Ecological succession

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structure, and balance of a climax community. The environment includes the species' responses to moisture, temperature, and nutrients, their biotic relationships, availability of flora and fauna to colonize the area, chance dispersal of seeds and animals, soils, climate, and disturbance such as fire and wind. The nature of climax vegetation will change as the environment changes. The climax community represents a pattern of populations that corresponds to and changes with the pattern of environment. The central and most widespread community is the climatic climax.

1151: 767: 31: 1344: 902:) like those growing in recently dead trees, decaying fruits, or animal droppings. Microbial communities may also change due to products secreted by the bacteria present. Changes of pH in a habitat could provide ideal conditions for a new species to inhabit the area. In some cases the new species may outcompete the present ones for nutrients leading to the primary species demise. Changes can also occur by microbial succession with variations in water availability and temperature. Theories of 380:, a paper that was highly influential to conservation and environmental restoration. Odum argued that ecological succession was an orderly progression toward a climax state where “maximum biomass and symbiotic function between organisms are maintained per unit energy flow." Odum highlighted how succession was not merely a change in the species composition of an ecosystem, but also created change in more complex attributes of the ecosystem, such as structure and 926: 791: 576: 1121:(1916) and recognizes only one climax whose characteristics are determined solely by climate (climatic climax). The processes of succession and modification of environment overcome the effects of differences in topography, parent material of the soil, and other factors. The whole area would be covered with uniform plant community. Communities other than the climax are related to it, and are recognized as subclimax, postclimax and disclimax. 631: 1330: 1316: 1283:

and potentially on average 1,400 years, to recover to its previous level of biodiversity. However, planting a high diversity of late-successional grassland species in a disturbed environment can accelerate the recovery of the soil's ability to sequester carbon, resulting in twice as much carbon storage as a naturally recovering grassland over the same period of time.

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insect larvae, ants, spiders, mites, etc. The animal population increases and diversifies with the development of the forest climax community. The fauna consists of invertebrates like slugs, snails, worms, millipedes, centipedes, ants, bugs; and vertebrates such as squirrels, foxes, mice, moles, snakes, various birds, salamanders and frogs.

438:, sometimes referred to as the 'potential vegetation' of a site, and shaped primarily by the local climate. This idea has been largely abandoned by modern ecologists in favor of nonequilibrium ideas of ecosystems dynamics. Most natural ecosystems experience disturbance at a rate that makes a "climax" community unattainable. 1237:. However, many wetlands are maintained by regular disturbance or natural processes at an equilibrium state that does not resemble the predicted forested "climax." The idea that ponds and wetlands gradually fill in to become dry land has been criticized and called into question due to lack of evidence. 1291:

ecosystems, since it maintains, rather than disrupts, an equilibrium state. Many late-successional grassland species have adaptations that allow them to store nutrients underground and re-sprout rapidly after "aboveground" disturbances like fire or grazing. Disturbance events that severely disrupt or

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with ancient or "old-growth" grasslands has shown that grasslands are not inherently early-successional communities. Rather, grasslands undergo a centuries-long process of succession, and a grassland that is tilled up for agriculture or otherwise destroyed is estimated to take a minimum of 100 years,

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Successional dynamics beginning with colonization of an area that has not been previously occupied by an ecological community are referred to as primary succession. This includes newly exposed rock or sand surfaces, lava flows, and newly exposed glacial tills. The stages of primary succession include

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If there is only a single climax and the development of climax community is controlled by the climate of the region, it is termed as climatic climax. For example, development of Maple-beech climax community over moist soil. Climatic climax is theoretical and develops where physical conditions of the

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Animal life also exhibits changes with changing communities. In the lichen stage, fauna is sparse. It comprises a few mites, ants, and spiders living in cracks and crevices. The fauna undergoes a qualitative increase during the herb grass stage. The animals found during this stage include nematodes,

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and in denying the existence of coherent, sharply bounded community types. Gleason argued that species distributions responded individualistically to environmental factors, and communities were best regarded as artifacts of the juxtaposition of species distributions. Gleason's ideas, first published

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Forests, being an ecological system, are subject to the species succession process. There are "opportunistic" or "pioneer" species that produce great quantities of seed that are disseminated by the wind, and therefore can colonize big empty extensions. They are capable of germinating and growing in

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is caused by external environmental influences and not by the vegetation. For example, soil changes due to erosion, leaching or the deposition of silt and clays can alter the nutrient content and water relationships in the ecosystems. Animals also play an important role in allogenic changes as they

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Things in nature are not black and white, and there are intermediate stages. It is therefore normal that between the two extremes of light and shade there is a gradient, and there are species that may act as pioneer or tolerant, depending on the circumstances. It is of paramount importance to know

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Secondary succession is much more commonly observed and studied than primary succession. Particularly common types of secondary succession include responses to natural disturbances such as fire, flood, and severe winds, and to human-caused disturbances such as logging and agriculture. In secondary

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Climatic factors may be very important, but on a much longer time-scale than any other. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns will promote changes in communities. As the climate warmed at the end of each ice age, great successional changes took place. The tundra vegetation and bare glacial

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life surrounds it as well. B) Emergent plant life begins to move inward and submerge, filling up the lake. Sediment accumulates as the plants grow and die. Terrestrial plant life increases. C) Sediment fills the lake basin, leaving a swampy center at the surface. Terrestrial plants take over and

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can be brought by changes in the soil caused by the organisms there. These changes include accumulation of organic matter in litter or humic layer, alteration of soil nutrients, or change in the pH of soil due to the plants growing there. The structure of the plants themselves can also alter the

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The developmental study of vegetation necessarily rests upon the assumption that the unit or climax formation is an organic entity. As an organism the formation arises, grows, matures, and dies. Furthermore, each climax formation is able to reproduce itself, repeating with essential fidelity the

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The often repeated description of the stately palm and other nobel plants, then birds, and lastly man, taking possession of the coral islets as soon as formed in the Pacific, is probably not quite correct; I fear it destroys the poetry of this story, that feather and dirt-feeding and parasitic

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may also maintain an equilibrium state in a wetland by burning off vegetation, thus interrupting the accumulation of peat. Water entering and leaving the wetland follows patterns that are broadly cyclical but erratic. For example, seasonal flooding and drying may occur with yearly changes in

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Climax Pattern Theory was proposed by Whittaker (1953). The climax pattern theory recognizes a variety of climaxes governed by responses of species populations to biotic and abiotic conditions. According to this theory the total environment of the ecosystem determines the composition, species

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wrote an address called "The Succession of Forest Trees" in which he described succession in an oak-pine forest. "It has long been known to observers that squirrels bury nuts in the ground, but I am not aware that any one has thus accounted for the regular succession of forests." The Austrian

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These naturalists note that prior to the establishment of autotrophs, there is a foodweb formed by heterotrophs built on allochthonous inputs of dead organic matter (necromass). Work on volcanic systems such as Kasatochi Volcano in the Aleutians by Sikes and Slowik (2010) supports this idea.

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species to become established under the protection of the pioneers. When the pioneers die, the shade-tolerant species replace them. These species are capable of growing beneath the canopy, and therefore, in the absence of disturbances, will stay. For this reason it is then said the

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Many grassland ecosystems are maintained by disturbance, such as fire and grazing by large animals, or else the process of succession will change them to forest or shrubland. In fact, it is debated whether fire should be considered disturbance at all for the North American

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are pollinators, seed dispersers and herbivores. They can also increase nutrient content of the soil in certain areas, or shift soil about (as termites, ants, and moles do) creating patches in the habitat. This may create regeneration sites that favor certain species.

