

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cannot draw the most accurate conclusions about the lives and ecology of the fossilized organisms without knowing about the processes involved in their fossilization. For example, if a fossil assemblage contains more of one type of fossil than another, one can infer either that the organism was

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Actualistic taphonomy uses the present to understand past taphonomic events. This is often done through controlled experiments, such as the role microbes play in fossilization, the effects of mammalian carnivores on bone, or the burial of bone in a water flume. Computer modeling is also used to

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How complete fossils are was once thought to be a proxy for the energy of the environment, with stormier waters leaving less articulated carcasses. However, the dominant force actually seems to be predation, with scavengers more likely than rough waters to break up a fresh carcass before it is

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more readily preserved than the chemically equivalent but non-sclerotized body cuticle. A peer-reviewed study in 2023 was the first to present an in-depth chemical description of how biological tissues and cells potentially preserve into the fossil record. This study generalized the chemistry

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Both DNA and proteins are unstable, and rarely survive more than hundreds of thousands of years before degrading. Polysaccharides also have low preservation potential, unless they are highly cross-linked; this interconnection is most common in structural tissues, and renders them resistant to

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Much of the incompleteness of the fossil record is due to the fact that only a small amount of rock is ever exposed at the surface of the Earth, and not even most of that has been explored. Our fossil record relies on the small amount of exploration that has been done on this. Unfortunately,

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Whether the deposition was a result of human, animals and/or the environment is often the goal of taphonomic study. Archaeologists typically separate natural from cultural processes when identifying evidence of human interaction with faunal remains. This is done by looking at human processes

1374:. This interconnectedness makes the chemicals less prone to chemical decay, and also means they are a poorer source of energy so less likely to be digested by scavenging organisms. After being subjected to heat and pressure, these cross-linked organic molecules typically "cook" and become 1049:

microbes degrade the EPS, facilitating the release of calcium ions into the environment and creating a Ca-enriched film. The degradation of the EPS and formation of the Ca-rich film is suggested to aid in the precipitation of calcium carbonate and further the process of biomineralization.

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deposit may have experienced a mixing of noncontemporaneous remains within single sedimentary units via physical or biological processes; i.e. a deposit could be ripped up and redeposited elsewhere, meaning that a deposit may contain a large number of fossils from another place (an

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The geological record is very discontinuous, and deposition is episodic at all scales. At the largest scale, a sedimentological high-stand period may mean that no deposition may occur for millions of years and, in fact, erosion of the deposit may occur. Such a hiatus is called an

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observed the effects of wolves and dogs on bones in Alaska and the American Southwest, differentiating the interference of humans and carnivores on bone remains by the number of bone splinters and the number of intact articular ends. He observed that animals gnaw and attack the

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preceding artifact discard in addition to processes after artifact discard. Changes preceding discard include butchering, skinning, and cooking. Understanding these processes can inform archaeologists on tool use or how an animal was processed. When the artifact is deposited,

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of animal carcasses. The degree to which has been demonstrated in frog skin preservation. The original morphology of the frog skin, including structures such as warts, was preserved for more than 1.5 years. The microbial mats also aided in the formation of the mineral

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are possible explanation for the increased occurrence of preserved guts impression among invertebrates. In the later stages of the prolonged decomposition of the carcasses, the environment within the sarcophagus alters to more oxic and basic conditions promoting

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site in New Mexico. The rarity of bone cylinders indicated that there had been minimal destruction by scavengers, and that the bone assemblage could be assumed to be wholly the result of human activity, butchering the animals for meat and marrow extraction.

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The term taphomorph is used to collectively describe fossil structures that represent poorly-preserved and deteriorated remains of various taxonomic groups, rather than of a single species. For example, the 579–560 million year old fossil

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have a far greater chance of being represented in the fossil record than organisms consisting of soft tissue only. As a result, animals with bones or shells are overrepresented in the fossil record, and many plants are only represented by

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impact on archaeological material and interpret patterns on real sites. This is mostly in the form of assessing how the deposition of the preserved remains of an organism (usually animal bones) has occurred to better understand a deposit.

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are a mixture of organic and mineral components. Moreover, most often the organisms (vegetal or animal) are dead because they have been killed by a predator. The digestion modifies the composition of the flesh, but also that of the bones.

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Because population turnover rates of individual taxa are much less than net rates of sediment accumulation, the biological remains of successive, noncontemporaneous populations of organisms may be admixed within a single bed, known as

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Major shifts in intrinsic and extrinsic properties of organisms, including morphology and behaviour in relation to other organisms or shifts in the global environment, can cause secular or long-term cyclic changes in preservation

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the scope of such biases such that they can be quantified to allow correct interpretations of the relative abundances of organisms that make up a fossil biota. Some of the most common sources of bias are listed below.

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may cause layers to be removed. Thus the fossil record is biased towards periods of greatest sedimentation; periods of time that have less sedimentation are consequently less well represented in the fossil record.

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Often fossils, particularly those of vertebrates, are distorted by the subsequent movements of the surrounding sediment, this can include compression of the fossil in a particular axis, as well as shearing.

1290:: field experiments have shown that paleontologists working on, say fossil clams are better at collecting clams than anything else because their search image has been shaped to bias them in favour of clams. 935:

observation has been done on different human groups and carnivores, to ascertain if there is anything different in the accumulation and fragmentation of bones. This study has also come in the form of

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The spatio-temporal resolution and ecological fidelity of species assemblages, particularly the relatively minor role of out-of-habitat transport contrasted with the major effects of time-averaging.

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implications of observed taphonomic patterns, paleontologists have been able to provide new and meaningful interpretations and correlations that would have otherwise remained obscure in the

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Morris, Simon Conway (March 2008). "A redescription of a rare chordate, Metaspriggina Walcotti Simonetta and Insom, from the Burgess Shale (Middle Cambrian), British Columbia, Canada".

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within the sedimentary column relative to net sediment accumulation rates. Like biases in spatial fidelity, there is a bias towards organisms that can survive reworking events, such as

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Cherns, Lesley; Wheeley, James R.; Wright, V. Paul (2010). "Taphonomic Bias in Shelly Faunas Through Time: Early Aragonitic Dissolution and Its Implications for the Fossil Record".

