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626:, seeking $ 1 billion in damages, seeking to hold the university accountable for the experiment itself because the doctors held important roles on panels that reviewed the federal spending on research for other sexually transmitted diseases. The plaintiffs claimed that Johns Hopkins was actively involved in these experiments, stating " did not limit their involvement to design, planning, funding and authorization of the Experiments; instead, they exercised control over, supervised, supported, encouraged, participated in and directed the course of the Experiments." The hope was that compensation could be attained by targeting private institutions rather than the federal government.
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to discover if there were different transmission rates when the disease was presented to different infectious sites. Cutler created the protocol for infection site research. Cutler and his team discovered that the disease takes 93%-100% if infected through scarification or intracutaneous injection into the foreskin. After the transmission was studied, Cutler focused on the diseases' treatability. People were then recruited and infected and either put into a treatment group or a control group. The treatment group was given orvus-mapharsen or penicillin to see its effects, and the control group was given nothing to stop the disease. The researchers paid
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her arm, lesions on her arms and legs, and her skin was beginning to waste away from her body. Berta was not treated for syphilis until three months after her injection. Soon after, on August 23, Dr. Cutler wrote that Berta appeared as if she was going to die, but he did not specify why. That same day he put gonorrheal pus from another male subject into both of Berta's eyes, as well as in her urethra and rectum. He also re-infected her with syphilis. Several days later, Berta's eyes were filled with pus from the gonorrhea, and she was bleeding from her urethra. Three days later, on August 27, Berta died.
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disability, or death to the participant is reasonably expected. Nevertheless, "science and society should never outweigh the wellbeing of the subject". "The way that this case in Peru was handled though, supports the view that â include monetary redress and criminal investigations â in
Guatemala matter. Some would also argue that the Guatemala study constituted torture or cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment, and the US has an obligation under international law to pursue criminal investigations and provide the victims with adequate financial compensation."
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424:, where black Americans were lied to about getting available treatment for syphilis. Over 100 people died due to lack of treatment. In a 1993 documentary about the Tuskegee syphilis study titled "Deadly Deception", Cutler defends his actions saying, "It was important that they were supposedly untreated, and it would be undesirable to go ahead and use large amounts of penicillin to treat the disease, because you'd interfere with the study."
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of these deaths. Although the study ran for so long and collected massive amounts of data, the researchers never published anything from the
Guatemalan syphilis experiments. The likelihood of researchers attempting to protect themselves by not publishing is low due to their later publishing studies over the Tuskegee syphilis studies. No evidence indicates why the experiments ended or if they were shut down.
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336:, who served from 1936 to 1948. Parran's profound interest in STD research can be seen when he testified before Congress in 1938 for expanded funding for public health prevention efforts and scientific research in the STD field. Prior to his involvement in Guatemala, he oversaw part of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment and the Terre Haute prison experiments.
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10â72, 678 individuals (52%) can be said to have received a form of treatment. However, Cutler claimed all had been treated. Hidden from the public, Cutler used healthy individuals in order to improve what he called "pure science". Dr. Cutler participated in intentional infection experiments in
Guatemala until his departure in December 1948.
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subjects' genitalia, forearms and faces. Some subjects were even infected through forced perforation of the spine. Participants who then tested positive for syphilis were treated with penicillin. However, there is no evidence for adequate treatment having been provided to all subjects or whether infected individuals were cured.
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using the samples from the
Guatemalan syphilis experiments were later given samples from the Tuskegee syphilis experiments. Due to a lack of regulations involving laboratory samples, it is unknown if the samples from the studies are still being used today; however, records show that they were in use by at least 1957.
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While the
Tuskegee experiment followed the natural progression of syphilis in those already infected, in Guatemala doctors deliberately infected healthy people with the diseases, some of which can be fatal if untreated. His team created a laboratory in Guatemala supplied by the United States military
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acknowledges that "the design and conduct of the studies was unethical in many respects, including deliberate exposure of subjects to known serious health threats, lack of knowledge of and consent for experimental procedures by study subjects, and the use of highly vulnerable populations." A total of
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A study conducted at the
Southern Georgia University argues that the selection of Guatemala as a location to conduct the syphilis experiments was a racially-motivated decision by U.S. authorities, considering that the study featured white physicians and researchers experimenting on subjects deemed by
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injected them with arsphenamine, which became known as "the magic bullet" for treating syphilis. They were later injected in the 1940s with penicillin as part of research into methods for preventing syphilis. Around this same time, there was a push by medical professionals, including the U.S. Surgeon
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rejected the defendants' argument that a recent
Supreme Court decision shielding foreign corporations from lawsuits in U.S. courts over human rights abuses abroad also applied to domestic corporations absent congressional authorization. However, the District Court subsequently ruled in April 2022 in
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Although these events occurred more than 64 years ago, we are outraged that such reprehensible research could have occurred under the guise of public health. We deeply regret that it happened, and we apologize to all the individuals who were affected by such abhorrent research practices. The conduct
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In
Guatemala, he was responsible for granting the final approval for the continuation of the Terre Haute experiments on a new group of patients in Guatemala. He was also aware that intentional and uninformed infection of syphilis was occurring in Guatemala. Parran once said to Dr. Cutler, "You know,
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Parran described syphilis as being "biologically different" in
African Americans and said that African American women "remained infected two and one-half times as long as the white woman." This supposed biological difference in syphilis among races provided justification for the Tuskegee experiments
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Berta was a female patient in the
Psychiatric Hospital... in February 1948, Berta was injected in her left arm with syphilis. A month later, she developed scabies (an itchy skin infection caused by a mite). Several weeks later, Dr. Cutler noted that she also developed red bumps where he had injected
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inoculating prostitutes with germs that had grown in rabbits, and then paying them to have sex with prisoners. Prostitutes in Guatemala were required to be tested twice a week for STD infection at a government clinic. For the purposes of the experiments, infected sex workers were instead sent to Dr.
