1119:
identify Jews, locate them, determine what personal effects they owned, what businesses they controlled, their real estate, and anything else of value that could be seized by the Nazis. IBM tabulators also made it possible to move millions of Jews to their deaths in concentration camps using hundreds of thousands of rail cars and tons of coal in a process that would have been impossible without IBM. All the concentration camps contained offices specifically for the running and repair of the IBM tabulators which kept track of the age, gender and manner of death of every inmate. These machines, as well as other used by the German military, were leased to the Nazis in what became millions of dollars of profit for IBM.
316:. On early models, the accumulator register dials would be read manually after a card run to get totals. Later models could print totals directly. Cards with a particular punch could be treated as master cards causing different behavior. For example, customer master cards could be merged with sorted cards recording individual items purchased. When read by the tabulating machine to create invoices, the billing address and customer number would be printed from the master card, and then individual items purchased and their price would be printed. When the next master card was detected, the total price would be printed from the accumulator and the page ejected to the top of the next page, typically using a
180:, pools corresponding to the possible hole positions in the card. When the wires were pressed onto the card, punched holes allowed wires to dip into the mercury pools, making an electrical contact that could be used for counting, sorting, and setting off a bell to let the operator know the card had been read. The tabulator had 40 counters, each with a dial divided into 100 divisions, with two indicator hands; one which stepped one unit with each counting pulse, the other which advanced one unit every time the other dial made a complete revolution. This arrangement allowed a count of up to 9,999. During a given tabulating run, counters could be assigned to a specific hole or, by using
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20:
216:. In 1896 he incorporated the Tabulating Machine Company. In that year he introduced the Hollerith Integrating Tabulator, which could add numbers coded on punched cards, not just count the number of holes. Punched cards were still read manually using the pins and mercury pool reader. 1900 saw the Hollerith Automatic Feed Tabulator used in that year's U.S. census. A
358:) Accounting Machine was the first card-controlled machine to incorporate class selection, automatic subtraction, and printing of a net positive or negative balance. Dating to 1928, this machine exemplifies the transition from tabulating to accounting machines. The Type IV could list 100 cards per minute.
328:
clause: SELECT (filter columns), then WHERE (filter cards, or "rows"), then maybe a GROUP BY for totals and counts, then a SORT BY; and then perhaps feed those back to another set of SELECT and WHERE cycles again if needed.) A human operator had to retrieve, load, and store the various card decks at
191:
to punch holes in the cards entering age, state of residence, gender, and other information from the returns. Some 100 million cards were generated and "the cards were only passed through the machines four times during the whole of the operations." According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the census
396:
Introduced in 1934, the 405 Alphabetical
Accounting Machine was the basic bookkeeping and accounting machine marketed by IBM for many years. Important features were expanded adding capacity, greater flexibility of counter grouping, direct printing of the entire alphabet, direct subtraction and
1118:
Assiduously footnoted using 20,000 hard copy documents and utilizing over 100 researchers, the book pieces together fragments of information from all of the world deliberately obscured to prevent the exposure of the extent to which IBM president Thomas J. Watson collaborated with the Nazis to
547:
Later IBM tabulators provided multiple, small, counters of 2 to 8 positions. When a larger counter was needed multiple counters could be grouped to function as a single counter. For example, a control panel could be wired to group a 4 position and a 6 position counter, forming a 10 position
270:, were created to aid this migration. Since tabulator control panels were based on the machine cycle, both FARGO and RPG emulated the notion of the machine cycle and training material showed the control panel vs. programming language coding sheet relationships.
434:
Introduced in 1949, the 407 was the mainstay of the IBM unit record product line for almost three decades. It was later adapted to serve as an input/output peripheral for several early electronic calculators and computers. Its printing mechanism was used in the
243:(IBM). In 1927 Remington Rand acquired the Powers Accounting Machine Company. In 1933 The Tabulating Machine Company was subsumed into IBM. These companies continued to develop faster and more sophisticated tabulators, culminating in tabulators such as 1949
184:, to a combination of holes, e.g. to count married couples. If the card was to be sorted, a compartment lid of the sorting box would open for storage of the card, the choice of compartment depending on the data in the card.