764:. Covered within this field is the dominance of biological versus physical agents in the destruction of remains from all major taxonomic groups (plants, invertebrates, vertebrates). 1333:, which are mineralized with calcium carbonate, nor crustaceans, which are often mineralized with calcium phosphate) are subject to decomposition, they often maintain shape during 1212:. Because of the slow and episodic nature of the geologic record, two apparently contemporaneous fossils may have actually lived centuries, or even millennia, apart. Moreover, the 1137:

that have hard walls. Soft-bodied organisms may form 30% to 100% of the biota, but most fossil assemblages preserve none of this unseen diversity, which may exclude groups such as

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This is a multidisciplinary concept and is used in slightly different contexts throughout different fields of study. Fields that employ the concept of taphonomy include:

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buried. Sediments cover smaller fossils faster so they are likely to be found fully articulated. However, erosion also tends to destroy smaller fossils more easily.

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order to have a solid understanding of the data. Often these findings can be used to better understand cultural or environmental shifts within the present day.

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This field is extremely important because it helps scientists use the taphonomic profile to help determine what happened to the remains at the time of death (

3753: 3179:"Effects of taphonomic deformation on geometric morphometric analysis of fossils: a study using the dicynodont Diictodon feliceps (Therapsida, Anomodontia)" 958:" were in fact caused by the pressure of overlying rocks and earth in limestone caves. His research has also demonstrated that early hominins, for example 1493:, they are now thought to be the deteriorated remains of various types of frondose organism. Similarly, Ediacaran fossils from England, once assigned to 1039:

Microbial mats additionally play a role in the formation of molds and impressions of carcasses. These molds and impressions replicate and preserve the

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of time-averaging in an assemblage may vary. The degree varies on many factors, such as tissue type, the habitat, the frequency of burial events and

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Plants and algae produce the most preservable compounds, which are listed according to their preservation potential by Tegellaar (see reference).

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paleontologists as humans can be very biased in their methods of collection; a bias that must be identified. Potential sources of bias include,

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INIESTO, MIGUEL; LAGUNA, CELIA; FLORIN, MAXIMO; GUERRERO, M. CARMEN; CHICOTE, ALVARO; BUSCALIONI, ANGELA D.; LÓPEZ-ARCHILLA, ANA I. (2015).

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Bialik, Or M.; Coletti, Giovanni; Mariani, Luca; Commissario, Lucrezi; Desbiolles, Fabien; Meroni, Agostino Niyonkuru (11 November 2023).

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While usually only biomineralised material survives fossilisation, the preservation of soft tissue is not as rare as sometimes thought.

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Briggs, Derek E. G.; Kear, Amanda J. (1993). "Decay and preservation of polychaetes: taphonomic thresholds in soft-bodied organisms".

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modifications occur. These can include thermal alteration, rodent disturbances, gnaw marks, and the effects of soil pH to name a few.

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Iniesto, Miguel; Buscalioni, Ángela D.; Carmen Guerrero, M.; Benzerara, Karim; Moreira, David; López-Archilla, Ana I. (2016-05-10).

2596:"The Effect Of microbial Mats In The Decay Of Anurans With Implications For Understanding Taphonomic Processes In The Fossil Record" 1532: 206: 1149:, on the other hand, are overrepresented, as one animal may leave multiple fossils due to its discarded body parts. Among plants, 1378:

or short (<17 C atoms) aliphatic/aromatic carbon molecules. Other factors affect the likelihood of preservation; for instance

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Butterfield, Nicholas J. (1990). "Organic preservation of non-mineralizing organisms and the taphonomy of the Burgess Shale".

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from the decomposing body, and the alteration of the land and water drainage from introducing an unnatural mass to the area.

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Soft-bodied preservation of a lizard, Parachute Creek Member, Green River Formation, Utah. Most of the skeleton decalcified.

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Taphonomic study of the Taung child skull claims they were likely killed by a large bird, indicated by traces of talon cuts.

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While all of archaeology studies taphonomy to some extent, certain subfields deal with it more than others. These include

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of animal dens and burrows to study the discarded bones and experimental breakage of bones with and without stone tools.

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and behavioral capabilities, and by broad-scale changes in climate, tectonics, and geochemistry of Earth surface systems.

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Processes that concentrate biological remains; especially the degree to which different types of assemblages reflect the

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Forensic taphonomy is a relatively new field that has increased in popularity in the past 15 years. It is a subfield of

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mission objectives evolved from assessment of ancient Mars habitability to developing predictive models on taphonomy.

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organism, and the activity of other organisms is undoubtedly one of the leading causes of soft-tissue destruction.

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Actualistic taphonomy seeks to understand taphonomic processes through experimentation, such as the burial of bone.

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During the late twentieth century, taphonomic data began to be applied to other paleontological subfields such as

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loss, poses a major challenge in reconstructing past environments from the modern, notably in settings such as

3628: 903:). This can make a huge difference when considering what can be used as evidence in a criminal investigation. 3142:

Behrensmeyer, Anna K.; Kidwell, Susan M.; Gastaldo, Robert A. (December 2000). "Taphonomy and paleobiology".

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For instance, to distinguish the bone assemblages that are produced by humans from those of non humans, much

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Tegelaar, E.W; de Leeuw, J.W; Derenne, S; Largeau, C (November 1989). "A reappraisal of kerogen formation".

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This perhaps represents the biggest source of bias in the fossil record. First and foremost, organisms that

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is used to describe fossil structures that represent poorly-preserved, deteriorated remains of a mixture of

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One of the most important elements in this methodology is replication, to confirm the validity of results.

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Taphonomy has undergone an explosion of interest since the 1980s, with research focusing on certain areas.

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undistorted (top), compressed in a lateral axis (middle) and compressed on a dorsal-ventral axis (bottom)

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underlying cell and tissue preservation to explain the phenomenon for potentially any cellular organism.

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Kammerer, Christian F.; Deutsch, Michol; Lungmus, Jacqueline K.; Angielczyk, Kenneth D. (2020-10-07).

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Modern experiments have been conducted on post-mortem invertebrates and vertebrates to understand how

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is the first long-term large-scale deployment and re-collection of organism remains on the sea floor.

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Jones, M. K.; Briggs, D. E. G.; Eglington, G.; Hagelberg, E.; Briggs, Derek E. G. (29 January 1999).

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Late Prehistoric Bison Procurement in Southeastern New Mexico: The 1977 Season at the Garnsey Site

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Iniesto, M.; Villalba, I.; Buscalioni, A. D.; Guerrero, M. C.; López-Archilla, A. I. (May 2017).

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Butler, Aodhán D.; Cunningham, John A.; Budd, Graham E.; Donoghue, Philip C. J. (2015-06-07).