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While the study is known to have officially ended in 1948, doctors continued taking tissue samples and performing autopsies on former participants until 1958. Eighty-three individuals died during the course of the experiment, though it is unclear as to whether or not the inoculations were the source
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The goal of this experiment was to find a more suitable STD prophylaxis by infecting human subjects recruited from prison populations with gonorrhea. Though at first the idea of using human subjects was controversial, the support of Dr. Thomas Parran and Colonel John A. Rodgers, Executive Officer of
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Dr. Funes and Dr. Salvado were also employees of the Pan-American Sanitary Bureau, who remained in Guatemala after their work with Dr. Cutler. Funes was Chief of the Venereal Disease section at the Guatemalan National Department of Health and was responsible for referring sex workers with STDs from
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who promoted and established serological research in Guatemalan laboratories. She initiated the VDRL (Venereal Disease Research Laboratory) and Training Center within Central America starting in 1948 and stayed in Guatemala until 1951. Dr. Mahoney appointed her to manage the laboratory in Guatemala
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of subjects after Cutler accepted an offer from Dr. Carlos Salvado, the director of the Asilo de Alienados, a psychiatric hospital in Guatemala City. This hospital was notably understaffed and lacked rudimentary equipment and medicines. $ 1500 that was originally intended to go to volunteers at the
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at the time of the experiments, acknowledged that the Guatemalan work could not be done domestically; in addition details of the program were hidden from Guatemalan officials. Furthermore, the participants had not received the opportunity to provide informed consent since the purpose and details of
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Many Guatemalans believed that the U.S. apology was not enough. In March 2011, seven plaintiffs filed a federal class-action lawsuit against the U.S. government claiming damages for the Guatemala experiments. This case argued that the United States was at fault due to not asking for consent. This
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As a response to the dehumanization by human experiment, the Nuremberg Code and Helsinki Code in 1971 were developed to govern ethics in medical research. Research like this deserves the need for informed consent in any type of research in general, and it should prohibit experiments where injury,
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After the conclusion of the Guatemalan syphilis experiments, many of the samples taken during the experiments were then moved to the United States. Records show that these samples were then given to laboratories across the United States, where they were used for research. Many of the Laboratories
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In order to advance in their careers, they opted to stay and continue observations on subjects of the syphilis experiments, including data collection from orphans, inmates, psychiatric patients, and school children. These periodic data collections consisted of blood specimens and lumbar punctures
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The study was led by the U.S. Public Health Service, beginning in 1946, up until 1948. The experiments were initially supposed to be held at a prison in Terre Haute, Indiana, but were moved to Guatemala after researchers had a hard time consistently infecting prisoners with gonorrhea. The move to
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infected with syphilis to have sex with prisoners, while other subjects were infected by directly inoculating them with the bacterium. Through intentional exposure to gonorrhea, syphilis, and chancroid, a total of 1,308 people were involved in the experiments. Of that group, with an age range of
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The investigation concluded that "the Guatemala experiments involved unconscionable basic violations of ethics, even as judged against the researchers' own recognition of the requirements of the medical ethics of the day." Even besides the fact that U.S. never truly apologized for the study, as
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Mahoney, Cutler, Parran, and other researchers felt that a smaller, more controlled group of individuals to study would be more helpful in finding this cure. This led to the use of citizens in Guatemala as subjects. Mahoney was a member of the syphilis study section that approved the Guatemala
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After stopping the Terre Haute experiments for lack of accurate infection of subjects with gonorrhea, Mahoney moved on to study the effects of penicillin on syphilis. His research found huge success for penicillin treatments and the US army embraced it in STD prescription. Although this seemed
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that involved in the injection of a silver proteinate into subjects' penises. At the time, it was estimated that venereal diseases would affect 350,000 soldiers, which would equate to eliminating two armed divisions for an entire year. The cost of these losses, which would amount to about $ 34
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In total, 1,308 people were confirmed to have been a part of this experiment. Of this group, 678 individuals were documented as getting some form of treatment. However, some reports say that up to 5,128 individuals were monitored for symptoms or became a part of the experiment through natural
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Participants were subjected to the syphilis bacteria through permitted visits with infectious female sex workers, paid by funds from the U.S. government. Other attempts at passing the pathogens to participants included pouring the bacteria onto various lightly abraded body parts, such as male
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The experiments in Terre Haute were the precursor for the Guatemalan experiments. It was the first to demonstrate how earnestly military leaders pushed for new developments to combat STDs and their willingness to infect human subjects, and also explained why the study clinicians would choose
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In 1947, Cutler began experimenting with gonorrhea on Guatemalan soldiers. About 600 soldiers were infected with the disease after a year and a half. Infected sex workers were used to infect the soldiers, and gonorrheal pus from soldiers' penises were injected into other soldiers. Chancroid
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in 1914. By 1918 he was the Assistant Surgeon at the United States Public Health Service. In 1929, Dr. Mahoney worked as the director of the Venereal Disease Research Lab in Staten Island, where the Terre Haute experiments began in 1943, and where Cutler first assisted him.