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Though the idea of a fixed, predictable process of succession with a single well-defined climax is an overly simplified model, several predictions made by the classical model are accurate. Species diversity, overall plant biomass, plant lifespans, the importance of

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organisms, and overall stability all increase as a community approaches a climax state, while the rate at which soil nutrients are consumed, rate of biogeochemical cycling, and rate of net primary productivity all decrease as a community approaches a climax state.

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resulting in increase in temperature is likely to bring profound Allogenic changes in the next century. Geological and climatic catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, avalanches, meteors, floods, fires, and high wind also bring allogenic changes.

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environments exist, succession may follow a wide array of trajectories and patterns in wetlands. Under the classical model, the process of secondary succession holds that a wetland progresses over time from an initial state of open water with few plants, to a

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More recent definitions of succession highlight change as the central characteristic. New research techniques are greatly enhancing contemporary scientists' ability to study succession, which is now seen as neither entirely random nor entirely predictable.

262:). He recognized that vegetation on dunes of different ages might be interpreted as different stages of a general trend of vegetation development on dunes (an approach to the study of vegetation change later termed space-for-time substitution, or 561:

pioneer microorganisms, plants (lichens and mosses), grassy stage, smaller shrubs, and trees. Animals begin to return when there is food there for them to eat. When it is a fully functioning ecosystem, it has reached the climax community stage.

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When a stable community, which is not the climatic or edaphic climax for the given site, is maintained by man or his domestic animals, it is designated as Disclimax (disturbance climax) or anthropogenic subclimax (man-generated). For example,

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and for alternate pathways in the actual development of communities. Debates continue as to the general predictability of successional dynamics and the relative importance of equilibrial vs. non-equilibrial processes. Former Harvard professor

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Polyclimax Theory was advanced by Tansley (1935). It proposes that the climax vegetation of a region consists of more than one vegetation climaxes controlled by soil moisture, soil nutrients, topography, slope exposure, fire, and animal

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offered a contrasting framework as early as the 1920s. The Gleasonian model was more complex and much less deterministic than the Clementsian. It differs most fundamentally from the Clementsian view in suggesting a much greater role of

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topic of study. Over time, the understanding of succession has changed from a linear progression to a stable climax state, to a more complex, cyclical model that de-emphasizes the idea of organisms having fixed roles or relationships.

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had a wildfire that destroyed much of the landscape. Originally evergreen trees grew in the landscape. After the fire, the area took at least a year to grow shrubs. Eventually, deciduous trees started to grow instead of evergreens.

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Secondary succession follows severe disturbance or removal of a preexisting community that has remnants of the previous ecosystem. Secondary succession is strongly influenced by pre-disturbance conditions such as soil development,

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Van der Putten, W. H.; Mortimer, S. R.; Hedlund, K.; Van Dijk, C.; Brown, V. K.; Lepä, J.; Rodriguez-Barrueco, C.; Roy, J.; Diaz Len, T. A.; Gormsen, D.; Korthals, G. W.; Lavorel, S.; Regina, I. Santa; Smilauer, P. (2000-07-01).

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conditions at the time of disturbance. Some aspects of succession are broadly predictable; others may proceed more unpredictably than in the classical view of ecological succession. Two important perturbation factors today are

1244:. Hydrological factors often work against linear processes that predict a succession to a "climax" state. The energy carried by moving water may create a continuous source of disturbance. For example, in coastal wetlands, the 978:, succession stops when the sere has arrived at an equilibrium or steady state with the physical and biotic environment. Barring major disturbances, it will persist indefinitely. This end point of succession is called climax. 360:

This classification seems not to be of fundamental value, since it separates such closely related phenomena as those of erosion and deposition, and it places together such unlike things as human agencies and the subsidence of

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vegetation is the final vegetation. The wildfire removes the mature vegetation and decomposers. A rapid development of herbaceous vegetation follows until the shrub dominance is re-established. This is known as catastrophic

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Robbert Murphy sees a significantly ideological, rather than scientific, basis for the disfavour shown towards succession by the current ecological orthodoxy and seeks to reinstate succession by holistic and teleological

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When there are more than one climax communities in the region, modified by local conditions of the substrate such as soil moisture, soil nutrients, topography, slope exposure, fire, and animal activity, it is called

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published a descriptive theory of succession and advanced it as a general ecological concept. His theory of succession had a powerful influence on ecological thought. Clements' concept is usually termed classical

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of individual organisms, and his model is often referred to as the pseudo-organismic theory of community ecology. Clements and his followers developed a complex taxonomy of communities and successional pathways.

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may cause the wetland to enter a positive feedback loop where it begins to change in a linear direction. Since wetlands are sensitive to changes in the natural processes that maintain them, human activities,

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nature of disturbance events and other long-term (e.g., climatic) changes, such dynamics make it doubtful whether the 'climax' concept ever applies or is particularly useful in considering actual vegetation.

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in 1899 ("The ecological relations of the vegetation of the sand dunes of Lake Michigan"). In this classic publication and subsequent papers, he formulated the idea of primary succession and the notion of a

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into the discussion, as he considered that at local or small area scale the processes are stochastic and patchy, but taking bigger regional areas into consideration, certain tendencies can not be denied.

616:, remaining organic matter, and residual living organisms. Because of residual fertility and preexisting organisms, community change in early stages of secondary succession can be relatively rapid. 2944:

Frouz J, Prach K, Pižl V, Háněl L, Starý J, Tajovský K, et al. (2008). "Interactions between soil development, vegetation and soil fauna during spontaneous succession in post mining sites".

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The trajectory of successional change can be influenced by initial site conditions, by the type of disturbance that triggers succession, by the interactions of the species present, and by more

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and total respiration, between energy used from sunlight and energy released by decomposition, between uptake of nutrients from the soil and the return of nutrient by litter fall to the soil.

457:, are both influenced by community properties, and, in turn, influence further successional development. This feed-back process may occur only over centuries or millennia. Coupled with the 1299:

In North American semi-arid grasslands, the introduction of livestock ranching and absence of fire was observed to cause a transition away from grasses to woody vegetation, particularly

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In certain areas different climax communities develop under similar climatic conditions. If the community has life forms lower than those in the expected climatic climax, it is called

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is a collection of seres making up the development of an area from non-vegetated surfaces to a climax community. Depending on the substratum and climate, different seres are found.

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almost necessarily increases during early succession as new species arrive, but may decline in later succession as competition eliminates opportunistic species and leads to

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Christensen, Norman L. (2014). "An historical perspective on forest succession and its relevance to ecosystem restoration and conservation practice in North America".

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it has been shown that ecological succession is based on a trade-off between colonization and competition abilities. To exploit locations or explore the landscape?

953:) a sequence of five snapshots of the bacterial community distributed over five patches (of an array with 85) depicting the spatial dynamics of competition between 604:

The short-lived and shade-intolerant evergreen trees die as the larger deciduous trees overtop them. The ecosystem is now back to a similar state to where it began.

1750: 1303:. However, the means by which ecological succession under frequent disturbance results in ecosystems of the sort seen in remnant prairies is poorly understood. 1104:. Preclimax strips develop in less moist and hotter areas, whereas Postclimax strands develop in more moist and cooler areas than that of surrounding climate. 1173:

has reached its climax. When a disturbance occurs, the opportunity for the pioneers opens up again, provided they are present or within a reasonable range.