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deposit, which captures an entire biota caught in the wrong place at the wrong time (e.g. the

3618: 3549: 2880: 2736:"The Impact of Microbial Mats and Their Microenvironmental Conditions in Early Decay of Fish" 2216: 1872:"Hydraulic modeling and computational fluid dynamics of bone burial in a sandy river channel" 1296:: fossils that are easy to obtain (such as many phosphatic fossils that are easily extracted 874: 518: 508: 299: 289: 196: 153: 3489: 3236:

Liu, Alexander G.; Mcilroy, Duncan; Antcliffe, Jonathan B.; Brasier, Martin D. (May 2011).

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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences

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explain taphonomic events. Studies on actualistic taphonomy gave rise to the discipline

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present in greater numbers, or that its remains were more resistant to decomposition.

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Lyman, R. Lee. Vertebrate taphonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

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It was thought that only tough, cuticle type soft tissue could be preserved by

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critical in determining their association with hominid activity and behaviour.

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focusing specifically on how taphonomic forces have altered criminal evidence.

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Pokines, James T.; Symes, Steve A.; L'Abbé, Ericka N., eds. (December 2021).

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to describe the study of the transition of remains, parts, or products of

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in South Africa have shown that bone fractures previously attributed to "

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Emig, C. C. (2002). "Death: a key information in marine palaeoecology".

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Life history of a fossil: An introduction to taphonomy and paleoecology

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One motivation behind taphonomy is to understand biases present in the

631: 478: 347: 4432: 4372: 3327: 2691: 2619: 630:, events that occur between death of the organism and the burial; and 4324: 4274: 4248: 4207: 4154: 3999: 3975: 3856: 3846: 3835: 3705: 3690: 3085: 2267: 1902: 1447: 1330: 858: 834: 600: 576: 564: 398: 3563: 3407: 2064:"Habitability, Taphonomy, and the Search for Organic Carbon on Mars" 1062: 4420: 4284: 4279: 4243: 4143: 4076: 4045: 3940: 3909: 3870: 3820: 3794: 3770: 3695: 2208: 1474: 1367: 1271: 1233: 1154: 850: 786: 687: 596: 549: 3475:"Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities" 1329:

exoskeletons of arthropods such as insects and myriapods (but not

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species, the former being overrepresented relative to the latter.

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record better. Fossils are ubiquitous in sedimentary rocks, yet

4334: 4217: 3851: 2147: 1396: 1355: 1326: 1142: 1130: 1045: 814: 741: 729: 711:

represent an unusual depositional environment for their epoch (

692: 553: 50: 3369:. Col.lecio Encontres. Vol. 5. Valencia. pp. 21–26. 3106: 1300:

by dissolution in acid) are overabundant in the fossil record.

995:

rather than gathering when considering prehistoric economies.

2971: 2476:(8th ed.). London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 89–90. 1482: 1418: 1146: 1138: 1134: 1119: 615: 582: 570: 3286:"Advancing Forensic Taphonomy: Purpose, Theory, and Process" 2801: 1836:. Denys C., Patou-Mathis M. coordinatrices. Arles: Errance. 3557: 3141: 2733: 2041:

10.1669/0883-1351(2004)019<0039:MTIOTD>2.0.CO;2

1413:

Plant cuticle is more prone to preservation if it contains

3235: 1173: 2857:

Evolutionary Paleobiology: In Honor of James W. Valentine

1052: 3564:

7th International Meeting on Taphonomy and Fossilization

2245:

Crime Scene Investigator (CSI) and forensics information

1903:

Behrensmeyer, A. K; S. M Kidwell; R. A Gastaldo (2009),

1798: 880:

There are two different branches of forensic taphonomy:

2808:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2429:, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 7219–7225, 1803:. GDR 3591, CNRS INEE. Paris: Archives contemporaines. 1712:, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 7617–7623, 1489:. Originally interpreted as fossils of a single genus, 3325: 3156:

10.1666/0094-8373(2000)26[103:TAP]2.0.CO;2

1684:

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, p. 1,

1337:, especially if they are already somewhat mineralized. 4397: 3603: 857:. In the marine environment, taphonomy, specifically 556:

or preserved in the paleontological record. The term

16:

Study of decomposition and fossilization of organisms

2296:

Grant, Jim; Gorin, Sam; Fleming, Neil (2015-03-27).

