860:' . The 70 allufim form the Sanhedrin, and are seated behind the above-mentioned first row, in seven rows, their faces being turned toward the president. Behind them are seated, without special locations, the remaining members of the academy and the assembled disciples. The examination proceeds in this wise: They that sit in the first row recite aloud the subject-matter, while the members of the remaining rows listen in silence. When they reach a passage that requires discussion they debate it among themselves, the head silently taking note of the subject of discussion. Then the head himself lectures upon the treatise under consideration, and adds an exposition of those passages that have given rise to discussion. Sometimes he addresses a question to those assembled as to how a certain Halakah is to be explained: this must be answered only by the scholar named by the head. The head adds his own exposition, and when everything has been made clear one of those in the first row arises and delivers an address, intended for the whole assembly, summing up the arguments on the theme they have been considering. … In the fourth week of the kallah-month the members of the Sanhedrin, as well as the other disciples, are examined individually by the head, to prove their knowledge and capacity. Whoever is shown to have insufficiently prepared himself is reproved by the head, and threatened with the withdrawal of the stipend appropriated for his subsistence. … The questions that have been received from various quarters are also discussed at these kallah assemblies for final solution. The head listens to the opinions of those present and formulates the decision, which is immediately written down. At the end of the month these collective answers (
698:
academies. The final editing of the literary work which this labour produced did not, it is true, take place until somewhat later; but tradition rightly names Ashi as the originator of the
Babylonian Talmud. Indeed, Ashi's editorial work received many later additions and amplifications; but the form underwent no material modification. The Babylonian Talmud must be considered the work of the Academy of Sura, because Ashi submitted to each of the semiannual general assemblies of the academy, treatise by treatise, the results of his examination and selection, and invited discussion upon them. His work was continued and perfected, and probably reduced to writing, by succeeding heads of the Sura Academy, who preserved the fruit of his labors in those sad times of persecution which, shortly after his death, were the lot of the Jews of Babylonia. These misfortunes were undoubtedly the immediate cause of the publication of the Talmud as a complete work; and from the Academy of Sura was issued that unique literary effort which was destined to occupy such an extraordinary position in Judaism.
599:, where he held property. Thus, there existed in Babylonia two contemporary academies, so far removed from each other, however, as not to interfere with each other's operations. Since Rav and Samuel were acknowledged peers in position and learning, their academies likewise were accounted of equal rank and influence. Thus both Babylonian rabbinical schools opened their lectures brilliantly, and the ensuing discussions in their classes furnished the earliest stratum of the scholarly material deposited in the Babylonian Talmud. The coexistence for many decades of these two colleges of equal rank originated that remarkable phenomenon of the dual leadership of the Babylonian academies which, with some slight interruptions, became a permanent institution and a weighty factor in the development of Babylonian Judaism.
36:
839:(general assembly) was a characteristic feature of Babylonian Judaism altogether unknown in Judea. Owing to the great extent of Babylonia, opportunities had to be furnished for those living far from the academies to take part in their deliberations. These meetings of outside students, at which of course the most varying ages and degrees of knowledge were represented, took place twice a year, in the months
133:
614:, a pupil of both Rav and Samuel, founded a new school. During the life of its founder, and still more under his successors, this school acquired a reputation for intellectual keenness and discrimination, which often degenerated into mere hair-splitting. Pumbedita became the other focus of the intellectual life of Babylonian Israel, and retained that position until the end of the gaonic period.
971:
694:, under whose guidance, during more than half a century (Ashi died 427), it attained great prominence, and presented such attractions that even the exilarchs came there, in the autumn of each year, to hold their customary official receptions. The school at Pumbedita recognized the preeminence of that of Sura; and this leadership was firmly retained for several centuries.