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the Venereal Disease and Sexual Prophylaxis Hospital (VDSPH) to Cutler. Dr. Carlos Salvado was the director of the Psychiatric Hospital in Guatemala where parts of the syphilis study were conducted. Salvado was an active participant in the intentional exposure experiments.
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The total number of subjects involved in the experiment is unclear. Some sources argue that about 1,500 study subjects were involved, although the findings were never published. Other sources state that over 5,000 individuals participated in the study, including children.
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experiments were also conducted simultaneously on about 80 soldiers, in which doctors would scratch soldiers' arms and infect the wounds. Consent was given by soldiers' officials or patient doctors, but was not reported to have been given by the subjects themselves.
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Doctors would often inject strains of syphilis into patients' spinal fluid or wear away the skin to make infection easier. These strains that they infected patients with were collected from other infected patients or from "street strains", which are not defined.
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the U.S. Army Medical Corps, enabled Dr. John F. Mahoney and Dr. Cassius J. Van Slyke to begin implementing the experiments. Dr. John Cutler, a young associate of Mahoney, helped conduct the experiments, and went on to lead the Guatemala syphilis experiments.
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They operated under an assumption that one prostitute could have sex with up to eight men in 71 minutes, creating a large rate of infection. These attempts failed at producing infections quick enough, due to the prisoners refusing repeated blood drawings.
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favor of the defendants, holding that Dr. Parran and his colleagues were not acting on behalf of the Rockefeller Foundation and the employees of Johns Hopkins had not aided or abetted any violations of the law committed by Drs. Parran, Mahoney or Cutler.
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on humans around the world and ensure that these sorts of incidents do not occur again. The Commission report, Ethically Impossible: STD Research in Guatemala from 1946 to 1948, published in September 2011, aimed to answer the following four questions:
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of the subjects. Only 700 of them received treatment. In total, 5,500 people were involved in all research experiments, of whom 83 died by the end of 1953, though it is unknown whether or not the injections were responsible for all these deaths.
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After completion of the Guatemala syphilis study, John F. Mahoney became the chairman of the World Health Organization in 1948. In 1950 he became Commissioner of the New York City Department of Health, where he worked until his death in 1957.
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The purpose of the study was to observe the efficacy of penicillin in preventing infection of sexually-transmitted diseases after sexual intercourse. As a result, around 696 Guatemalans were intentionally infected with syphilis, gonorrhea and
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After the patients were exposed to syphilis, only about half of the patients were given treatment for the infection. 83 patients died during the experiments, but the relation between experiment involvement and death was unsubstantiated.
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research Grant. During the Guatemala syphilis study, Mahoney was the primary supervisor of the experiments, receiving Cutler's reports on the experiments. In 1946, while the syphilis study was ongoing, John Mahoney was awarded the
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studies continued through 1953 involving the same vulnerable populations in addition to children from state-run schools, an orphanage, and rural towns. However, the intentional infection of patients ended with the original study.
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The Commission concluded nine months later that the experiments "involved gross violations of ethics as judged against both the standards of today and the researchers' own understanding". In a joint statement, Secretary of State
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the U.S. as minority groups. Another study argues that the reasoning was due to Guatemalan prisoners' privilege to pay for prostitutes, making it seem that infections were natural due to intercourse with an infected prostitute.