1370:), and potentially the polysaccharide layer of some 2550:. Ann Arbor, MI: U OF M MUSEUM ANTHRO ARCHAEOLOGY. 2110: 2055: 1165:Most fossils form in conditions where material is 626:Taphonomic phenomena are grouped into two phases: 3517:Shelf and Slope Experimental Taphonomy Initiative 2859:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 290–336. 2423:"Taphonomy in Bioarchaeology and Human Osteology" 2365: 2295: 1706:"Vertebrate Taphonomy in Archaeological Research" 1505:, are now all regarded as taphomorphs related to 1160: 4445: 3135: 2851:Kidwell, Susan M.; Brenchley, Patrick J (1996). 2850: 3761: 3284:Sorg, Marcella; Haglund, William (2001-07-30), 3006: 2907: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2366:Rainsford, Clare; O’Connor, Terry (June 2016). 1310: 1265:Consistency in preservation over geologic time 3747: 3589: 3367:Current topics on taphonomy and fossilization 2967: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2209:"Introduction to Part VI: Forensic taphonomy" 1955: 1953: 1606: 1604: 526: 3472: 3100: 2898: 1354:chemical decay. Such tissues include wood ( 3283: 3012: 2471: 2372:Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 3754: 3740: 3596: 3582: 3397:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2954: 2544:Speth, John D.; Parry, William J. (1978). 2543: 2337:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 2061: 1959: 1950: 1831: 1679:(1999) "1.1 The foundations of taphonomy" 1601: 1145:from the fossil record. Many animals that 1120:Physical attributes of the organism itself 771:and abundance of source faunas and floras. 533: 519: 3405: 3253: 3212: 3194: 2997: 2937: 2827: 2707: 2635: 2503:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 2183: 2173: 2087: 2014: 1887: 1869: 1653:"Taphonomy: a new branch of paleontology" 1153:species produce so much more pollen than 1103:Learn how and when to remove this message 3473:Taylor, P.D.; Wilson, M.A. (July 2003). 2911: 1644: 1440: 1366:) and animals, the cell walls of algae ( 1340: 1320: 941: 740: 702: 686: 3449: 3229: 3057: 2474:Archaeology Theory Methods and Practice 2206: 2062:Grotzinger, John P. (24 January 2014). 1917: 1896: 1799:Brugal J.P. Coordinateur (2017-07-01). 1650: 1174:Mixing of fossils from different places 4446: 3063: 2496: 2420: 1242: 1202: 1053:Taphonomic biases in the fossil record 3735: 3577: 3539:Comprehensive bioerosion bibliography 3418: 3408:"The taphonomy of plant macrofossils" 2797: 2795: 2793: 2729: 2727: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2589: 2587: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2330: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2001: 1999: 1703: 1610: 1533:Beecher's Trilobite type preservation 3364: 1946:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 1870:Carpenter, Kenneth (30 April 2020). 1865: 1863: 1861: 1699: 1697: 1516: 1481:contain taphomorphs of a mixture of 1085:adding citations to reliable sources 1056: 4353:= kiloannum (thousands years ago); 3414:. Belhaven Press. pp. 141–169. 3319: 2472:Renfrew, Colin; Bahn, Paul (2020). 1485:which have collectively been named 868: 695:skeleton in Imperial-Diamond cave ( 13: 4357:= megaannum (millions years ago); 3358: 2881:"How are dinosaur fossils formed?" 2790: 2724: 2652: 2572: 2456: 2427:Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology 2284: 2236: 1996: 1710:Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology 14: 4475: 4361:= gigaannum (billions years ago). 3605:Types and processes of weathering 3568:Università degli studi di Ferrara 3509: 1924:Journal of Archaeological Science 1876:Geology of the Intermountain West 1858: 1694: 1427: 1187:deposit, as opposed to the usual 1013: 793:, including the evolution of new 736: 4431: 4419: 4407: 4382: 4371: 3550:Minerals and the Origins of Life 3255:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2010.01024.x 1538:Bitter Springs type preservation 1061: 34: 3332:. CRC Press. pp. 115–134. 3277: 3170: 3109:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2939:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104367 2873: 2844: 2537: 2497:Berger, Lee R. (October 2006). 2490: 2414: 2359: 2324: 2251: 2200: 2141: 2104: 2008: 1911: 1543:Burgess Shale type preservation 1459: 1392:Burgess Shale type preservation 1277: 1072:needs additional citations for 808: 618:, rather than of a single one. 96:List of human evolution fossils 3412:The processes of fossilisation 3290:Advances in Forensic Taphonomy 1825: 1792: 1771:"Taphonomy & Preservation" 1763: 1739: 1718:10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_2134 1671: 1161:Characteristics of the habitat 906: 845:. By coming to understand the 621: 1: 3800:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma) 3716:Factors of polymer weathering 3570:, Italy, 10–13 September 2014 3502:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00131-9 2435:10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_137 2015:Olszewski, Thomas D. (2004). 1681:Taphonomy: A Process Approach 1594: 1436: 3329:Manual of forensic taphonomy 3292:, CRC Press, pp. 3–29, 3129:10.1016/0016-7037(89)90191-9 2912:Anderson, L. A. (May 2023). 2331:Lyman, R. Lee (1994-07-07). 2260:Manual of Forensic Taphonomy 1611:Lyman, R. Lee (2010-01-01). 1548:Doushantuo type preservation 591:in 1940 by Soviet scientist 577: 565: 91:List of transitional fossils 7: 3763:Geological history of Earth 3560:) (video, 60m, April 2014). 3410:. In Donovan, S. K. (ed.). 2125:10.1007/978-90-481-8643-3_3 1553:Ediacaran type preservation 1525: 1362:), the cuticles of plants ( 1317:Preservation of biopolymers 1311:Preservation of biopolymers 1294:Relative ease of extraction 207:Mammalian auditory ossicles 10: 4480: 4036:Mississippian (323–359 Ma) 4031:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma) 3795:Holocene (present–11.7 ka) 3541:compiled by Mark A. Wilson 3425:Cambridge University Press 2425:, in Smith, Claire (ed.), 2299:The Archaeology Coursebook 2175:10.1038/s41598-023-47029-4 1920:"Experiments in taphonomy" 1905:Taphonomy and paleobiology 1708:, in Smith, Claire (ed.), 1314: 583: 571: 4348: 4333: 4320:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga) 4297: 4257: 4226: 4195: 4182: 4170:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma) 4142: 4111: 4075: 4044: 4018: 3987: 3974: 3939: 3908: 3882: 3869: 3834: 3808: 3782: 3769: 3678: 3647: 3611: 3406:Greenwood, D. R. (1991). 