922:) is mostly influenced by stochasticity while secondary succession of these bacterial communities was more strongly influenced by deterministic factors. 442:

often occurs at a rate and frequency sufficient to prevent arrival at a climax state. Additions to available species pools through range expansions and

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precipitation, causing seasonal changes in the wetland community that maintain it at a stable state. However, unusually heavy rain or unusually severe

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As an example, in a fragmented old field habitat created in eastern Kansas, woody plants "colonized more rapidly (per unit area) on large and nearby

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A review of succession research by Hodkinson et al. (2002) documented what was likely first noted by Darwin during his voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle:

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destroy the soil, such as tilling, eliminate these late-successional species, reverting the grassland to an early successional stage dominated by

898:) such as surfaces of plant leaves, recently exposed rock surfaces (i.e., glacial till) or animal infant guts, and also on disturbed communities ( 1192:), that are particularly well-adapted to exploit large gaps in forest canopies, but are intolerant of shade and are eventually replaced by other 1160: 1054:. Succession ends in an edaphic climax where topography, soil, water, fire, or other disturbances are such that a climatic climax cannot develop. 965:) Representation of the succession pattern exhibited by the two bacterial species when competing for space and resources in a patchy environment. 2410:"Terrestrial Arthropods of Pre- and Post-eruption Kasatochi Island, Alaska, 2008–2009: a Shift from a Plant-Based to a Necromass-Based Food Web" 1278:

species and with little conservation value. However, comparing grasslands that form after recovery from long-term disruptions like agricultural

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species in the absence of disturbances that create such gaps. In the tropics, well known pioneer forest species can be found among the genera

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noted that poplars precede oaks and beeches in the natural evolution of a forest. Buffon was later forced by the theological committee at the

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has been largely abandoned, and successional processes have come to be seen as much less deterministic, with important roles for historical

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Competition: as vegetation becomes well established, grows, and spreads, various species begin to compete for space, light and nutrients.

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substantially alters a pre-existing habitat. Succession that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing communities, is called

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Reaction: during this phase autogenic changes such as the buildup of humus affect the habitat, and one plant community replaces another.

3979: 949:(green) inhabiting a device of the type depicted in A and which has been wettened with growth media and inoculated with both species; ( 96:, is an important example of a place where primary succession has been observed. On the other hand, secondary succession happens after 1080:

by stock may produce a desert community of bushes and cacti where the local climate actually would allow grassland to maintain itself.

2975: 1164:, the lack of direct sun radiation at the soil makes it difficult for their own seedlings to develop. It is then the opportunity for 910:

and so much remains to be understood about this growing field. A recent study of microbial succession evaluated the balances between

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attempted a codification of successional processes by mechanism. Among British and North American ecologists, the notion of a stable

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Gleason's ideas were, in fact, more consistent with Cowles' original thinking about succession. About Clements' distinction between

3516: 2763: 1712:"The ecological relations of the vegetation of the sand dunes of Lake Michigan. Part I. Geographical Relations of the Dune Floras" 882:

occurring within a microhabitat is known as microsuccession or serule. In artificial bacterial meta-communities of motile strains

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Precursors of the idea of ecological succession go back to the beginning of the 19th century. As early as 1742 French naturalist

3989: 3717: 2913:, Slatyer RO (1977). "Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their role in community stability and organization". 137: 295:

regardless of starting conditions. Clements explicitly analogized the successional development of ecological communities with

2590: 2315: 1520: 2111:"Consistent changes in the taxonomic structure and functional attributes of bacterial communities during primary succession" 894:

is a slower colonizer but superior competitor. Like in plants, microbial succession can occur in newly available habitats (

3994: 2870: 17: 2490:"Disentangling mechanisms that mediate the balance between stochastic and deterministic processes in microbial succession" 1485:"The historical roots of The Nature Conservancy in the Northwest Indiana/Chicagoland region: from science to preservation" 4182: 2336: 2071: 1968: 1694: 1373: 4585: 3935: 3758: 3599: 3011: 2088: 1754: 2785:"Soil Disturbance as a Grassland Restoration Measure—Effects on Plant Species Composition and Plant Functional Traits" 3271: 2307: 1554: 675:

but are periodic changes arising from fluctuating species interactions or recurring events. These models modify the

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Budowski G (1965). "Distribution of tropical American rain-forest species in the light of successional processes".

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A more rigorous, data-driven testing of successional models and community theory generally began with the work of

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The Indiana Dunes on Lake Michigan, which stimulated Cowles' development of his theories of ecological succession

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succession, the soils and organisms need to be left unharmed so there is a way for the new material to rebuild.

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Fast-growing evergreen trees develop to their fullest, while shade-tolerant trees develop in the understory

393: 2188:"Secondary succession in an experimentally fragmented landscape: Community patterns across space and time" 4234: 3125: 1647: 1484: 4299: 4019: 3506: 3223: 3120: 1137:

suggests there is not one end point but many which transition between each other over ecological time.

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community. For example, when larger species like trees mature, they produce shade on to the developing

152: 2024: 624: 4480: 4092: 3984: 3842: 3827: 3822: 3501: 3213: 1985: 1134: 165: 2996: 2891: 2238:"Plant species diversity as a driver of early succession in abandoned fields: a multi-site approach" 541:

properties all show variable patterns over succession, depending on the particular system and site.

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Evans, E.W.; Briggs, J.M.; Finck, E.J.; Gibson, D.J.; James, S.W.; Kaufman, D.W.; Seastedt, T.R.

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Succession theory was developed primarily by botanists. The study of succession applied to whole

296: 937:) sketch of a micron-scale structured bacterial environment based on microfluidics technology; ( 275:—a repeatable sequence of community changes specific to particular environmental circumstances. 4460: 4404: 4339: 4202: 4137: 4072: 3634: 3422: 3130: 3110: 1029:

It is an index of the climate of the area. The life or growth forms indicate the climatic type.

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Nudation: Succession begins with the development of a bare site, called Nudation (disturbance).

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An association is not an organism, scarcely even a vegetational unit, but merely a coincidence.

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From about 1900 to 1960, however, understanding of succession was dominated by the theories of

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It has a wide diversity of species, a well-drained spatial structure, and complex food chains.

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in the 1950s and 1960s. Succession theory has since become less monolithic and more complex.

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Two quotes illustrate the contrasting views of Clements and Gleason. Clements wrote in 1916:

239: 235: 97: 69: 35: 2871:"Comparison of Old Field Succession on a Tallgrass Prairie and a Nebraska Sandhills Prairie" 1575:

Wetherington MT, Nagy K, Dér L, Ábrahám Á, Noorlag J, Galajda P, Keymer JE (November 2022).

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that tends to exclude light-requiring species. Shade-tolerant species will invade the area.

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were highly predictable and deterministic and converged on a climatically determined stable

4490: 4455: 4450: 4374: 4369: 4324: 4222: 4192: 4187: 4039: 3902: 3892: 3437: 3276: 3065: 2796: 2501: 2249: 1577:"Ecological succession and the competition-colonization trade-off in microbial communities" 1368: 899: 698: 687: 642: 570: 495: 349: 77: 2972: 918:. The results of this study show that, much like in macro succession, early colonization ( 806:. In many cases more than one seral stage evolves until climax conditions are attained. A 144:

to recant many of his ideas because they contradicted the biblical narrative of Creation.