131:
to record traveler details such as gender and approximate age, invented the recording of data on a machine-readable medium. Prior uses of machine-readable media had been for lists of instructions (not data) to drive
323:
With successive stages or cycles of punched-card processing, fairly complex calculations could be made if one had a sufficient set of equipment. (In modern data processing terms, one can think of each stage as an
397:
printing of either debit or credit balance from any counter. Commonly called the 405 "tabulator," this machine remained the flagship of IBM's product line until after World War II. The
British at
1013:
372:
The 401, introduced in 1933, was an early entry in a long series of IBM alphabetic tabulators and accounting machines. It was developed by a team headed by
239:
tabulator prototype was developed. Tabulators that could print, and with removable control panels, appeared in the 1920s. In 1924 CTR was renamed
1144:
385:
381:
373:
347:
1040:
An accessible book of recollections (sometimes with errors), with photographs and descriptions of many unit record machines. The chapter
743:
872:
557:
Before direct subtraction was available, negative numbers were entered as complements or were listed and totaled in separate columns.
467:
105:
636:
1048:
Kistermann, F.W. (Summer 1995). "The way to the first automatic sequence-controlled calculator: the 1935 DEHOMAG D 11 tabulator".
228:
176:
to increment mechanical counters. A set of spring-loaded wires were suspended over the card reader. The card sat over pools of
1026:
337:
Hollerith's first tabulators were used to compile mortality statistics for
Baltimore, Jersey City and New York City in 1886.
664:... brief... fascinating article... describes how tabulators and sorters were used on ... 100 million cards ... 1890 census.
340:
The first
Tabulating Machine Company (TMC) automatic feed tabulator, operating at 150 cards/minute, was developed in 1906.
521:
The "sorting box" was controlled by the tabulator. The "sorter", an independent machine, was a later development. See:
1164:
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was formed that same year and, like
Hollerith, with machines first developed at the Census Bureau. In 1919 the first
1154:
240:
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452:
The IBM 407 Accounting
Machine was withdrawn from marketing in 1976, signaling the end of the unit record era.
308:
In its basic form, a tabulating machine would read one card at a time, print portions (fields) of the card on
707:
1149:
990:
263:
1103:
IBM and the
Holocaust: The Strategic Alliance Between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation
388:. The 401 added at a speed of 150 cards per minute and listed alphanumerical data at 80 cards per minute.
312:, possibly rearranged, and add one or more numbers punched on the card to one or more counters, called
124:
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224:
922:
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313:
144:..." Hollerith used punched cards with round holes, 12 rows, and 24 columns. The cards measured
890:
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251:. Tabulating machines continued to be used well after the introduction of commercial electronic
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Many applications using unit record tabulators were migrated to computers such as the
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The 1952 Bull Gamma 3 could be attached to this tabulator or to a card read/punch.
300:
284:
288:
IBM Type 285 tabulators in use at U.S. Social
Security Administration circa 1936
309:
76:
682:
The
Development of Punch Card Tabulation in the Bureau of the Census 1890-1940
1138:
497:
137:
71:
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results were "... finished months ahead of schedule and far under budget."
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116:, a combination of larger staff and faster-recording systems was required.
44:
16:
Late 19th-century machine for summarizing information stored on punch cards
377:
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113:
27:
657:
201:
109:
56:
19:
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468:
List of IBM products § Tabulators, accounting machines, printers
346:
TMC Type IV Accounting
Machine (later renamed the IBM 301), from the
279:
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205:
649:
631:
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Do not fold, spindle or mutilate: the "hole" story of punched cards
444:
259:
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80:
newspaper in 1931 to refer to a large custom-built tabulator that
55:. Later models were widely used for business applications such as
456:
436:
428:
409:
244:
172:
inches (83 by 168 mm). His tabulator used electromechanical
973:"A first generation tube calculator: BULL GAMMA 3 - technikum29"
376:
and incorporated significant functions and features invented by
43:
machine designed to assist in summarizing information stored on
767:
Herman Hollerith: The Forgotten Giant of Information Processing
200:
The advantages of the technology were immediately apparent for
398:
223:
In 1911, four corporations, including Hollerith's firm, were
187:
Hollerith's method was used for the 1890 census. Clerks used
140:. "After some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on
493:
For early use of tabulators for scientific computations see
525:
Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing
412:
and 403, from 1948, were modernized successors to the 405.