3035:10.1017/S0094837300009994 2392:10.1007/s12520-015-0268-x 2302:(0 ed.). Routledge. 1982:10.1017/S0094837300012343 1626:(1): 1–16. Archived from 1237:Herefordshire lagerstätte 1220:events, and the depth of 1032:and the precipitation of 777:conservation paleobiology 587:'law') was introduced to 404:Invertebrate paleontology 353:Biological classification 333:Introduction to evolution 234:Evolution of various taxa 4315:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga) 4160:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma) 4005:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma) 3857:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma) 3847:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma) 3456:Harvard University Press 3433:10.1017/CBO9781139878302 2343:10.1017/cbo9781139878302 2262:. 2013. pp. i–xiv. 2115:. Topics in Geobiology. 1889:10.31711/giw.v7.pp97-120 1834:in: Manuel de taphonomie 1704:Stahl, Peter W. (2014), 950:Studies of this kind by 388:Branches of paleontology 376:Timeline of paleontology 4310:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga) 4275:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga) 4270:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga) 4213:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma) 4103:Llandovery (433–444 Ma) 4010:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma) 3821:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma) 3298:10.1201/9781420058352-3 3066:Journal of Paleontology 2207:Passalacqua, Nicholas. 2089:10.1126/science.1249944 1663:: 81–93. Archived from 1651:Efremov, I. A. (1940). 802:Mars Science Laboratory 494:Vertebrate paleontology 371:History of paleontology 365:History of paleontology 86:Lagerstätte fossil beds 4464:Methods in archaeology 4459:Archaeological science 4280:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga) 4249:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga) 4208:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma) 4155:Furongian (485–497 Ma) 4000:Lopingian (252–260 Ma) 3826:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma) 3566:(Taphos 2014), at the 2990:10.1098/rstb.1999.0356 2820:10.1098/rspb.2015.0476 2421:Forbes, Shari (2014), 2243:"Forensic taphonomy". 2224:Cite journal requires 1944:10.1006/jasc.1995.0016 1452: 1358:), spores and pollen ( 1346: 1338: 947: 762:Konzervat-lagerstätten 746: 720: 700: 414:Molecular paleontology 4285:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga) 4244:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga) 4165:Series 2 (509–521 Ma) 3852:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma) 3482:Earth-Science Reviews 3419:Lyman, R. L. (1994). 2918:Earth-Science Reviews 2760:10.2110/palo.2014.086 2556:10.3998/mpub.11395480 2308:10.4324/9781315727837 1444: 1344: 1324: 945: 875:forensic anthropology 744: 706: 690: 154:Timeline of evolution 4325:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga) 4218:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga) 4098:Wenlock (427–433 Ma) 4088:Pridoli (419–423 Ma) 3524:Journal of Taphonomy 3450:Shipman, P. (1981). 3421:Vertebrate Taphonomy 2334:Vertebrate Taphonomy 1918:Andrews, P. (1995). 1657:Pan-American Geology 1620:Journal of Taphonomy 1382:renders the jaws of 1081:improve this article 548:is the study of how 171:Organs and processes 81:List of fossil sites 4380: • 4369: • 4367:Geologic time scale 4129:Middle (458–470 Ma) 4093:Ludlow (423–427 Ma) 4062:Middle (383–393 Ma) 3957:Middle (237–247 Ma) 3926:Middle (164–174 Ma) 3648:Physical weathering 3612:Chemical weathering 3494:2003ESRv...62....1T 3121:1989GeCoA..53.3103T 3078:2008JPal...82..424M 3027:1990Pbio...16..272B 2930:2023ESRv..24004367A 2752:2015Palai..30..792I 2684:2016NatSR...625716I 2612:2017NatSR...745160I 2384:2016ArAnS...8..343R 2166:2023NatSR..1319687B 2080:2014Sci...343..386G 2033:2004Palai..19...39O 1974:1993Pbio...19..107B 1936:1995JArSc..22..147A 1832:Dauphin Y. (2014). 1243:Gaps in time series 1203:Temporal resolution 933:ethnoarchaeological 899:) and after death ( 863:carbonate platforms 769:species composition 717:southern California 505:Paleontology Portal 159:Transitional fossil 129:Geologic time scale 22:Part of a series on 4378:Geology portal 4239:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga) 4134:Early (470–485 Ma) 4067:Early (393–419 Ma) 3962:Early (247–252 Ma) 3931:Early (174–201 Ma) 3900:Early (100–145 Ma) 3895:Late (66.0–100 Ma) 3534:College of Wooster 3530:Bioerosion Website 3196:10.7717/peerj.9925 2814:(1808): 20150476. 2746:(11/12): 792–801. 2672:Scientific Reports 2600:Scientific Reports 2515:10.1002/ajpa.20415 2154:Scientific Reports 1775:paleo.cortland.edu 1751:personal.colby.edu 1677:Martin, Ronald E. 1453: 1400:and the shellless 1347: 1339: 1254:turbidity currents 1141:and entire animal 1126:contain hard parts 969:Outside of Africa 960:australopithecines 948: 747: 721: 701: 66:Fossil preparation 4395: 4394: 4293: 4292: 4259:Paleoproterozoic 4178: 4177: 4124:Late (444–458 Ma) 4057:Late (359–383 Ma) 3970: 3969: 3952:Late (201–237 Ma) 3921:Late (145–164 Ma) 3865: 3864: 3786:(present–2.58 Ma) 3774:(present–66.0 Ma) 3729: 3728: 3634:Mineral hydration 3339:978-0-367-77437-0 3307:978-0-8493-1189-5 3115:(11): 3103–3106. 2692:10.1038/srep25716 2620:10.1038/srep45160 2565:978-0-932206-73-2 2444:978-1-4419-0426-3 2352:978-0-521-45215-1 2317:978-1-317-54111-0 2277:978-1-4398-7841-5 2134:978-90-481-8642-6 2074:(6169): 386–387. 1727:978-1-4419-0426-3 1573:Permineralization 1517:Fluvial taphonomy 1473:assemblages from 1335:permineralization 1155:animal-pollinated 1113: 1112: 1105: 1034:calcium carbonate 1030:biomineralization 966:in South Africa. 