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In October 2010, the U.S. government formally apologized and announced that the violation of human rights in that medical research was still to be condemned, regardless of how much time had passed. Following the apology,
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The United States issued an unusual apology Friday to Guatemala for conducting experiments in the 1940s in which doctors infected soldiers, prisoners and mental patients with syphilis and other sexually transmitted
62:. Doctors infected 1,300 people, including at least 600 soldiers and people from various impoverished groups (including, but not limited to, sex workers, orphans, inmates of mental hospitals, and prisoners) with
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To what extent were U.S. government officials and others in the medical research establishment at that time aware of the research protocols and to what extent did they actively facilitate or assist in them?
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from participants. Data was shipped back to the United States, where many of these blood samples tested positive for syphilis. Funes and Salvado continued collecting samples from participants until 1953.
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On October 1, 2010, the U.S. President, Secretary of State, and Secretary of Health and Human Services formally apologized to Guatemala for the ethical violations. Guatemala condemned the experiment as a
532:" was unfolding at Nuremberg (December 1946 â August 1947), when 23 German physicians stood trial for participating in Nazi programs to euthanize or medically experiment on concentration camp prisoners."
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It is clear from the language of the report that the U.S. researchers understood the profoundly unethical nature of the study. In fact the Guatemalan syphilis study was being carried out just as the "
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Venereal Diseases Research Laboratory physician John Charles Cutler, who had earlier joined the Public Health Service in 1942 and served as a commissioned officer. Cutler participated in the similar
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John Cutler went on to become Assistant Surgeon General of the U.S. Public Health Service in 1958. In 1967, he would end his tenure when he was appointed professor of International Health at the
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uncovered information about these experiments in Cutler's archived papers in 2005 while researching the Tuskegee syphilis study. She shared her findings with United States government officials.
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Conducted between 1946 and 1948, the experiments were led by John Cutler, a US health service physician who would later be part of the notorious Tuskegee syphilis study in Alabama in the 1960s.
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446:. In 1968, he became acting dean of the school and served until 1969. After his death in 2008, his roles in the Tuskegee experiment were publicized and he was stripped of his legacy.
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After the Guatemala syphilis study, Cutler was asked by the World Health Organization to head an India-based program for demonstrating venereal disease for Southeast Asia in 1949.
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from 1943 to 1944, which were conducted and supported by many of the same individuals who would go on to participate in the Guatemalan syphilis experiments only a few years later.
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patients. Many of these subjects were indigenous Guatemalans and Guatemalans living in poverty. Their ages ranged from 10 to 72, though the average subject was in their 20s.
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lawsuit asked for money damages to compensate for medical injuries and loss of livelihood, as most of the families were living in poverty. The suit was dismissed when
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Guatemala was suggested by Dr. Juan Funes, head of the Guatemalan Venereal Disease Control Department. The experiments were funded by a grant from the U.S.
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director at the time of the revelations, called the experiments "a dark chapter in history of medicine" and commented that modern rules prohibit conducting
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after Dr. Cutler left in 1948. Here she conducted several independent serological experiments for STD research with the help of Dr. Funes and Dr. Salvado.
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exhibited during the study does not represent the values of the US, or our commitment to human dignity and great respect for the people of Guatemala.
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Spector-Bagdady, Kayte; Lombardo, Paul A. (March 2019). "U.S. Public Health Service STD Experiments in Guatemala (1946-1948) and Their Aftermath".
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Patients from the Guatemalan psychiatric hospital who participated as test subjects in the syphilis experiments between 1946 and 1948
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requested an investigation to be conducted by the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues on November 24, 2010.
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promising, Mahoney and his collaborators questioned the long term prospects for eliminating the disease altogether in individuals.
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After serving as Surgeon General, Thomas Parran began a career working as the first dean of the new School of Public Health at the
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we couldn't do such an experiment in this country ", showing he was aware of the ethical issues of what he was doing in Guatemala.
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149:, to further the knowledge of sexually transmitted diseases and discover more viable prophylaxis and treatment options in humans.
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Guatemala: to avoid the ethical constraints related to individual consent, other adverse legal consequences, and bad publicity.
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1649:"Findings from a CDC Report on the 1946-1948 U.S. Public Health Service Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) Inoculation Study"
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to conduct a review of these experiments beginning January 2011. While the Institute of Medicine conducted their review, the
2258:"In the 1940s, U.S. Researchers Infected Hundreds of Guatemalans With Syphilis. The Victims Are Still Waiting for Treatment"
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1463:"Syphilis and Human Experimentation From World War II to the Present: A Historical Perspective and Reflections on Ethics"
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How did the studies comport with or diverge from the relevant medical and ethical standards and conventions of the time?
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1673:"He was a champion of public health â but played a role in the horrors of Tuskegee. Should a college expunge his name?"
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prison was given to the psychiatric hospital for an antiepileptic drug called Dilantin and other necessary equipment.
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What occurred in Guatemala between 1946 and 1948 involving a series of STD exposure studies funded by the U.S. PHS?