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Climax vegetation vulnerable to a catastrophic event such as a wildfire. For example, in

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substrate are not so extreme as to modify the effects of the prevailing regional climate.

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For a long time, grasslands were thought to be early stages of succession, dominated by

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A seral community is an intermediate stage found in an ecosystem advancing towards its

770: 654: 555: 530: 443: 397: 345: 308: 73: 514:. As succession proceeds, these species will tend to be replaced by more competitive ( 4440: 4409: 4197: 4024: 3832: 3697: 3674: 3412: 3188: 3100: 3085: 3070: 3050: 2855: 2824: 2744: 2695: 2641: 2529: 2474: 2462: 2332: 2311: 2303: 2273: 2265: 2214: 2140: 2067: 2044: 2005: 2001: 1964: 1945: 1690: 1608: 1550: 1516: 1363: 1118: 975: 782: 725: 720: 707: 666: 534: 522: 405: 284: 2285: 1735: 1466: 499: 4590: 4394: 4257: 4249: 4167: 4049: 4034: 3970: 3950: 3867: 3857: 3852: 3817: 3649: 3589: 3460: 3261: 3203: 3115: 3075: 2953: 2936: 2924: 2851: 2814: 2804: 2734: 2726: 2685: 2675: 2631: 2623: 2519: 2509: 2452: 2257: 2130: 2122: 2036: 2025:"Plant-soil feedback across spatiotemporal scales from immediate effects to legacy" 1997: 1931: 1897: 1859: 1817: 1808:

Gleason HA (January 1926). "The individualistic concept of the plant association".

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Unlike secondary succession, these types of vegetation change are not dependent on

435: 414: 381: 292: 76:, whereas succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community is called 2040: 1711: 1022:

Individuals in the climax stage are replaced by others of the same kind. Thus the

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Van Auken, O.W. (2000). "Shrub Invasions of North American Semiarid Grasslands".

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insects and spiders should be the first inhabitants of newly-formed oceanic land.

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Ortiz-Álvarez R, Fierer N, de Los Ríos A, Casamayor EO, Barberán A (June 2018).

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Ecological succession was formerly seen as having a stable end-stage called the

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

1920:"A critical review of successional dynamics in boreal forests of North America" 1593: 1335: 1321: 1263: 1193: 1165: 915: 825: 613: 479: 272: 263: 27:

Process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time

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Bomberger, Mary L.; Shields, Shelly; Harrison, L. Tyrone; Keeler, Kathleen.

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An example of pioneer species, in forests of northeastern North America are

4520: 4505: 4162: 4132: 4077: 3960: 3925: 3802: 3301: 2828: 2748: 2699: 2645: 2533: 2277: 2187: 2144: 1612: 1441:"Microfaunal primary succession on the volcanic island of Surtsey, Iceland" 1249: 1213: 1189: 907: 903: 728:. According to Clements, succession is a process involving several phases: 692: 630: 169: 2261: 1233:

climax state where decayed organic matter has built up over time, forming

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There are three schools of interpretations explaining the climax concept:

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and deterministic processes in the bacterial colonization of a salt marsh

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concerning the vegetation development after forest clear-cutting. In 1859

3812: 3359: 3321: 3296: 3286: 3251: 3198: 3178: 1936: 1919: 1918:

Anyomi, Kenneth A.; Neary, Brad; Chen, Jiaxin; Mayor, Stephen J. (2022).

1181: 1077: 829: 450: 175: 2237: 1086:

The prolonged stage in succession just preceding the climatic climax is

925: 790: 494:

Communities in early succession will be dominated by fast-growing, well-

242:, developed a more formal concept of succession. Inspired by studies of 4525: 4102: 4067: 3707: 3659: 3604: 3574: 3480: 3397: 3341: 3218: 3168: 2353: 2108: 1871: 1829: 1425: 1240:

Wetland succession is a uniquely complex, non-linear process shaped by

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Geological Travels in Some Parts of France, Switzerland, and Germany

1439:

Fredriksen, Helle B.; Kraglund, Hans-Ole; Ekelund, Flemming (2016).

4485: 4414: 3945: 3773: 3452: 3364: 3311: 3266: 2928: 2652: 1727: 1546: 1329: 1300: 1248:

moving in and out continuously acts upon the ecological community.

879: 641:

Secondary succession can quickly change a landscape. In the 1900s,

179: 43: 2488:

Dini-Andreote F, Stegen JC, van Elsas JD, Salles JF (March 2015).

2487: 706:

till deposits underwent succession to mixed deciduous forest. The

4475: 4282: 4152: 4147: 3774: 3722: 3382: 3027: 2713:

Yang, Yi; Tilman, David; Furey, George; Lehman, Clarence (2019).

2664:"High plant diversity and slow assembly of old-growth grasslands" 1288: 1279: 1254: 1225: 808: 470: 243: 124: 116: 109: 93: 89: 54: 742:

Ecesis: involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation.

226: 1015:

The climax ecosystem is balanced. There is equilibrium between

215: 199: 85: 1795:

Plant succession: an analysis of the development of vegetation

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The Voyage Of The Beagle. From The Harvard Classics Volume 29

1986:"Pattern, process, and prediction in marine invasion ecology" 1245: 1230: 875: 521:

Some of these trends do not apply in all cases. For example,

191: 187: 2783:

Schnoor, Tim; Bruun, Hans Henrik; Olsson, Pal Axel (2015).

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the tolerance of species in order to practice an effective

657:

and Rapidan rivers, which destroyed plant and animal life.

211: 195: 101: 2868: 2160: 1574: 929:

Ecological micro-succession in a bacterial meta-community

751:

Stabilization: a supposedly stable climax community forms.

64:

The process of succession occurs either after the initial

1438: 266:

studies). He first published this work as a paper in the

218:

to moor vegetation followed by birch and finally spruce.

203: 2163:"Ecological Succession - Definition, Types and Examples" 1542:

Ecology of the Northern Lowland Bogs and Conifer Forests

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could initiate long-term changes in wetland ecosystems.

168:

published a study about the succession of plants in the

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The vegetation is tolerant of environmental conditions.

637:: trees are colonizing uncultivated fields and meadows. 586:

A disturbance, such as a wild fire, destroys the forest

194:

dominated the early stages of forest development, then

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Michael G. Barbour and William Dwight Billings (2000)

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factors such as availability of colonists or seeds or

449:

The development of some ecosystem attributes, such as

2712: 2104: 2102: 1117:

Monoclimax or Climatic Climax Theory was advanced by

592:

The fire leaves behind empty, but not destroyed, soil

178:'s 1885 study on the stages of forest development in 2351: 2156: 2154: 1917: 1473: 1311: 312:

in 1926, were largely ignored until the late 1950s.

119:. Ecological succession was first documented in the 115:

Succession was among the first theories advanced in

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Explanation of succession for high school students.