552:decay and become 543: 542: 469:Paleotempestology 454:Paleoneurobiology 409:Micropaleontology 4471: 4436: 4435: 4424: 4423: 4412: 4411: 4410: 4403: 4389:World portal 4387: 4386: 4376: 4375: 4338: 4302: 4262: 4231: 4228:Mesoproterozoic 4200: 4193: 4192: 4188: 4147: 4116: 4080: 4049: 4023: 3992: 3985: 3984: 3980: 3944: 3913: 3887: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3839: 3813: 3787: 3780: 3779: 3775: 3756: 3749: 3742: 3733: 3732: 3711:Space weathering 3655:Frost weathering 3598: 3591: 3584: 3575: 3574: 3505: 3479: 3469: 3446: 3415: 3402: 3396: 3388: 3352: 3351: 3323: 3317: 3316: 3315: 3314: 3281: 3275: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3257: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3216: 3198: 3174: 3168: 3167: 3139: 3133: 3132: 3104: 3098: 3097: 3086:10.1666/06-130.1 3061: 3055: 3054: 3010: 3004: 3003: 3001: 2969: 2952: 2951: 2941: 2909: 2896: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2877: 2871: 2870: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2831: 2799: 2788: 2787: 2731: 2722: 2721: 2711: 2663: 2650: 2649: 2639: 2591: 2570: 2569: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2494: 2488: 2487: 2469: 2454: 2453: 2452: 2451: 2418: 2412: 2411: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2293: 2282: 2281: 2268:10.1201/b15424-1 2258:"Front Matter". 2255: 2249: 2248: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2227: 2222: 2220: 2212: 2204: 2198: 2197: 2187: 2177: 2145: 2139: 2138: 2108: 2102: 2101: 2091: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2012: 2006: 2003: 1994: 1993: 1957: 1948: 1947: 1915: 1909: 1908: 1900: 1894: 1893: 1891: 1867: 1856: 1855: 1829: 1823: 1822: 1796: 1790: 1789: 1787: 1786: 1777:. Archived from 1767: 1761: 1760: 1758: 1757: 1743: 1737: 1736: 1735: 1734: 1701: 1692: 1675: 1669: 1668: 1648: 1642: 1641: 1639: 1638: 1632: 1617: 1608: 1487:Ivesheadiomorphs 1108: 1101: 1097: 1094: 1088: 1065: 1057: 1008:paleoethnobotany 993:big-game hunting 869:Forensic science 831:paleoceanography 785:The outlines of 715:) and location ( 709:La Brea Tar Pits 657:Forensic science 616:taxonomic groups 586: 585: 580: 574: 573: 568: 535: 528: 521: 484:Sclerochronology 212:Mosaic evolution 149:Paleoclimatology 119:Extinction event 38: 19: 18: 4479: 4478: 4474: 4473: 4472: 4470: 4469: 4468: 4444: 4443: 4442: 4430: 4418: 4408: 4406: 4398: 4396: 4391: 4381: 4370: 4362: 4344: 4336: 4329: 4300: 4289: 4260: 4253: 4229: 4222: 4198: 4197:Neoproterozoic 4187:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga) 4186: 4185: 4184:Proterozoic Eon 4174: 4145: 4138: 4114: 4107: 4078: 4071: 4047: 4040: 4021: 4014: 3990: 3978: 3977: 3966: 3942: 3935: 3911: 3904: 3885: 3873: 3872: 3861: 3837: 3830: 3811: 3804: 3785: 3773: 3772: 3765: 3760: 3730: 3725: 3674: 3665:Thermal fatigue 3643: 3607: 3602: 3512: 3477: 3466: 3443: 3390: 3389: 3377: 3361: 3359:Further reading 3356: 3355: 3340: 3324: 3320: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3282: 3278: 3268: 3266: 3234: 3230: 3175: 3171: 3140: 3136: 3105: 3101: 3062: 3058: 3011: 3007: 2970: 2955: 2910: 2899: 2889: 2887: 2879: 2878: 2874: 2867: 2849: 2845: 2800: 2791: 2732: 2725: 2664: 2653: 2592: 2573: 2566: 2542: 2538: 2495: 2491: 2484: 2470: 2457: 2449: 2447: 2445: 2419: 2415: 2364: 2360: 2353: 2329: 2325: 2318: 2294: 2285: 2278: 2257: 2256: 2252: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2225: 2223: 2214: 2213: 2205: 2201: 2146: 2142: 2135: 2109: 2105: 2060: 2056: 2013: 2009: 2004: 1997: 1958: 1951: 1916: 1912: 1901: 1897: 1868: 1859: 1844: 1830: 1826: 1811: 1797: 1793: 1784: 1782: 1769: 1768: 1764: 1755: 1753: 1745: 1744: 1740: 1732: 1730: 1728: 1702: 1695: 1676: 1672: 1649: 1645: 1636: 1634: 1630: 1615: 1609: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1528: 1519: 1462: 1439: 1430: 1319: 1313: 1280: 1267: 1261:of the record. 1245: 1205: 1176: 1163: 1151:wind-pollinated 1122: 1109: 1098: 1092: 1089: 1078: 1066: 1055: 1016: 956:killer man-apes 909: 871: 843:biostratigraphy 819:paleontologists 811: 739: 691:An articulated 624: 539: 507: 499: 498: 394:Biostratigraphy 389: 381: 380: 366: 358: 357: 328: 320: 319: 235: 227: 226: 217:Nervous systems 172: 164: 163: 139:History of life 134:Geologic record 109: 108:Natural history 101: 100: 76:List of fossils 46: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4477: 4467: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4441: 4440: 4428: 4416: 4393: 4392: 4349: 4346: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4306: 4304: 4295: 4294: 4291: 4290: 4288: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4266: 4264: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4235: 4233: 4224: 4223: 4221: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4204: 4202: 4190: 4180: 4179: 4176: 4175: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4151: 4149: 4140: 4139: 4137: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4120: 4118: 4109: 4108: 4106: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4084: 4082: 4073: 4072: 4070: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4053: 4051: 4042: 4041: 4039: 4038: 4033: 4027: 4025: 4020:Carboniferous 4016: 4015: 4013: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3996: 3994: 3982: 3972: 3971: 3968: 3967: 3965: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3948: 3946: 3937: 3936: 3934: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3917: 3915: 3906: 3905: 3903: 3902: 3897: 3891: 3889: 3877: 3867: 3866: 3863: 3862: 3860: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3843: 3841: 3838:(23.0–66.0 Ma) 3832: 3831: 3829: 3828: 3823: 3817: 3815: 3812:(2.58–23.0 Ma) 3806: 3805: 3803: 3802: 3797: 3791: 3789: 3777: 3767: 3766: 3759: 3758: 3751: 3744: 3736: 3727: 3726: 3724: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3682: 3680: 3679:Related topics 3676: 3675: 3673: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3651: 3649: 3645: 3644: 3642: 3641: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3615: 3613: 3609: 3608: 3601: 3600: 3593: 3586: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3561: 3547: 3542: 3536: 3527: 3520: 3511: 3510:External links 3508: 3507: 3506: 3488:(1–2): 1–103. 3470: 3464: 3447: 3441: 3416: 3403: 3375: 3360: 3357: 3354: 3353: 3338: 3318: 3306: 3276: 3228: 3169: 3134: 3099: 3072:(2): 424–430. 3056: 3021:(3): 272–286. 3005: 2984:(1379): 7–17. 2953: 2897: 2872: 2865: 2843: 2789: 2723: 2651: 2571: 2564: 2536: 2509:(2): 166–168. 2489: 2482: 2455: 2443: 2413: 2378:(2): 343–351. 2358: 2351: 2323: 2316: 2283: 2276: 2250: 2235: 2226:|journal= 2199: 2140: 2133: 2103: 2054: 2007: 1995: 1968:(1): 107–135. 1949: 1930:(2): 147–153. 1910: 1895: 1857: 1842: 1824: 1810:978-2813002419 1809: 1791: 1762: 1738: 1726: 1693: 1670: 1667:on 2008-04-03. 