156:. This was largely due to an effort to protect the U.S. military forces from widespread infections of STDs such as
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The first field trial driven by this push for new developments in STD treatment and preventative measures was the
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1063:"Ethical Failures and History Lessons: The U.S. Public Health Service Research Studies in Tuskegee and Guatemala"
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A documented subject profile provides a detailed description of what the subjects faced within this experiment:
581:. As of 2017, the families still have not been compensated even though there have been several lawsuits filed.
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891:"Fact Sheet on the 1946-1948 U.S. Public Health Service Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) Inoculation Study"
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determined that the U.S. government has immunity from liability for actions committed outside of the U.S.
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after him in 1969. The building was renamed in 2018 due to his involvement in unethical experimentation.
1999:"From in vivo to in vitro : How the Guatemala STD Experiments Transformed Bodies Into Biospecimens"
834:"Docket for Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. The Johns Hopkins University, 19-1530 - CourtListener.com"
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1048:, Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues, published 2011-09-13, accessed 2015-10-23
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213:. The study also aimed to discover medications other than penicillin for various venereal diseases.
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1168:"Systemic Medical Racism: The Reconstruction of Whiteness Through the Destruction of Black Bodies"
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1256:"The Best Possible Intentions Testing Prophylactic Approaches on Humans in Developing Countries"
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Rabbits had been used to test treatments for syphilis since the early twentieth century, when
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1407:""Normal Exposure" and Inoculation Syphilis: A PHS "Tuskegee" Doctor in Guatemala, 1946â1948"
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Cuerda-Galindo, E.; Sierra-Valenti, X.; Gonzålez-López, E.; López-Muñoz, F. (2014-11-01).
1374:"Exposed: US Doctors Secretly Infected Hundreds of Guatemalans with Syphilis in the 1940s"
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2340:"Normal Exposure" and Inoculation Syphilis: A PHS "Tuskegee" Doctor in Guatemala, 1946-48
1699:"U.S. Public Health Service STD Experiments in Guatemala (1946â1948) and Their Aftermath"
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351:. He retired from his administrative role at the university and became president of the
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83 subjects died, though the exact relationship to the experiment remains undocumented.
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The initial attempts to infect subjects of the experiment consisted of workers from the
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This search for new methods became stronger and won more supporters with the onset of
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was asked to convene a panel of international experts to review the current state of
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spanning from 1943 to 1944. Cutler also later took part in the late stages of the
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1192:"First, Do No Harm: The US Sexually Transmitted Disease Experiments in Guatemala"
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363:. He died in 1968 and the University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health named
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infection. The populations involved consisted of child and adult commercial
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2083:"U.S. apologizes for newly revealed syphilis experiments done in Guatemala"
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million at the time, made research for STD treatments particularly urgent.
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923:"Wellesley professor unearths a horror: Syphilis experiments in Guatemala"
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2170:"Guatemala syphilis experiments: why the US's apology may not be enough"
2138:"Decades Later, NARA Posts Documents on Guatemalan Syphilis Experiments"
1795:"US says sorry for "outrageous and abhorrent" Guatemalan syphilis tests"
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2195:"U.S. Apologizes for 'Reprehensible' 1940s Syphilis Study in Guatemala"
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1833:"Obituary: John Charles Cutler / Pioneer in preventing sexual diseases"
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Staff, Christian Snyder and Janine Faust | The Pitt News (2018-07-11).
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Decades Later, NARA Posts Documents on Guatemalan Syphilis Experiments
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1862:"Nova (Television program). The Deadly Deception | 1 of 1 | 93128dct"
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1887:"The Guatemala Sexually Transmitted Disease Studies: What Happened"
1504:"The Guatemala Sexually Transmitted Disease Studies: What Happened"
1320:"President Obama apologises to Guatemala over 1940s syphilis study"
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Dr. John Cutler drawing blood from Tuskegee Syphilis study subjects
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1934:"Venereal Disease Research Laboratory field consultation services"
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Stout, Genevieve W.; Harris, Ad; Wallace, Alwilda L. (June 1957).
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NBC Nightly News segment on the experiments, from October 1, 2010
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Ethically Impossible: STD Research in Guatemala from 1946 to 1948
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What was the historical context in which these studies were done?
301:
2313:"Victims of Guatemala syphilis experiments to sue Johns Hopkins"
816:"Guatemalans file class action suit over US medical experiments"
375:
Prior to his involvement in the Guatemalan syphilis experiment,
246:
Cutler by the head of the Guatemalan Ministry of Public Health.
2607:
1104:"Principles, progress and harm in the Guatemala Syphilis Study"
197:; multiple Guatemalan government ministries also got involved.
2287:"Judge: Lawsuit Over Guatemala Syphilis Experiment to Proceed"
609:
Estate of Arturo Giron Alvarez v. The Johns Hopkins University
2112:
Time limitation under the United States Alien Tort Claims Act
524:, who had called the experiments "a crime against humanity".