2943: 2438: 2352:Hodkinson, I.D.; Webb, N.R.; Coulson, S.J. (2002). 595:

Grasses and other herbaceous plants grow back first

2782: 2761: 2099: 2151: 1852:Annals of the Association of American Geographers 598:Small bushes and trees begin to colonize the area 4562: 2662:Nerlekar, Ashish N.; Veldman, Joseph W. (2020). 2186:Cook WM, Yao J, Foster BL, Holt RD, Patrick LB. 1963:. UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 4–5. 1674:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 2661: 1649:The succession of forest trees: and wild Apples 992:The final or stable community in a sere is the 660: 2909: 1883: 1881: 1645: 1641: 1639: 1632:. Lyon Public Library: F. C. and J. Rivington. 1570: 1568: 1566: 1359:Connell–Slatyer model of ecological succession 579:An example of secondary succession by stages: 123:of Northwest Indiana and remains an important 92:, a volcanic island off the southern coast of 42:one year (left) and two years (right) after a 3759: 3012: 2986:Biographical sketch of Henry Chandler Cowles. 2609: 2547:McEvoy T (2004). "Positive Impact Forestry". 2185: 2066:. UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. 1689:. UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 3. 1405: 1403: 1401: 1399: 1397: 1395: 1393: 1391: 1389: 1140: 682: 2439:Martin PL, King W, Bell TH, Peter K (2021). 2560: 2558: 2407: 1887: 1878: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1780: 1778: 1776: 1774: 1772: 1636: 1563: 1506: 1504: 1502: 1158:direct sunlight. Once they have produced a 649:Secondary succession has been occurring in 254:development on sand dunes on the shores of 202:(on wet soil). If the birch is replaced by 3980:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity 3766: 3752: 3019: 3005: 2778: 2776: 2596:. United States Department of Agriculture. 2584: 2582: 2580: 1722:(2). University of Chicago Press: 95–117. 1386: 446:can also continually reshape communities. 287:, a contemporary of Cowles, who held that 2841: 2818: 2808: 2738: 2689: 2679: 2635: 2523: 2513: 2456: 2331:. Cambridge University Press. p. 4. 2161:Biology Dictionary Editors (2017-01-31). 2134: 1935: 1913: 1911: 1619: 1602: 1592: 1534: 1532: 1510: 1482: 1456: 836:is considered its formal starting point. 815: 786:begin to slowly dry out the damp surface. 527:dominance by locally superior competitors 3878:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations 3517:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense 2844:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2605: 2603: 2564: 2555: 2302:, Cambridge University Press, 708 pages 1792: 1769: 1499: 1149: 924: 789: 765: 629: 574: 330:while Gleason, in his 1926 paper, said: 225: 80:. Primary succession may happen after a 29: 3910:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model 2773: 2577: 2408:Sikes, Derek S.; Slowik, Jozef (2010). 2210:"Floods change face of Shenandoah Park" 2207: 1983: 1807: 1669: 1269: 589:The fire burns the forest to the ground 564: 510:life-histories). These are also called 278: 190:before the heath develops into forest. 155:were the first to make use of the word 68:of a newly created habitat, or after a 14: 4563: 3718:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense 2764:"Is Fire a Disturbance in Grasslands?" 2546: 2414:Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 2382: 2326: 2061: 1958: 1908: 1842: 1709: 1703: 1684: 1678: 1538: 1529: 1409: 3747: 3000: 2600: 2300:North American Terrestrial Vegetation 2086: 2022: 1810:Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 1797:. Carnegie Institution of Washington. 1753:. National Geographic. Archived from 1625: 1219: 834:The Strategy of Ecosystem Development 549: 378:The Strategy of Ecosystem Development 3733:Predator avoidance in schooling fish 2610:Zweig, C.L.; Kitchens, W.M. (2009). 2190:. The U.S. Department of Agriculture 1670:Thoreau HD (2013). Cramer JS (ed.). 1414:. Open Oregon Educational Resources. 1145: 781:, surround an open water lake. Some 755: 4183:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis 2591:"Wetland Ecology- Basic Principles" 2588: 2389:. P. F. Collier & Son, New York 1848:"The causes of vegetational cycles" 1374:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis 981: 906:have only recently been applied to 583:A stable deciduous forest community 24: 3936:Ecological effects of biodiversity 2902: 1748: 1033: 1003: 941:) Fluorescent microscopy image of 865: 777:: A) Emergent plant life, or pond 25: 4602: 3272:Generalist and specialist species 2966: 1672:Essays: A Fully Annotated Edition 969: 3995:Occupancy–abundance relationship 2946:European Journal of Soil Biology 2856:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.197 2549:Species Succession and Tolerance 1984:Carlton, James T. (1996-10-01). 1483:Smith S, Mark S (January 2009). 1342: 1328: 1314: 735:Migration: refers to arrival of 653:following the 1995 flood of the 151:and the later French naturalist 53:is the process of change in the 4015:Relative abundance distribution 3728:Plant defense against herbivory 3595:Competitive exclusion principle 3307:Mesopredator release hypothesis 2862: 2835: 2755: 2706: 2540: 2481: 2432: 2401: 2376: 2345: 2329:Plants in Changing Environments 2320: 2292: 2228: 2201: 2179: 2080: 2064:Plants in changing environments 2055: 2016: 1977: 1961:Plants in changing environments 1952: 1836: 1801: 1742: 1687:Plants in changing environments 1663: 1646:Thoreau HD, Emerson RW (1887). 1428:. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 890:is a fugitive species, whereas 679:towards one of dynamic states. 376:In 1969, Eugene Odum published 221: 100:of a community, such as from a 3600:Consumer–resource interactions 1432: 1418: 371: 13: 1: 4446:Biological data visualization 4273:Environmental niche modelling 4000:Population viability analysis 2041:10.1016/j.soilbio.2023.109289 2029:Soil Biology and Biochemistry 1890:Forest Ecology and Management 1539:Larsen JA (22 October 2013). 1379: 824:initiated in the writings of 714: 387: 3931:Density-dependent inhibition 2958:10.1016/j.ejsobi.2007.09.002 2810:10.1371/journal.pone.0123698 2458:10.1094/PBIOMES-06-21-0039-R 2002:10.1016/0006-3207(96)00020-1 1902:10.1016/j.foreco.2014.07.026 661:Seasonal and cyclic dynamics 7: 4400:Liebig's law of the minimum 4235:Resource selection function 3126:Metabolic theory of ecology 2551:. Island Press. p. 32. 2089:"Succession: A Closer Look" 1511:Middleton, Beth A. (2016). 1306: 1108: 10: 4607: 4300:Niche apportionment models 4020:Relative species abundance 3224:Primary nutritional groups 3121:List of feeding behaviours 2731:10.1038/s41467-019-08636-w 2208:Banisky S (July 3, 1995). 1594:10.1186/s12915-022-01462-5 1141:Succession by habitat type 985: 759: 683:Causes of plant succession 664: 568: 553: 429: 320:stages of its development. 