1643: 1599: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1518: 1515: 1461: 1458: 1438: 1435: 1429: 1428:Disintegration 1426: 1417:, rather than 1380:sclerotization 1315:Main article: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1304:Taxonomic bias 1301: 1291: 1279: 1276: 1266: 1263: 1244: 1241: 1210:time-averaging 1204: 1201: 1175: 1172: 1162: 1159: 1121: 1118: 1111: 1110: 1069: 1067: 1060: 1054: 1051: 1020:microbial mats 1015: 1014:Microbial Mats 1012: 1004:geoarchaeology 1000:zooarchaeology 908: 905: 870: 867: 837:(the study of 810: 807: 806: 805: 798: 783: 780: 772: 765: 758:biogeochemical 738: 737:Research areas 735: 685: 684: 682:Zooarchaeology 679: 674: 669: 664: 662:Geoarchaeology 659: 654: 649: 644: 623: 620: 541: 540: 538: 537: 530: 523: 515: 512: 511: 501: 500: 497: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 459:Paleopathology 456: 451: 446: 444:Paleolimnology 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 419:Palaeoxylology 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 390: 387: 386: 383: 382: 379: 378: 373: 367: 364: 363: 360: 359: 356: 355: 350: 345: 340: 338:Common descent 335: 329: 326: 325: 322: 321: 318: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 242: 236: 233: 232: 229: 228: 225: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 173: 170: 169: 166: 165: 162: 161: 156: 151: 146: 144:Origin of life 141: 136: 131: 126: 121: 116: 110: 107: 106: 103: 102: 99: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 53: 47: 44: 43: 40: 39: 31: 30: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4476: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4451: 4449: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4415: 4405: 4404: 4401: 4390: 4385: 4379: 4374: 4368: 4365: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4347: 4341: 4339: 4332: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4307: 4305: 4303: 4296: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4263: 4256: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4225: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4205: 4203: 4201: 4199:(539 Ma–1 Ga) 4194: 4191: 4189: 4181: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4141: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4121: 4119: 4117: 4110: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4074: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4054: 4052: 4050: 4043: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4028: 4026: 4024: 4017: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3997: 3995: 3993: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3976:Paleozoic Era 3973: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3938: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3907: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3886:(66.0–145 Ma) 3881: 3878: 3876: 3874:(66.0–252 Ma) 3868: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3844: 3842: 3840: 3833: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3807: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3768: 3764: 3757: 3752: 3750: 3745: 3743: 3738: 3737: 3734: 3722: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3683: 3681: 3677: 3671: 3670:Thermal shock 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3652: 3650: 3646: 3640: 3637: 3635: 3632: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3622: 3620: 3617: 3616: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3599: 3594: 3592: 3587: 3585: 3580: 3579: 3576: 3569: 3565: 3562: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 3540: 3537: 3535: 3531: 3528: 3526: 3525: 3521: 3518: 3514: 3513: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3476: 3471: 3467: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3448: 3444: 3442:9780521452151 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3404: 3400: 3394: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3376:9788484840367 3372: 3368: 3363: 3362: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3335: 3331: 3330: 3322: 3309: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3280: 3265: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3242:Palaeontology 3239: 3232: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3173: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3138: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3103: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3060: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3009: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2949: 2945: 2940: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2886: 2885:www.nhm.ac.uk 2882: 2876: 2868: 2866:9780226389110 2862: 2858: 2854: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2730: 2728: 2719: 2715: 2710: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2590: 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1806: 1802: 1795: 1781:on 2017-05-17 1780: 1776: 1772: 1766: 1752: 1748: 1742: 1729: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1700: 1698: 1691: 1690:0-521-59833-8 1687: 1683: 1682: 1674: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1647: 1633:on 2021-07-02 1629: 1625: 1621: 1614: 1607: 1605: 1600: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1558:Fossil record 1556: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1530: 1523: 1514: 1512: 1511:Charniodiscus 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1477:locations in 1476: 1472: 1466: 1457: 1450: 1449: 1443: 1434: 1425: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1411: 1407: 1405: 1404: 1403:Odontogriphus 1399: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1360:sporopollenin 1357: 1351: 1343: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1305: 1302: 1299: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1288:Search images 1286: 1285: 1284: 1275: 1273: 1262: 1258: 1255: 1251: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1200: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1189:autochthonous 1186: 1185:allochthonous 1181: 1171: 1168: 1158: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1127: 1117: 1107: 1104: 1096: 1086: 1082: 1076: 1075: 1070:This section 1068: 1064: 1059: 1058: 1050: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1011: 1009: 1005: 1001: 996: 994: 988: 985: 982: 977: 972: 971:Lewis Binford 967: 965: 961: 957: 953: 944: 940: 938: 934: 929: 925: 923: 919: 913: 904: 902: 898: 893: 891: 887: 883: 878: 876: 866: 864: 860: 856: 855:fossil record 852: 848: 847:oceanographic 844: 840: 839:trace fossils 836: 832: 828: 823: 820: 816: 803: 799: 796: 792: 791:fossil record 788: 784: 781: 778: 773: 770: 766: 763: 759: 755: 752: 751: 750: 