589:
1764:"Board of Trustees unanimously votes to rename Parran Hall"
548:
Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues
27:
Human experimentation conducted by US doctors in Guatemala
2833:
Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute
614:
In April 2015, 774 plaintiffs launched a lawsuit against
54:
from 1946 to 1948. The experiments were led by physician
1697:
Spector-Bagdady, Kayte; Lombardo, Paul A. (March 2019).
1621:"US medical tests in Guatemala 'crime against humanity'"
1032:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1008:
462:
1997:
Spector-Bagdady, Kayte; Lombardo, Paul A. (June 2018).
1996:
1696:
1555:
1190:
Rodriguez, Michael A.; GarcĂa, Robert (December 2013).
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
992:
990:
988:
2059:"U.S. Apologizes For Syphilis Experiment In Guatemala"
786:"U.S. apologizes for syphilis experiment in Guatemala"
895:
United States Department of Health and Human Services
985:
641:
2221:"Lapses by American Leaders Seen in Syphilis Tests"
396:for discovering penicillin as a cure for syphilis.
2164:
2162:
1931:
416:, in which volunteer prisoners were infected with
58:, who also participated in the late stages of the
956:"U.S. Apologizes for Syphilis Tests in Guatemala"
160:, as well as the particularly painful regimen of
2846:
2771:Moore v. Regents of the University of California
2357:Records held at the National Archives at Atlanta
885:
883:
881:
879:
877:
2159:
1189:
760:"Guatemalans 'died' in 1940s US syphilis study"
520:President Barack Obama apologized to President
1660:U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
1644:
1642:
1615:
1613:
2383:
1789:
1467:Actas Dermo-SifiliogrĂĄficas (English Edition)
874:
454:Genevieve Stout was a bacteriologist for the
2686:Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital
361:A. W Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust
225:the research were hidden from them as well.
1785:
1783:
1639:
1610:
752:
507:and Secretary of Health and Human Services
381:the University of Pittsburgh medical school
2782:Medical Experimentation on Black Americans
2390:
2376:
1623:. BBC News. 1 October 2010. Archived from
688:Human experimentation in the United States
403:
313:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2030:
1973:
1722:
1577:
1478:
1422:
1287:
1223:
1078:
917:
915:
591:Manuel Gudiel Garcia v. Kathleen Sebelius
2720:Albert Kligman's dermatology experiments
2397:
1884:
1780:
1501:
858:"Garcia v. Sebelius â CourtListener.com"
272:
126:
29:
2777:Surgery to try to improve mental health
2056:
1404:
1366:
1101:
1060:
489:
14:
2847:
2218:
1827:
1825:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
953:
912:
370:
122:
2895:Medical scandals in the United States
2371:
2135:
2052:
2050:
1761:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1386:from the original on 17 December 2019
1317:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1146:– via Academic search Complete.
1056:
1054:
813:
629:In January 2019, U.S. District Judge
480:
463:Dr. Juan Funes and Dr. Carlos Salvado
135:
2310:
2304:
2219:McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (2011-09-14).
1318:Tanne, Janice Hopkins (2010-10-04).
1253:
1165:
954:McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (2010-10-01).
766:from the original on 1 December 2019
334:Surgeon General of the United States
2905:United States Public Health Service
2880:Human subject research in Guatemala
1822:
1542:
1240:
577:have called for subjects' families
410:United States Public Health Service
319:
253:Researchers switched to the direct
24:
2885:Medical controversies in Guatemala
2047:
1447:
1405:Reverby, Susan M. (January 2011).
1304:
1178:
1150:
1051:
807:
449:
25:
2916:
2875:GuatemalaâUnited States relations
2333:
1885:Zenilman, Jonathan (April 2013).
1807:from the original on 3 April 2017
1502:Zenilman, Jonathan (April 2013).
1260:American Journal of Public Health
1196:American Journal of Public Health
935:from the original on 3 March 2016
740:GuatemalaâUnited States relations
18:Syphilis experiments in Guatemala
672:
658:
644:
444:Graduate School of Public Health
324:
300:, prisoners, soldiers, orphans,
236:
183:
2553:Betancourt v. Trinitas Hospital
2279:
2250:
2212:
2187:
2129:
2103:
2075:
1990:
1925:
1878:
1854:
1755:
1690:
1665:
1495:
1398:
1108:Sexually Transmitted Infections
1095:
1061:Reverby, Susan M. (June 2012).
901:from the original on 2017-12-02
720:Japanese human experimentations
2797:Radioactive iodine experiments
947:
850:
826:
778:
542:The U.S. government asked the
414:Terre Haute prison experiments
170:Terre Haute prison experiments
40:Guatemala syphilis experiments
13:
1:
2740:Guatemala syphilis experiment
2057:Hensley, Scott (2010-10-01).
1891:Sexually Transmitted Diseases
1866:University of Georgia Kaltura
1508:Sexually Transmitted Diseases
1254:Löwy, Ilana (February 2013).