856:
of the academy. In Adar and Elul they present themselves before the head, who examines them upon this treatise. They sit in the following order of rank: Immediately next to the president is the first row, consisting of ten men; seven of these are rashe kallah; three of them are called 'ḥaberim' . Each of the seven rashe kallah has under him ten men called '
735:. The Savoraim were the scholars whose diligent hands completed the Talmud in the first third of the sixth century, adding manifold amplifications to its text. The title "gaon," which originally belonged preeminently to the head of the Sura Academy, came into general use in the seventh century, under
722:
was developed in the academies founded by Rav and Samuel were followed by five centuries during which it was zealously preserved, studied, expounded in the schools, and, through their influence, recognized by the whole diaspora. Sura and
Pumbedita were considered the only important seats of learning:
855:
In the kallah-months, that is, in Elul, at the close of the summer, and in Adar, at the close of the winter, the disciples journey from their various abodes to the meeting, after having prepared in the previous five months the treatise announced at the close of the preceding kallah-month by the head
739:
supremacy, when the official position and rank of the exilarchs and of the heads of the academy were regulated anew. But in order to leave no gaps between the bearers of the title, history must either continue the
Savoraim into the seventh century or accept an older origin for the title of gaon. In
697:
The unusual length of Ashi's activity, his undeniable high standing, his learning, as well as the favorable circumstances of the day, were all of potent influence in furthering the task he undertook; namely, that of sifting and collecting the material accumulated for two centuries by the
Babylonian
414:
The three centuries in the course of which the
Babylonian Talmud was developed in the academies founded by Rav and Samuel were followed by five centuries during which it was zealously preserved, studied, expounded in the schools, and, through their influence, recognized by the whole diaspora. Sura
1147:
The dates of
Nehemiah's and Ezra's respective missions, and their chronological relation to each other, are uncertain, because each mission is dated solely by a regnal year of an Achaemenian Emperor Artaxerxes; and it is not known in either case whether the Artaxerxes in question is Artaxerxes 1
633:, under whom the attendance at the academy reached unusual numbers. When Huna died, in 297, Judah ben Ezekiel, principal of the Pumbedita Academy, was recognized also by the sages of Sura as their head. On the death of Judah, two years later, Sura became the only center of learning, with
847:. An account dating from the 10th century, describing the order of procedure and of the differences in rank at the kallah, contains details that refer only to the period of the Geonim; but much of it extends as far back as the time of the
637:(died 309) as its head. Chisda had in Huna's lifetime rebuilt Rav's ruined academy in Sura, while Huna's college was in the vicinity of Mata Meḥasya (Sherira). On Chisda's death Sura lost its importance for a long time. In Pumbedita,
415:
and
Pumbedita were considered the only important seats of learning: their heads and sages were the undisputed authorities, whose decisions were sought from all sides and were accepted wherever Jewish communal life existed.
743:
The inherited higher standing of Sura endured until the end of the eighth century, after which
Pumbedita came into greater importance. Sura will always occupy a prominent place in Jewish history; for it was there that
574:
Among those that helped to restore Jewish learning, after
Hadrian, was the Babylonian scholar Nathan, a member of the family of the exilarch, who continued his activity even under Judah the Prince. Another Babylonian,
740:
point of fact, both titles are only conventionally and indifferently applied; the bearers of them are heads of either of the two academies of Sura and
Pumbedita and, in that capacity, successors of the Amoraim.
583:, afterward called simply Rav, was one of the most important pupils of Judah. Rav's return to his Babylonian home, the year of which has been accurately recorded (530 Seleucid era, 219 CE), marks an
851:. The description given in the following condensed rendering furnishes, at all events, a curious picture of the whole institution and of the inner life and organization of the Babylonian academies:
731:)." The periods of Jewish history immediately following the close of the Talmud are designated according to the titles of the teachers at Sura and Pumbedita; the time of the Geonim and that of the
550:, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at
317:(post-Talmudic rabbis), continued on this text for the next 250 years. In fact, much of the text did not reach its final form until around 700. The two most famous academies were located at
558:, and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at Nehar-Peqod, founded by the Judean immigrant
748:
gave a new impulse to Jewish lore, and thus paved the way for the intellectual regeneration of Judaism. Pumbedita, on the other hand, may boast that two of its teachers, Sherira and his son
690:, near Sura, which, for the time being, interfered with the growth of the Sura school; but after Papa's death, in 375, the college at Sura regained its former supremacy. Its restorer was
587:; for from it dates the beginning of a new movement in Babylonian Judaism—namely, the initiation of the dominant rôle which the Babylonian academies played for several centuries. Leaving
566:, which school could have become the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea and Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.