923:"IBM Archives: IBM Type 405 Alphabetic Accounting Machine"
909:"IBM Archives: IBM Type 405 Alphabetic Accounting Machine"
1071:
The Origins of Digital Computers, Selected Papers, 3rd ed
325:
81:
51:, the machine was developed to help process data for the
582:. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. p. 95.
343:
The first TMC printing tabulator was developed in 1920.
296:
Early IBM D11 tabulating machine, with covers removed
1095:
Calculating Machines: Their Principles and Evolution
104:
mandates a census every ten years to apportion both
527:. Columbia University Press. pp. 41, 178–179.
401:used Hollerith machinery to gain some knowledge of
23:
Hollerith 1890 tabulating machine with sorting box.
750:. U.S. Census Bureau. 22 June 2009. Archived from
726:"IBM Archives: Hollerith Tabulator and Sorter Box"
1044:describes IBM tabulators and accounting machines.
891:"IBM Archives -- FAQ's for Products and Services"
1136:
127:using holes punched in different positions on a
577:
419:Control panel for an IBM 402 Accounting Machine
332:
624:
622:
700:
100:had taken eight years to process. Since the
195:
619:
584:The 1920 date on page 95 is incorrect, see
220:was incorporated in the 1906 Type 1.
63:. It spawned a class of machines, known as
1047:
1011:
991:"IBM Archives: IBM 407 accounting machine"
769:. Columbia University Press. p. 153.
676:
629:
208:. Hollerith started his own business as
792:"IBM Tabulators and Accounting Machines"
764:
637:Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
586:The Columbia Difference Tabulator - 1931
522:
414:
405:cribs used by encrypted German messages.
299:
291:
283:
210:The Hollerith Electric Tabulating System
26:
18:
1068:
955:"BULL Tabulating machine - technikum29"
808:
789:
1145:Computer-related introductions in 1890
1137:
875:. IBM. 23 January 2003. Archived from
229:Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company
214:punched card data processing equipment
815:Columbia University Computing History
796:Columbia University Computing History
697:Columbia University Computing History
609:"Herman Hollerith Tabulating Machine"
67:, and the data processing industry.
644:(4). Blackwell Publishing: 678–682.
487:Powers-Samas Accounting Machines Ltd
1089:, has excerpts of Hollerith's 1889
809:da Cruz, Frank (16 December 2018).
790:da Cruz, Frank (26 December 2019).
630:Hollerith, Herman (December 1894).
578:Eames, Charles; Eames, Ray (1973).
363:H.W.Egli - BULL Tabulator model T30
225:amalgamated (via stock acquisition)
13:
1050:Annals of the History of Computing
1005:
473:British Tabulating Machine Company
14:
1181:
1123:
632:"The Electric Tabulating Machine"
478:Powers Accounting Machine Company
233:Powers Accounting Machine Company
983:
965:
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915:
901:
883:
865:
847:
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802:
783:
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736:
708:"AN ELECTRIC TABULATING SYSTEM"
695:Hollerith 1890 Census Tabulator
551:
541:
304:Powers-Samas accounting machine
241:International Business Machines
1130:IBM Accounting Machine manuals
1012:Fierheller, George A. (2014).
765:Austrian, Geoffrey D. (1982).
718:
688:
670:
601:
590:
571:
523:Austrian, Geoffrey D. (1982).
515:
262:. Two programming languages,
91:
1:
1091:An Electric Tabulating System
564:
354:The 301 (better known as the
227:to form a fifth company, the
106:congressional representatives
1069:Randell, Brian, ed. (1982).
829:"The punched card tabulator"
333:Selected models and timeline
273:
7:
744:"Tabulation and Processing"
461:
10:
1186:
941:"The History of Hut Eight"
277:
1165:IBM unit record equipment
597:U.S. Census, 1880#Results
482:Powers Accounting Machine
196:Following the 1890 census
508:
811:"The IBM 285 Tabulator"
1155:Mechanical calculators
1093:and Couffignal's 1933
580:A Computer Perspective
454:
449:
447:through the mid-1970s.