206:it eventually develops to 153:Adolphe Dureau de la Malle 131: 84:or the emergence of a new 4586:Environmental terminology 4549: 4481:Ecosystem based fisheries 4423: 4323: 4248: 4121: 4093:Interspecific competition 4058: 3985:Minimum viable population 3918: 3843:Maximum sustainable yield 3828:Intraspecific competition 3823:Effective population size 3786: 3703:Anti-predator adaptations 3688: 3567: 3494: 3451: 3373: 3340: 3237: 3214:Photosynthetic efficiency 3149: 3043: 2127:10.1038/s41396-018-0076-2 2023:Frouz, Jan (2024-02-01). 1135:alternative stable states 417:introduced the notion of 402:J. Connell and R. Slatyer 4471:Ecological stoichiometry 4436:Alternative stable state 2451:: PBIOMES–06–21-0039-R. 2383:Darwin, Charles (1905). 1659:– via Archive.org. 1458:10.3402/polar.v20i1.6500 1093:Preclimax and Postclimax 1017:gross primary production 651:Shenandoah National Park 544: 531:Net Primary Productivity 4315:Ontogenetic niche shift 4178:Ideal free distribution 4088:Ecological facilitation 3838:Malthusian growth model 3808:Consumer-resource model 3665:Paradox of the plankton 3630:Energy systems language 3350:Chemoorganoheterotrophy 3317:Optimal foraging theory 3292:Heterotrophic nutrition 2973:Science Aid: Succession 2916:The American Naturalist 2681:10.1073/pnas.1922266117 2515:10.1073/pnas.1414261112 1990:Biological Conservation 1751:"Henry Chandler Cowles" 974:According to classical 297:ontogenetic development 234:Between 1899 and 1910, 4461:Ecological forecasting 4405:Marginal value theorem 4203:Landscape epidemiology 4138:Cross-boundary subsidy 4073:Biological interaction 3423:Microbial intelligence 3111:Green world hypothesis 2886:Cite journal requires 1513:Succession in wetlands 1154: 1026:maintains equilibrium. 966: 947:Pseudomonas aeruginosa 892:Pseudomonas aeruginosa 856: 816:Changes in animal life 799: 787: 638: 608: 369: 342: 328: 231: 210:. Swamps proceed from 47: 4571:Ecological succession 4466:Ecological humanities 4365:Ecological energetics 4310:Niche differentiation 4173:Habitat fragmentation 3941:Ecological extinction 3888:Small population size 3640:Feed conversion ratio 3620:Ecological succession 3552:San Francisco Estuary 3466:Ecological efficiency 3408:Microbial cooperation 2719:Nature Communications 2262:10.1007/s004420050028 1924:Environmental Reviews 1412:Environmental Biology 1153: 928: 845: 793: 769: 633: 578: 358: 332: 317: 240:University of Chicago 236:Henry Chandler Cowles 229: 172:river basin in 1863. 51:Ecological succession 33: 4576:Ecological processes 4491:Evolutionary ecology 4456:Ecological footprint 4451:Ecological economics 4375:Ecological threshold 4370:Ecological indicator 4240:Source–sink dynamics 4193:Land change modeling 4188:Insular biogeography 4040:Species distribution 3779:Modelling ecosystems 3438:Microbial metabolism 3277:Intraguild predation 3066:Biogeochemical cycle 3032:Modelling ecosystems 1992:. Invasion Biology. 1937:10.1139/er-2021-0106 1793:Clements FE (1916). 1757:on February 21, 2013 1369:Ecological stability 1270:Grassland succession 1224:Since many types of 900:secondary succession 699:Allogenic succession 688:Autogenic succession 643:Acadia National Park 635:Secondary succession 571:Secondary succession 565:Secondary succession 350:secondary succession 279:Gleason and Clements 78:secondary succession 59:ecological community 18:Succession (biology) 4581:Ecology terminology 4541:Theoretical ecology 4516:Natural environment 4380:Ecosystem diversity 4350:Ecological collapse 4340:Bateman's principle 4295:Limiting similarity 4208:Landscape limnology 4030:Species homogeneity 3868:Population modeling 3863:Population dynamics 3680:Trophic state index 2801:2015PLoSO..1023698S 2674:(31): 18550–18556. 2506:2015PNAS..112E1326D 2500:(11): E1326–E1332. 2445:Phytobiomes Journal 2254:2000Oecol.124...91V 1652:. Houghton, Mifflin 1489:South Shore Journal 1057:Catastrophic Climax 1024:species composition 998:climatic vegetation 161:Henry David Thoreau 142:University of Paris 4552:Outline of ecology 4501:Industrial ecology 4496:Functional ecology 4360:Ecological deficit 4305:Niche construction 4268:Ecosystem engineer 4045:Species–area curve 3966:Introduced species 3781:: Other components 3713:Deimatic behaviour 3615:Ecological network 3547:North Pacific Gyre 3532:hydrothermal vents 3471:Ecological pyramid 3418:Microbial food web 3229:Primary production 3174:Foundation species 2978:2021-05-06 at the 2358:Journal of Ecology 2327:Bazzaz FA (1996). 2167:Biology Dictionary 2087:Emery, S. (2010). 2062:Bazzaz FA (1996). 1710:Cowles EC (1899). 1685:Bazzaz FA (1996). 1410:Fisher MR (2018). 1350:Environment portal 1220:Wetland succession 1155: 967: 920:primary succession 896:primary succession 832:'s publication of 800: 788: 771:Aquatic succession 639: 609: 556:Primary succession 550:Primary succession 346:primary succession 232: 198:(on dry soil) and 74:primary succession 48: 4558: 4557: 4441:Balance of nature 4198:Landscape ecology 4083:Community ecology 4025:Species diversity 3961:Indicator species 3956:Gradient analysis 3833:Logistic function 3741: 3740: 3698:Animal coloration 3675:Trophic mutualism 3413:Microbial ecology 3204:Photoheterotrophs 3189:Myco-heterotrophy 3101:Ecosystem ecology 3086:Carrying capacity 3051:Abiotic component 2628:10.1890/08-1392.1 2589:Moseley, Kendra. 2316:978-0-521-55986-7 2215:The Baltimore Sun 1959:Bazzaz F (1996). 1716:Botanical Gazette 1626:Deluc JA (1813). 1522:978-94-007-6172-8 1364:Cyclic succession 1178:Betula papyrifera 1146:Forest succession 976:ecological theory 783:terrestrial plant 756:Seral communities 726:ecological theory 721:Frederic Clements 708:greenhouse effect 667:Cyclic succession 523:species diversity 406:climax vegetation 325:Frederic Clements 285:Frederic Clements 268:Botanical Gazette 250:, Cowles studied 34:Succession after 16:(Redirected from 4598: 4258:Ecological niche 4230:selection theory 4050:Umbrella species 4035:Species richness 3971:Invasive species 3951:Flagship species 3858:Population cycle 3853:Overexploitation 3818:Ecological yield 3768: 3761: 3754: 3745: 3744: 3650:Mesotrophic soil 3590:Climax community 3522:Marine food webs 3461:Biomagnification 3262:Chemoorganotroph 3116:Keystone species 3076:Biotic component 3021: 3014: 3007: 2998: 2997: 2961: 2940: 2923:(982): 1119–44. 2896: 2895: 2889: 2884: 2882: 2874: 2866: 2860: 2859: 2839: 2833: 2832: 2822: 2812: 2780: 2771: 2770: 2768: 2759: 2753: 2752: 2742: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2693: 2683: 2659: 2650: 2649: 2639: 2622:(7): 1900–1909. 2607: 2598: 2597: 2595: 2586: 2575: 2574: 2562: 2553: 2552: 2544: 2538: 2537: 2527: 2517: 2485: 2479: 2478: 2460: 2436: 2430: 2429: 2427: 2425: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2380: 2374: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2349: 2343: 2342: 2324: 2318: 2296: 2290: 2289: 2232: 2226: 2225: 2223: 2222: 2205: 2199: 2198: 2196: 2195: 2183: 2177: 2176: 2174: 2173: 2158: 2149: 2148: 2138: 2121:(7): 1658–1667. 