814:Kakar, Aman (15 March 2011).
745:
618:, the pharmaceutical company
191:National Institutes of Health
2311:Cook, Michael (2015-04-11).
2264:. 2017-02-26. Archived from
2091:. 2010-10-01. Archived from
1903:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31828abc1b
1520:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31828abc1b
1480:10.1016/j.adengl.2013.08.003
1166:Ford, Julisha (2019-01-01).
1120:10.1136/sextrans-2013-051113
1102:Gurnham, David (June 2013).
792:. 2010-10-01. Archived from
762:. BBC News. 29 August 2011.
705:Tuskegee syphilis experiment
599:United States District Judge
475:
456:Pan-American Sanitary Bureau
422:Tuskegee syphilis experiment
408:The experiments were led by
195:Pan American Sanitary Bureau
60:Tuskegee syphilis experiment
7:
2750:Human radiation experiments
1703:Ethics & Human Research
1558:Ethics & Human Research
637:
584:
359:, and became active in the
290:
216:In archived documents, Dr.
10:
2921:
2807:Stanford prison experiment
2136:Doyle, Kate (2011-04-25).
730:Nazi human experimentation
2709:Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.
2700:
2656:
2560:Commonwealth v. Twitchell
2540:
2455:
2417:Betty and George Coumbias
2405:
1424:10.1017/S0898030610000291
1411:Journal of Policy History
2827:Willowbrook State School
1272:10.2105/AJPH.2012.300901
1208:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301520
818:. JURIST. Archived from
616:Johns Hopkins University
441:University of Pittsburgh
349:University of Pittsburgh
2822:Tuskegee Syphilis Study
2765:Joseph Gilbert Hamilton
2544:parent/patient/guardian
2542:Medical opinion against
2015:10.1111/1468-0009.12318
404:Dr. John Charles Cutler
2583:Archie Battersbee case
624:Rockefeller Foundation
575:human rights activists
540:
534:
518:
355:, affiliated with the
288:
278:
132:
113:human subject research
97:Susan Mokotoff Reverby
90:crime against humanity
35:
2802:Skid Row Cancer Study
2638:Spiro Nikolouzos case
2623:Joseph Maraachli case
2003:The Milbank Quarterly
1938:Public Health Reports
1172:Honors College Theses
1067:Public Health Reviews
544:Institute of Medicine
535:
526:
513:
283:
276:
130:
33:
2817:Plutonium injections
2399:Medical ethics cases
1837:old.post-gazette.com
652:United States portal
620:Bristol-Myers Squibb
490:Apology and response
222:U.S. Surgeon General
2643:Aruna Shanbaug case
2566:Mordechai Dov Brody
1715:10.1002/eahr.500010
1662:, 30 September 2010
1570:10.1002/eahr.500010
699:The Plutonium Files
371:Dr. John F. Mahoney
123:Experiment overview
56:John Charles Cutler
2787:Milgram experiment
2730:Deep sleep therapy
2692:Christiane Völling
2673:Gillick competence
2345:2010-10-10 at the
2225:The New York Times
1793:(1 October 2010).
1654:2010-10-05 at the
1382:. 5 October 2010.
1080:10.1007/bf03391665
1043:2016-12-23 at the
960:The New York Times
931:. 1 October 2010.
822:on 6 January 2015.
481:Continued Research
279:
218:Thomas Parran, Jr.
136:Historical context
133:
36:
2865:1948 in Guatemala
2860:1947 in Guatemala
2855:1946 in Guatemala
2842:
2841:
2593:Tirhas Habtegiris
2588:Charlie Gard case
2522:Karen Ann Quinlan
2442:Piergiorgio Welby
1627:on 2 January 2016
1336:10.1136/bmj.c5494
1202:(12): 2122â2126.