426:
420:
407:
403:Known-plaintext attack
390:
360:
305:
297:
289:
32:
31:Hollerith punched card
24:
1160:Unit record equipment
684:. US GPO. p. 51.
662:From (Randell, 1982)
450:
439:line printer for the
432:
422:
418:
394:
370:
352:
318:carriage control tape
303:
295:
287:
65:unit record equipment
30:
22:
1100:Black, Edwin (2001)
879:on January 17, 2005.
873:"IBM Archives: 1920"
855:"IBM Archives: 1906"
1150:American inventions
1087:Tabulating Machines
1073:. Springer-Verlag.
997:. January 23, 2003.
929:. January 23, 2003.
861:. January 23, 2003.
732:. January 23, 2003.
503:Wallace John Eckert
443:and later with the
441:IBM 700/7000 series
134:programmed machines
86:Columbia University
678:Truesdell, Leon E.
489:aka. "Acc and Tab"
421:
306:
298:
290:
249:Remington Rand 409
212:, specializing in
119:In the late 1880s
74:" was used by the
37:tabulating machine
33:
25:
1062:10.1109/85.380270
1028:978-1-894183-86-4
102:U.S. Constitution
61:inventory control
41:electromechanical
1177:
1084:
1065:
1039:
1037:
1031:. Archived from
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754:on 19 July 2009.
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712:www.columbia.edu
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121:Herman Hollerith
53:1890 U.S. Census
49:Herman Hollerith
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1021:. Stewart Pub.
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72:Super Computing
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1042:It all adds Up
1038:on 2016-03-24.
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255:in the 1950s.
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138:Jacquard looms
129:railway ticket
123:, inspired by
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77:New York World
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1170:Punched card
1115:
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1056:(2): 33–49.
1053:
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1041:
1033:the original
1014:
994:
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877:the original
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837:. Retrieved
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752:the original
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382:F. J. Furman
374:J. R. Peirce
371:
367:
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348:IBM Archives
345:
342:
339:
336:
329:each stage.
322:
314:accumulators
307:
257:
222:
209:
199:
186:
118:
110:direct taxes
95:
75:
69:
36:
34:
1107:Crown Pub,
1085:Chapter 3,
995:www.ibm.com
927:www.ibm.com
895:www.ibm.com
859:www.ibm.com
730:www.ibm.com
378:A. W. Mills
231:(CTR). The
182:relay logic
98:1880 census
92:1890 census
1139:Categories
565:References
202:accounting
189:keypunches
125:conductors
112:among the
70:The term "
57:accounting
392:IBM 405:
368:IBM 401:
280:Plugboard
274:Operation
253:computers
247:and 1952
206:inventory
174:solenoids
84:made for
839:19 March
680:(1965).
548:counter.
462:See also
445:IBM 1130
260:IBM 1401
136:such as
911:. 2001.
833:ibm.com
748:History
658:2979610
457:IBM 421
437:IBM 716
429:IBM 407
410:IBM 402
365:, 1931
356:Type IV
245:IBM 407
178:mercury
167:⁄
153:⁄
39:was an
1111:
1077:
1025:
773:
656:
531:
114:states
1036:(PDF)
1019:(PDF)
835:. IBM
654:JSTOR
509:Notes
399:Hut 8
264:FARGO
1109:ISBN
1075:ISBN
1023:ISBN
841:2024
771:ISBN
529:ISBN
384:and
266:and
237:Bull
108:and
96:The
59:and
35:The
1058:doi
646:doi
326:SQL
268:RPG
158:by
88:.
82:IBM
1141::
1054:17
1052:.
993:.
975:.
957:.
925:.
893:.
857:.
831:.
813:.
794:.
746:.
728:.
710:.
660:.
652:.
642:57
640:.
634:.
621:^
611:.
480:,
380:,
350::
320:.
1116:.
1105:,
1097:.
1083:.
1064:.
1060::
979:.
961:.
943:.
897:.
843:.
817:.
798:.
779:.
714:.
648::
628:*
615:.
537:.
169:8
165:5
162:+
160:6
155:4
151:1
148:+
146:3
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