2115:The ISME Journal 2106: 2097: 2096: 2084: 2078: 2077: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2020: 2014: 2013: 1981: 1975: 1974: 1956: 1950: 1949: 1939: 1915: 1906: 1905: 1885: 1876: 1875: 1840: 1834: 1833: 1805: 1799: 1798: 1790: 1767: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1746: 1740: 1739: 1707: 1701: 1700: 1682: 1676: 1675: 1667: 1661: 1660: 1658: 1657: 1643: 1634: 1633: 1623: 1617: 1616: 1606: 1596: 1572: 1561: 1560: 1536: 1527: 1526: 1508: 1497: 1496: 1480: 1471: 1470: 1460: 1436: 1430: 1429: 1422: 1416: 1415: 1407: 1352: 1347: 1346: 1338: 1333: 1332: 1324: 1319: 1318: 1317: 1260:invasive species 994:climax community 988:Climax community 982:Climax community 943:Escherichia coli 888:Escherichia coli 854: 804:climax community 415:Fakhri A. Bazzaz 394:Robert Whittaker 382:nutrient cycling 367: 340: 326: 293:climax community 149:Jean-André Deluc 147:Swiss geologist 88:from the ocean. 57:that make up an 21: 4606: 4605: 4601: 4600: 4599: 4597: 4596: 4595: 4561: 4560: 4559: 4554: 4545: 4531:Systems ecology 4419: 4390:Extinction debt 4355:Ecological debt 4345:Bioluminescence 4326: 4319: 4288:marine habitats 4263:Ecological trap 4244: 4124: 4117: 4060: 4054: 4010:Rapoport's rule 4005:Priority effect 3946:Endemic species 3914: 3873:Population size 3789: 3782: 3772: 3742: 3737: 3690: 3684: 3670:Trophic cascade 3580:Bioaccumulation 3563: 3490: 3447: 3369: 3336: 3233: 3145: 3106:Ecosystem model 3039: 3025: 2980:Wayback Machine 2969: 2964: 2905: 2903:Further reading 2900: 2899: 2887: 2885: 2876: 2875: 2867: 2863: 2840: 2836: 2795:(4): e0123698. 2781: 2774: 2766: 2760: 2756: 2711: 2707: 2660: 2653: 2608: 2601: 2593: 2587: 2578: 2563: 2556: 2545: 2541: 2486: 2482: 2437: 2433: 2423: 2421: 2406: 2402: 2392: 2390: 2381: 2377: 2367: 2365: 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cycles 451:soil properties 432: 390: 374: 368: 365: 341: 338: 327: 324: 281: 224: 134: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4604: 4594: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4556: 4555: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4511:Microecosystem 4508: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4427: 4425: 4421: 4420: 4418: 4417: 4412: 4410:Thorson's rule 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4335:Assembly rules 4331: 4329: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4291: 4290: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4254: 4252: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4220: 4218:Patch dynamics 4215: 4213:Metapopulation 4210: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4129: 4127: 4119: 4118: 4116: 4115: 4110: 4108:Storage effect 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4064: 4062: 4056: 4055: 4053: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3990:Neutral theory 3987: 3982: 3977: 3975:Native species 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3922: 3920: 3916: 3915: 3913: 3912: 3907: 3906: 3905: 3900: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3848:Overpopulation 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3794: 3792: 3784: 3783: 3771: 3770: 3763: 3756: 3748: 3739: 3738: 3736: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3694: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3655:Nutrient cycle 3652: 3647: 3645:Feeding frenzy 3642: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3625:Energy quality 3622: 3617: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3585:Cascade effect 3582: 3577: 3571: 3569: 3565: 3564: 3562: 3561: 3560: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3519: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3498: 3496: 3492: 3491: 3489: 3488: 3483: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3463: 3457: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3446: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3428:Microbial loop 3425: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3405: 3400: 3395: 3393:Lithoautotroph 3390: 3385: 3379: 3377: 3375:Microorganisms 3371: 3370: 3368: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3352: 3346: 3344: 3338: 3337: 3335: 3334: 3332:Prey switching 3329: 3324: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3289: 3284: 3279: 3274: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3254: 3249: 3243: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3232: 3231: 3226: 3221: 3216: 3211: 3209:Photosynthesis 3206: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3171: 3166: 3164:Chemosynthesis 3161: 3155: 3153: 3147: 3146: 3144: 3143: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3123: 3118: 3113: 3108: 3103: 3098: 3093: 3088: 3083: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3056:Abiotic stress 3053: 3047: 3045: 3041: 3040: 3024: 3023: 3016: 3009: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2988: 2983: 2968: 2967:External links 2965: 2963: 2962: 2941: 2929:10.1086/283241 2906: 2904: 2901: 2898: 2897: 2888:|journal= 2861: 2834: 2772: 2754: 2705: 2651: 2599: 2576: 2554: 2539: 2480: 2431: 2400: 2375: 2344: 2337: 2319: 2291: 2227: 2200: 2178: 2150: 2098: 2079: 2072: 2054: 2015: 1976: 1969: 1951: 1930:(4): 563–594. 1907: 1877: 1835: 1800: 1768: 1741: 1728:10.1086/327796 1702: 1695: 1677: 1662: 1635: 1618: 1562: 1555: 1528: 1521: 1498: 1472: 1445:Polar Research 1431: 1417: 1384: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1377: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1354: 1353: 1339: 1336:Biology portal 1325: 1322:Ecology portal 1310: 1308: 1305: 1271: 1268: 1264:climate change 1221: 1218: 1194:shade-tolerant 1166:shade-tolerant 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1133:The theory of 1131: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1094: 1091: 1084: 1081: 1073: 1070: 1058: 1055: 1052:edaphic climax 1047: 1046:Edaphic Climax 1044: 1040: 1035: 1032: 1031: 1030: 1027: 1020: 1013: 1010: 1005: 1002: 986:Main article: 983: 980: 971: 970:Climax concept 968: 957:(magenta) and 945:(magenta) and 916:chronosequence 870:Succession of 867: 864: 850: 826:Ramon Margalef 817: 814: 760:Main article: 757: 754: 753: 752: 749: 746: 743: 740: 733: 716: 713: 684: 681: 677:climax concept 665:Main article: 662: 659: 606: 605: 602: 599: 596: 593: 590: 587: 584: 580: 569:Main article: 566: 563: 554:Main article: 551: 548: 546: 543: 440:Climate change 431: 428: 389: 386: 373: 370: 363: 356:wrote (1911): 336: 322: 309:chance factors 280: 277: 264:chronosequence 223: 220: 133: 130: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4603: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4568: 4566: 4553: 4548: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4536:Urban ecology 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4395:Kleiber's law 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4332: 4330: 4328: 4322: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4289: 4286: 4285: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 