500:
395:) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early
723:
their heads and sages were the undisputed authorities, whose decisions were sought from all sides and were accepted wherever Jewish communal life existed. In the words of the
710:
was the head of the academy. Sura declined in this period as the Jews were persecuted. In Pumbedita the study continued and the academy became the leading one in Babylonia.
657:). Under these masters the study of the Law attained a notable development, to which certain Judean-Palestinian scholars, driven from their own homes by the persecutions of
515:(fl. 2nd century CE), furnishes only a few scanty items on the state of learning among the Babylonian Jews. In the chief source of information about the Babylonian schools,
1202:
672:(died 356), a pupil of Raba. In his method of teaching may be discerned the first traces of an attempt to edit the enormous mass of material that ultimately formed the
454:
The term "Babylonia" from Jewish sources has always been an anachronism, as the area they refer to is in no way identical with the by far more ancient empires of
767:
region. The geonic academies declined and eventually closed, but the migrants helped Babylonian Jewish traditions become dominant throughout the Jewish world.
53:
17:
727:, "God created these two academies in order that the promise might be fulfilled, that the word of God should never depart from Israel's mouth" (
100:
376:
270:, since the Jewish focus of interest has to do with the Jewish religious academies, which were mainly situated in an area between the rivers
213:
72:
702:(R. Abina), a teacher in Sura, is considered by tradition the last amora; and the year of his death (812 of the Seleucidan, or 500 of the
606:
destroyed Nehardea in 259—twelve years after Rav's death, and five years after that of Samuel—its place was taken by a neighboring town,
79:
1291:
1037:
894:, modern-day Anbar, a town adjacent or identical to Nehardea; academy of Pumbedita was moved to this town for half of the 6th century
1271:
423:
Jewish sources regularly use the term "Babylonia" when referring to the location of the Talmudic academies in the northern half of
542:, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before
539:
86:
1175:
953:
752:(died 1038), terminated in most glorious fashion the age of the Geonim and with it the activities of the Babylonian academies.
1228:
427:
during their activity from the second half of the 6th century to the first half of the 11th century (roughly the time of the
68:
835:
At the side of the rosh metibta, and second to him in rank, stood the rosh kallah (president of the general assembly). The
519:
referred to those dark centuries in his famous letter: "No doubt, here in Babylonia public instruction was given in the
387:, who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years. The Geonim (
1281:
1124:
1218:
1132:
356:, i.e., as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the
206:
119:
706:) is considered the date of the close of the Talmud. After his death the Jewish center moved to Pumbedita, where
368:
in the seventh century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate.
57:
93:
595:, whose father, Abba, was already reckoned among the authorities of that town, Rav founded a new academy in
534:, where there were some institutions of learning. A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King
199:
1006:
879:
1286:
1245:
440:
365:
984:
511:(traditionally c. 110 BCE – 10 CE); and the history of the succeeding two centuries, from Hillel to
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remained the official designation for the head of the academy until the end of the Geonic period.
989:
46:
1095:
584:
246:
to 4798 AM) in what is called "Babylonia" in Jewish sources, at the time otherwise known as
329:
was originally dominant, but its authority waned towards the end of the Geonic period and the
309:, two leaders of the Babylonian Jewish community, around the year 550. Editorial work by the
1156:
404-359). So it is not known whether the date of Ezra's mission was 458 B.C. or 397 B.C.'
1041:
8:
563:
1081:. As a title of a Babylonian college president it meant something like "His Excellency."