579:to be compensated
509:Kathleen Sebelius
353:Avalon Foundation
147:Dr. Thomas Parran
101:Wellesley College
48:human experiments
16:(Redirected from
2912:
2890:Medical scandals
2668:Ashley Treatment
2658:Informed consent
2628:Jahi McMath case
2578:Alfie Evans case
2572:Lantz v. Coleman
2392:
2385:
2378:
2369:
2368:
2327:
2326:
2324:
2323:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2298:
2293:. 5 January 2019
2283:
2277:
2276:
2274:
2273:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2235:. Archived from
2216:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2182:
2181:
2166:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2153:
2144:. Archived from
2133:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2118:, archived from
2117:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2070:
2069:
2054:
2045:
2044:
2034:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1977:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1872:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1848:
1839:. Archived from
1829:
1820:
1819:
1814:
1812:
1787:
1778:
1777:
1775:
1774:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1726:
1694:
1688:
1687:
1685:
1684:
1669:
1663:
1646:
1637:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1617:
1608:
1607:
1581:
1553:
1540:
1539:
1499:
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1482:
1458:
1445:
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1402:
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1393:
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1370:
1364:
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1315:
1302:
1301:
1291:
1251:
1238:
1237:
1227:
1187:
1176:
1175:
1163:
1148:
1147:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1082:
1058:
1049:
1034:
983:
982:
980:
979:
970:. Archived from
951:
945:
944:
942:
940:
919:
910:
909:
907:
906:
887:
872:
871:
869:
868:
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824:
823:
811:
805:
804:
802:
801:
782:
776:
775:
773:
771:
756:
682:
677:
676:
675:
668:
666:Guatemala portal
663:
662:
661:
654:
649:
648:
647:
552:medical research
320:Study clinicians
117:informed consent
76:informed consent
21:
2920:
2919:
2915:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2870:Clinical trials
2845:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2760:Jesse Gelsinger
2745:Henrietta Lacks
2696:
2660:
2652:
2633:Sarah Murnaghan
2613:Ashya King case
2603:Sun Hudson case
2545:
2543:
2536:
2502:Vincent Lambert
2459:
2457:
2451:
2427:Giovanni Nuvoli
2410:
2408:
2401:
2396:
2347:Wayback Machine
2336:
2331:
2330:
2321:
2319:
2309:
2305:
2296:
2294:
2285:
2284:
2280:
2271:
2269:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2242:
2240:
2217:
2213:
2204:
2202:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2179:
2177:
2168:
2167:
2160:
2151:
2149:
2134:
2130:
2122:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2104:
2095:on 2018-12-28.
2088:Washington Post
2081:
2080:
2076:
2067:
2065:
2055:
2048:
1995:
1991:
1950:10.2307/4589821
1930:
1926:
1883:
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1870:
1868:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1846:
1844:
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1781:
1772:
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1756:
1695:
1691:
1682:
1680:
1671:
1670:
1666:
1656:Wayback Machine
1647:
1640:
1630:
1628:
1619:
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1611:
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1367:
1316:
1305:
1252:
1241:
1188:
1179:
1164:
1151:
1100:
1096:
1059:
1052:
1045:Wayback Machine
1035:
986:
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948:
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812:
808:
799:
797:
784:
783:
779:
769:
767:
758:
757:
753:
748:
693:Project MKUltra
680:Medicine portal
678:
673:
671:
664:
659:
657:
650:
645:
643:
640:
631:Theodore Chuang
612:
594:
587:
505:Hillary Clinton
492:
483:
478:
465:
452:
450:Genevieve Stout
406:
379:graduated from
373:
327:
322:
306:mental hospital
293:
239:
186:
138:
125:
105:Francis Collins
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2908:
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2809:
2804:
2799:
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2784:
2779:
2774:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2755:J. Marion Sims
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2735:Doctors' Trial
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2715:Albert Stevens
2712:
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2702:
2698:
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2529:
2524:
2519:
2517:Haleigh Poutre
2514:
2509:
2507:Robert Latimer
2504:
2499:
2494:
2492:Eluana Englaro
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2463:
2461:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2449:
2447:Jack Kevorkian
2444:
2439:
2437:RamĂłn Sampedro
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2413:
2411:
2406:
2403:
2402:
2395:
2394:
2387:
2380:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2364:, NSA Archive
2359:
2354:
2349:
2335:
2334:External links
2332:
2329:
2328:
2303:
2278:
2262:Slate Magazine
2249:
2211:
2186:
2158:
2128:
2102:
2074:
2046:
2009:(2): 244â271.
1989:
1944:(6): 554â558.
1924:
1897:(4): 277â279.
1877:
1853:
1821:
1779:
1754:
1724:2027.42/148377
1689:
1664:
1638:
1609:
1579:2027.42/148377
1541:
1514:(4): 277â279.
1494:
1473:(9): 847â853.
1446:
1397:
1379:Democracy Now!
1365:
1303:
1266:(2): 226â237.
1239:
1177:
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1094:
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984:
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911:
873:
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735:Nuremberg Code
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710:Medical ethics
707:
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611:
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530:Doctors' Trial
491:
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451:
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405:
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372:
369:
332:was the sixth
326:
323:
321:
318:
304:patients, and
292:
289:
238:
235:
185:
182:
142:Sahachiro Hata
137:
134:
124:
121:
74:, without the
26:
9:
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4:
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2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2792:Monster Study
2790:
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2679:Marion's Case
2676:
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2618:Jesse Koochin
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2532:Gloria Taylor
2530:
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2527:Terri Schiavo
2525:
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2515:
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2510:
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2500:
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2467:Andrew Bedner
2465:
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2454:
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2432:Sue Rodriguez
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2487:Baby Doe Law
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2266:the original
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2199:PBS NewsHour
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2142:NSA Archive
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365:Parran Hall
298:sex workers
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2472:Tony Bland
2422:Dax Cowart
2322:2022-04-28
2297:2022-05-05
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2460:treatment
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