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3401: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3388:Bacteriophage 3386: 3384: 3381: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3372: 3366: 3363: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3355:Decomposition 3353: 3351: 3348: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3339: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3323: 3320: 3318: 3315: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3302:Mesopredators 3300: 3298: 3295: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3283: 3280: 3278: 3275: 3273: 3270: 3268: 3265: 3263: 3260: 3258: 3255: 3253: 3250: 3248: 3247:Apex predator 3245: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3236: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3222: 3220: 3217: 3215: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3200: 3197: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3165: 3162: 3160: 3157: 3156: 3154: 3152: 3148: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3122: 3119: 3117: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3107: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3097: 3094: 3092: 3089: 3087: 3084: 3082: 3081:Biotic stress 3079: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3049: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3022: 3017: 3015: 3010: 3008: 3003: 3002: 2999: 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Springer. 1512: 1492: 1488: 1451:(1): 61–73. 1448: 1444: 1434: 1420: 1411: 1298: 1285: 1273: 1239: 1223: 1214:silviculture 1210: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1190:Black cherry 1185: 1177: 1175: 1159: 1156: 1132: 1112: 1101: 1097: 1087: 1051: 997: 993: 991: 973: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 908:microbiology 904:macroecology 891: 887: 883: 869: 861: 857: 846: 842: 838: 833: 819: 807: 801: 718: 704: 697: 693:forest floor 686: 670: 648: 640: 634: 622: 618: 610: 559: 520: 493: 484: 464: 448: 433: 424: 418: 391: 377: 375: 366:Henry Cowles 359: 343: 333: 329: 318: 314: 302: 282: 267: 233: 222:H. C. Cowles 174: 166:Anton Kerner 156: 146: 135: 114: 66:colonization 63: 50: 49: 4158:Disturbance 4061:interaction 3883:Recruitment 3813:Depensation 3605:Copiotrophs 3476:Energy flow 3398:Lithotrophy 3342:Decomposers 3322:Planktivore 3297:Insectivore 3287:Heterotroph 3252:Bacterivore 3219:Phototrophs 3169:Chemotrophs 3141:Restoration 3091:Competition 2952:: 109–121. 2850:: 197–215. 2573:(1): 40–42. 1896:: 312–322. 1858:(1): 3–20. 1816:(1): 7–26. 1581:BMC Biology 1182:White birch 1078:overgrazing 853:C. Darwin 830:Eugene Odum 673:disturbance 518:) species. 500:opportunist 410:contingency 398:John Curtis 372:Eugene Odum 182:noted that 176:Ragnar Hult 98:disturbance 70:disturbance 61:over time. 36:disturbance 4565:Categories 4526:Sexecology 4103:Parasitism 4068:Antibiosis 3903:Resistance 3898:Resilience 3788:Population 3708:Camouflage 3660:Oligotroph 3575:Ascendency 3537:intertidal 3527:cold seeps 3481:Food chain 3282:Herbivores 3257:Carnivores 3184:Mixotrophs 3159:Autotrophs 3038:components 2911:Connell JH 2637:1834/22259 2221:2019-07-05 2194:2013-09-30 2172:2019-05-08 2035:: 109289. 1749:Schons M. 1656:2014-04-12 1587:(1): 262. 1380:References 1102:postclimax 1062:California 961:(green); ( 912:stochastic 874:including 822:ecosystems 737:propagules 715:Mechanisms 614:seed banks 516:k-selected 508:r-selected 488:decomposer 459:stochastic 388:Modern era 252:vegetation 157:succession 125:ecological 4431:Allometry 4385:Emergence 4113:Symbiosis 4098:Mutualism 3893:Stability 3798:Abundance 3610:Dominance 3568:Processes 3557:tide pool 3453:Food webs 3327:Predation 3312:Omnivores 3239:Consumers 3194:Mycotroph 3151:Producers 3096:Ecosystem 3061:Behaviour 2992:argument. 2567:Turrialba 2475:239658496 2467:2471-2906 2393:20 August 2270:1432-1939 2242:Oecologia 2049:0038-0717 2010:0006-3207 1946:247965093 1844:Cowles HC 1426:"Surtsey" 1242:hydrology 1125:activity. 1098:preclimax 1088:subclimax 1083:Subclimax 1072:Disclimax 1066:chaparral 798:community 796:hydrosere 775:hydrosere 719:In 1916, 655:Moorman's 498:species ( 496:dispersed 246:dunes by 238:, at the 208:beechwood 184:grassland 164:botanist 106:windthrow 104:, severe 82:lava flow 4486:Endolith 4415:Xerosere 4327:networks 4143:Ecocline 3689:Defense, 3365:Detritus 3267:Foraging 3136:Resource 2976:Archived 2829:25875745 2789:PLOS ONE 2749:30755614 2700:32675246 2646:19694138 2534:25733885 2424:2 August 2368:2 August 2286:38703575 2278:28308417 2145:29463893 1846:(1911). 1736:84315469 1613:36447225 1547:Elsevier 1467:82682454 1307:See also 1301:mesquite 1294:pioneers 1231:forested 1198:Cecropia 1119:Clements 1109:Theories 880:bacteria 851:— 828:, while 779:pioneers 504:fugitive 364:— 337:— 323:— 186:becomes 180:Blekinge 44:wildfire 4591:Habitat 4476:Ecopath 4283:Habitat 4153:Ecotype 4148:Ecotone 4125:ecology 4123:Spatial 4059:Species 3919:Species 3790:ecology 3775:Ecology 3723:Mimicry 3691:counter 3635:f-ratio 3383:Archaea 3071:Biomass 3044:General 3036:Trophic 3028:Ecology 2937:3587878 2820:4395216 2797:Bibcode 2740:6372642 2691:7414179 2616:Ecology 2525:4371938 2502:Bibcode 2250:Bibcode 2136:6018800 1872:2560843 1830:2479933 1761:25 June 1604:9710175 1495:: 1–10. 1289:prairie 1280:tillage 1255:drought 1226:wetland 1202:Ochroma 1069:climax. 955:E. coli 931:on-chip 884:on-chip 809:prisere 625:patches 539:trophic 535:biomass 471:weather 430:Factors 132:History 117:ecology 110:logging 94:Iceland 90:Surtsey 55:species 3507:Rivers 3403:Marine 2935: 2827: 2817: 2747: 2737: 2698: 2688: 2644: 2532: 2522: 2473: 2465: 2335: 2314: 2306: 2284: 2276: 2268: 2143: 2133: 2093:Nature 2070: 2047: 2008: 1967: 1944: 1870: 1828: 1734: 1693: 1611: 1601: 1553: 1519: 1465: 1262:, and 1184:) and 537:, and 467:random 436:climax 354:Cowles 244:Danish 216:sedges 200:spruce 170:Danube 138:Buffon 86:island 4424:Other 4325:Other 4278:Guild 4250:Niche 3502:Lakes 2933:S2CID 2767:(PDF) 2594:(PDF) 2471:S2CID 2282:S2CID 1942:S2CID 1868:JSTOR 1826:JSTOR 1732:S2CID 1463:S2CID 1276:weedy 1246:tides 1206:Trema 1171:stand 876:fungi 545:Types 506:, or 419:scale 361:land. 289:seres 258:(the 192:Birch 188:heath 108:, or 3512:Soil 2892:help 2825:PMID 2745:PMID 2696:PMID 2668:PNAS 2642:PMID 2530:PMID 2463:ISSN 2426:2024 2395:2024 2370:2024 2333:ISBN 2312:ISBN 2304:ISBN 2274:PMID 2266:ISSN 2141:PMID 2068:ISBN 2045:ISSN 2006:ISSN 1965:ISBN 1763:2014 1691:ISBN 1609:PMID 1551:ISBN 1517:ISBN 1250:Fire 1235:peat 1204:and 878:and 478:and 453:and 396:and 348:and 273:sere 212:moss 196:pine 102:fire 38:: a 2954:doi 2925:doi 2921:111 2852:doi 2815:PMC 2805:doi 2735:PMC 2727:doi 2686:PMC 2676:doi 2672:117 2632:hdl 2624:doi 2520:PMC 2510:doi 2498:112 2453:doi 2258:doi 2246:124 2131:PMC 2123:doi 2037:doi 2033:189 1998:doi 1932:doi 1898:doi 1894:330 1860:doi 1818:doi 1724:doi 1599:PMC 1589:doi 1453:doi 996:or 933:. 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