1251:
1162:
931:
794:
638:
592:
1224:
1157:
1128:
917:
901:; the academy of Pumbedita was relocated to Mahuza during the time of the Amora sage
756:
719:
611:
555:
448:
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330:
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Since the academies were convened in certain months of the year, they were known as
907:
554:, in northern Mesopotamia, an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood
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508:
380:
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579:, belonged to the foremost leaders in the closing age of the Tannaim. His nephew,
458:. The Jewish sources only concentrate on the area between the main two academies,
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Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baháí̕ Faith
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Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions
936:
902:
891:
819:
805:, the second dean of the Academy of Sura, the yeshiva began to be called a
658:
646:
516:
372:
326:
836:
618:
940:
745:
707:
677:
547:
467:
396:
352:, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient
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318:
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263:
234:
academies, were the center for Jewish scholarship and the development of
974: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
790:
703:
634:
603:
580:
243:
680:, was destined to be the birthplace of this work. After Raba's death,
625:. The luster of Sura (also known by the name of its neighboring town,
527:
there were no recognized heads of schools until the death of Rabbi ."
921:
699:
665:
483:
459:
455:
361:
353:
322:
306:
279:
275:
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259:
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187:
478:, are situated between, or in the immediate vicinity of, the rivers
364:, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the
35:
925:
911:
861:
802:
763:
declined in the 10th century, many Babylonian Jews migrated to the
749:
732:
691:
681:
630:
622:
551:
535:
531:
524:
503:
is largely unknown for the four centuries covering the period from
471:
463:
404:
338:
310:
302:
283:
182:
170:
1186:
848:
777:
760:
724:
559:
543:
334:
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165:
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Sasanians and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of
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673:
479:
428:
271:
231:
177:
150:
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520:
444:
408:
155:
132:
1166:, vol.12 (1961) Oxford University Press, 1964 pp.484-485 n.2
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844:
840:
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297:
The key work of these academies was the compilation of the
266:, nor geographically identical with the ancient empires of
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regained its former position. The head of the academy was
947:
943:– the political center of Jewish Babylonia after Nehardea
864:) are read aloud to the assembly, and signed by the head.
645:(died 339) taught in succession. They were followed by
379:, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of Sura was
1107:ĀSŌRISTĀN, name of the Sasanian province of Babylonia.
136:
A depiction of Rabbi Ashi teaching at the Sura Academy
649:, who transplanted the college to his native town,
383:, who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
885:
789:), Aramaic for "session". Under the leadership of
443:in 637, after which it becomes known in Arabic as
431:). This region was known to contemporaries as the
407:) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in
1263:
830:
770:
718:The three centuries in the course of which the
684:, another of his pupils, founded a college in
661:tyranny, contributed no inconsiderable share.
617:Nehardea once more came into prominence under
629:) was enhanced by Rav's pupil and successor,
530:The principal seat of Babylonian Judaism was
348:For the Jews of late antiquity and the early
207:
809:and Huna was the first to bear the title of
1243:
979:
294:, a town farther south down the Euphrates.
1077:and since the 1800s "genius" as in modern
214:
200:
27:Center for Jewish scholarship, 589 to 1038
1073:), which means "pride" or "splendour" in
1035:
924:for most of its history, near modern-day
797:, the Academy of Sura was still called a
470:in the south. Both academies, as well as
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
569:
131:
713:
262:until the 11th century). It is neither
14:
1264:
1244:Singer, Isidore; Adler, Cyrus (1925).
1213:
954:Talmudic Academies in Syria Palaestina
948:Talmudic academies in Syria Palaestina
1040:. New York: about.com. Archived from
466:; west of Baghdad) in the north, and
371:The first gaon of Sura, according to
333:'s Geonate gained ascendancy. Major
1118:
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
786:
641:(died 331), Joseph (died 333), and
392:
24:
418:
25:
1313:
1112:
1084:
983:; et al., eds. (1901–1906).