743: 734: 731: 727: 718: 714: 710: 705: 698: 697:Jenolan Caves 694: 689: 683: 680: 678: 675: 673: 670: 668: 665: 663: 660: 658: 655: 653: 650: 648: 645: 643: 642:Archaeobotany 640: 639: 638: 635: 633: 629: 628:biostratinomy 619: 617: 613: 608: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 579: 575:'burial' and 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 536: 531: 529: 524: 522: 517: 516: 514: 513: 510: 506: 503: 502: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 464:Paleopedology 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 449:Paleomycology 447: 445: 442: 440: 439:Paleogenetics 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 391: 385: 384: 377: 374: 372: 369: 368: 362: 361: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 330: 324: 323: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 278: 276: 273: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 251: 248: 246: 243: 241: 238: 237: 231: 230: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 174: 168: 167: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 124:Geochronology 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 111: 105: 104: 97: 94: 92: 89: 87: 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 72: 69: 67: 64: 62: 59: 57: 54: 52: 51:Fossilization 49: 48: 42: 41: 37: 33: 32: 29: 26: 25: 21: 20: 4363: 4299:Archean Eon 4261:(1.6–2.5 Ga) 4146:(485–539 Ma) 4115:(444–485 Ma) 4079:(419–444 Ma) 4048:(359–419 Ma) 4022:(299–359 Ma) 3991:(252–299 Ma) 3979:(252–539 Ma) 3943:(201–252 Ma) 3912:(145–201 Ma) 3871:Mesozoic Era 3771:Cenozoic Era 3720: 3554:Robert Hazen 3522: 3485: 3481: 3451: 3420: 3411: 3366: 3328: 3321: 3311:, retrieved 3289: 3279: 3267:. Retrieved 3245: 3241: 3231: 3186: 3182: 3172: 3147: 3144:Paleobiology 3143: 3137: 3112: 3108: 3102: 3069: 3065: 3059: 3018: 3015:Paleobiology 3014: 3008: 2981: 2977: 2921: 2917: 2888:. Retrieved 2884: 2875: 2856: 2846: 2811: 2807: 2743: 2739: 2678:(1): 25716. 2675: 2671: 2606:(1): 45160. 2603: 2599: 2546: 2539: 2506: 2502: 2492: 2473: 2448:, retrieved 2426: 2416: 2375: 2371: 2361: 2333: 2326: 2298: 2259: 2253: 2244: 2238: 2217:cite journal 2202: 2185:10281/453746 2160:(1): 19687. 2157: 2153: 2143: 2116: 2112: 2106: 2071: 2067: 2057: 2027:(1): 39–50. 2024: 2020: 2010: 1965: 1962:Paleobiology 1961: 1927: 1923: 1913: 1904: 1898: 1879: 1875: 1833: 1827: 1800: 1794: 1783:. Retrieved 1779:the original 1774: 1765: 1754:. Retrieved 1750: 1741: 1731:, retrieved 1709: 1680: 1673: 1665:the original 1660: 1656: 1646: 1635:. Retrieved 1628:the original 1623: 1619: 1588:Trace fossil 1583:Pseudofossil 1578:Petrifaction 1520: 1502: 1499:Pseudovendia 1498: 1495:Blackbrookia 1494: 1490: 1479:Newfoundland 1467: 1463: 1460:Significance 1454: 1446: 1431: 1423: 1412: 1408: 1401: 1395: 1389: 1352: 1348: 1303: 1297: 1293: 1287: 1281: 1278:Human biases 1268: 1259: 1250:unconformity 1246: 1230:volcanic ash 1222:bioturbation 1213: 1209: 1206: 1188: 1184: 1177: 1164: 1123: 1114: 1099: 1090: 1079:Please help 1074:verification 1071: 1038: 1025:pseudomorphs 1017: 997: 989: 986: 968: 949: 930: 926: 914: 910: 894: 886:geotaphonomy 882:biotaphonomy 879: 872: 827:paleobiology 824: 812: 809:Paleontology 748: 722: 677:Paleontology 672:Paleoecology 636: 625: 611: 609: 593:Ivan Efremov 589:paleontology 557: 545: 544: 488: 474:Paleozoology 434:Paleoecology 424:Paleobiology 177:Avian flight 114:Biogeography 71:Index fossil 56:Trace fossil 28:Paleontology 4335:Hadean Eon 4113:Ordovician 3884:Cretaceous 3784:Quaternary 3624:Carbonation 3269:20 February 3150:: 103–147. 2890:19 February 1801:TaphonomieS 1747:"TAPHONOMY" 1568:Lagerstätte 1384:polychaetes 1180:sedimentary 907:Archaeology 851:ethological 713:Pleistocene 647:Archaeology 622:Description 605:lithosphere 429:Paleobotany 250:Cephalopods 245:Butterflies 61:Microfossil 4448:Categories 4337:(4–4.6 Ga) 4301:(2.5–4 Ga) 4230:(1–1.6 Ga) 3836:Paleogene 3660:Haloclasty 3629:Hydrolysis 3619:Biological 3465:0674530853 3348:1256590576 3313:2022-04-11 3248:(3): 607. 2924:: 104367. 2450:2023-05-12 2119:: 79–105. 1882:: 97–120. 1819:1012395802 1785:2017-05-03 1756:2017-05-03 1733:2023-05-12 1637:2021-04-20 1595:References 1563:Karen Chin 1503:Shepshedia 1491:Ivesheadia 1445:Skulls of 1437:Distortion 1331:trilobites 1218:exhumation 1197:palynology 1093:April 2011 1041:integument 964:Swartkrans 952:C.K. Brain 937:excavation 901:postmortem 897:perimortem 787:megabiases 632:diagenesis 612:taphomorph 554:fossilized 479:Palynology 348:Cladistics 187:Multicells 4454:Taphonomy 4414:Astronomy 4364:See also: 4144:Cambrian 4077:Silurian 4046:Devonian 3941:Triassic 3910:Jurassic 3721:Taphonomy 3706:Saprolite 3691:Etchplain 3639:Oxidation 3545:Taphonomy 3393:cite book 3264:128785224 3205:2167-8359 3189:: e9925. 3051:133486523 2948:257326012 2768:0883-1351 2700:2045-2322 2628:2045-2322 2523:0002-9483 2408:127652031 2400:1866-9557 2113:Taphonomy 2049:130117819 1852:892625160 1475:Avalonian 1471:Ediacaran 1448:Diictodon 1325:Although 1167:deposited 976:articular 859:aragonite 835:ichnology 754:Microbial 610:The term 601:biosphere 599:from the 597:organisms 558:taphonomy 550:organisms 546:Taphonomy 489:Taphonomy 399:Ichnology 343:Phylogeny 327:Evolution 315:Tetrapods 260:Dinosaurs 255:Cetaceans 3989:Permian 3810:Neogene 3696:Fracture 3385:49214974 3223:33083110 3164:39048746 3094:85619898 2838:25972468 2784:73644674 2776:44708731 2718:27162204 2646:28338095 2531:16739138 2194:37952059 2098:24458635 1990:84073818 1526:See also 1368:algaenan 1298:en masse 1272:megabias 1234:Silurian 1193:crinoids 795:bauplans 509:Category 305:Sea cows 300:Reptiles 290:Molluscs 197:Flagella 4438:geology 4426:Biology 4400:Portals 3686:Erosion 3532:at the 3490:Bibcode 3214:7547620 3117:Bibcode 3074:Bibcode 3043:2400788 3023:Bibcode 2999:1692454 2926:Bibcode 2829:4455810 2748:Bibcode 2740:PALAIOS 2709:4861970 2680:Bibcode 2637:5364532 2608:Bibcode 2380:Bibcode 2162:Bibcode 2076:Bibcode 2068:Science 2029:Bibcode 2021:PALAIOS 1970:Bibcode 1932:Bibcode 1507:Charnia 1376:kerogen 1372:lichens 981:Garnsey 918:abiotic 890:soil pH 789:in the 667:Geology 652:Biology 603:to the 310:Spiders 285:Mammals 280:Insects 45:Fossils 4343: 3462: 3439: 3383: 3373: 3346: 3336: 3304: 3262: 3221: 3211: 3203: 3162: 3092: 3049: 3041: 2996: 2946: 2863: 2836: 2826: 2782: 2774: 2766: 2716: 2706: 2698: 2644: 2634: 2626: 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