69:"Talmudic academies in Babylonia"
1292:Jewish educational organizations
1152:465-424 B.C.) or Artaxerxes 11 (
1038:"Largest Cities Through History"
993:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
969:
501:history of the Jews in Babylonia
34:
1272:Talmudic academies in Babylonia
1247:The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. 6
1237:
1207:
1192:
886:Talmudic academies in Babylonia
228:Talmudic academies in Babylonia
45:needs additional citations for
18:Talmudic Academies in Babylonia
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999:
676:. Not Pumbedita, however, but
13:
1:
1176:Epistle of Sherira Gaon, 1:85
964:
831:The Kallah (general assembly)
771:Organization of the academies
494:
238:from roughly 589 to 1038 CE (
664:After Raba's death, in 352,
7:
1220:History of the Jews, Vol. 2
1036:Rosenberg, Matt T. (2007).
880:History of the Jews in Iraq
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10:
1318:
1119:Buck, Christopher (1999).
538:, existed in Nehardea. At
489:
1282:Jewish Babylonian history
366:Muslim conquest of Persia
985:"Academies in Babylonia"
670:Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak
507:(c. 5th century BCE) to
1223:. Cosimo. p. 547.
1069:is the plural of גאון (
990:The Jewish Encyclopedia
1007:Eras within Jewish law
866:
278:and primarily between
137:
853:
570:Founding of academies
399:, in contrast to the
337:were also located at
135:
1096:Encyclopædia Iranica
714:Exposition of Talmud
621:, a contemporary of
230:, also known as the
54:improve this article
1252:Funk & Wagnalls
897:Mahuza, modern-day
817:, corresponding to
564:Joshua ben Hananiah
1163:A Study of History
932:Pum-Nahara Academy
639:Rabbah bar Nahmani
593:Samuel of Nehardea
523:; but besides the
451:("Arabian Irāq").
449:al-'Irāq al-'Arabi
258:(under the Muslim
138:
1230:978-1-60520-943-2
1158:Arnold J. Toynbee
918:Pumbedita Academy
757:Abbasid Caliphate
720:Babylonian Talmud
674:Babylonian Talmud
612:Judah bar Ezekiel
556:Judah ben Bathyra
425:Lower Mesopotamia
331:Pumbedita Academy
315:Rabbanan Savoraei
299:Babylonian Talmud
286:, a town west of
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43:This article
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937:Sura Academy
892:Firuz Shapur
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824:
820:rosh yeshiva
818:
815:rosh mesivta
814:
811:resh metibta
810:
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435:province of
422:
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373:Sherira Gaon
370:
347:
341:and Mahuza (
327:Sura Academy
314:
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240:Hebrew dates
227:
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110:January 2022
107:
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52:Please help
47:verification
44:
1092:"ĀSŌRISTĀN"
746:Saadia Gaon
548:Rabbi Akiva
401:Resh Galuta
397:Middle Ages
377:Mar Rab Mar
358:Zoroastrian
350:Middle Ages
250:(under the
1266:Categories
1125:SUNY Press
1048:2007-11-14
965:References
899:Al-Mada'in
708:Raba Yossi
704:Common Era
655:al-Mada'in
635:Rav Chisda
604:Odaenathus
581:Abba Arika
495:Background
439:until the
343:al-Mada'in
80:newspapers
1189:, Noah, 3
1154:imperabat
1150:imperabat
922:Pumbedita
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525:exilarchs
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460:Pumbedita
456:Babylonia
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362:Ctesiphon
354:Sanhedrin
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280:Pumbedita
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268:Babylonia
260:caliphate
248:Asōristān
188:Acharonim
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926:Fallujah
912:Nehardea
869:See also
862:responsa
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801:. Under
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733:Savoraim
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631:Rav Huna
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282:(modern
183:Rishonim
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1187:Tanhuma
1101:15 July
1024:Geonica
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778:metibta
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552:Nisibis
544:Hadrian
490:History
411:lands.
409:Islamic
290:), and
288:Baghdad
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1063:Gaonim
1061:(also
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787:מתיבתא
783:Hebrew
737:Muslim
687:Naresh
651:Mahuza
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429:Geonim
393:גאונים
389:Hebrew
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325:; the
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602:When
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