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and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus. Next, the induction of c-Fos, a downstream (repressed) target of DeltaFosB, was measured in sexually experienced and naive animals. The number of mating-induced c-Fos-IR cells was significantly decreased in sexually experienced animals compared to sexually naive controls. Finally, DeltaFosB levels and its activity in the NAc were manipulated using viral-mediated gene transfer to study its potential role in mediating sexual experience and experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. Animals with DeltaFosB overexpression displayed enhanced facilitation of sexual performance with sexual experience relative to controls. In contrast, the expression of DeltaJunD, a dominant-negative binding partner of DeltaFosB, attenuated sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance, and stunted long-term maintenance of facilitation compared to DeltaFosB overexpressing group. Together, these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. ... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry.
362:
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that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state.. ... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.
974:, and use that persists even if the user is aware of severe adverse consequences. For some people, addiction becomes chronic, with periodic relapses even after long periods of abstinence. As a chronic, relapsing disease, addiction may require continued treatments to increase the intervals between relapses and diminish their intensity. While some with substance issues recover and lead fulfilling lives, others require ongoing additional support. The ultimate goal of addiction treatment is to enable an individual to manage their substance misuse; for some this may mean abstinence. Immediate goals are often to reduce substance abuse, improve the patient's ability to function, and minimize the medical and social complications of substance abuse and their addiction; this is called "
1923:ΔFosB has been linked directly to several addiction-related behaviors ... Importantly, genetic or viral overexpression of ΔJunD, a dominant negative mutant of JunD which antagonizes ΔFosB- and other AP-1-mediated transcriptional activity, in the NAc or OFC blocks these key effects of drug exposure14,22–24. This indicates that ΔFosB is both necessary and sufficient for many of the changes wrought in the brain by chronic drug exposure. ΔFosB is also induced in D1-type NAc MSNs by chronic consumption of several natural rewards, including sucrose, high fat food, sex, wheel running, where it promotes that consumption14,26–30. This implicates ΔFosB in the regulation of natural rewards under normal conditions and perhaps during pathological addictive-like states.
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and the needs of the addicted person, and also need to locate the defects of their ego and defense mechanisms. Using this approach alone has proven to be ineffective in solving addiction problems. Cognitive and behavioral techniques should be integrated with psychodynamic approaches to achieve effective treatment for substance related disorders. Cognitive treatment requires psychologists to think deeply about what is happening in the brain of an addicted person. Cognitive psychologists should zoom in to neural functions of the brain and understand that drugs have been manipulating the dopamine reward center of the brain. From this particular state of thinking, cognitive psychologists need to find ways to change the thought process of the addicted person.
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common mechanism of reward tolerance and dependence shared by several classes of drugs of abuse. Research since that time, by many laboratories, has provided substantial support for these hypotheses. Specifically, opiates in several CNS regions including NAc, and cocaine more selectively in NAc induce expression of certain adenylyl cyclase isoforms and PKA subunits via the transcription factor, CREB, and these transcriptional adaptations serve a homeostatic function to oppose drug action. In certain brain regions, such as locus coeruleus, these adaptations mediate aspects of physical opiate dependence and withdrawal, whereas in NAc they mediate reward tolerance and dependence that drives increased drug self-administration.
2041:; Henderson, A.S.; Strotzka, H.; Lipowski, Z.; Yu-cun, Shen; You-xin, Xu; Strömgren, E.; Glatzel, J.; Kühne, G.-E.; Misès, R.; Soldatos, C.R.; Pull, C.B.; Giel, R.; Jegede, R.; Malt, U.; Nadzharov, R.A.; Smulevitch, A.B.; Hagberg, B.; Perris, C.; Scharfetter, C.; Clare, A.; Cooper, J.E.; Corbett, J.A.; Griffith Edwards, J.; Gelder, M.; Goldberg, D.; Gossop, M.; Graham, P.; Kendell, R.E.; Marks, I.; Russell, G.; Rutter, M.; Shepherd, M.; West, D.J.; Wing, J.; Wing, L.; Neki, J.S.; Benson, F.; Cantwell, D.; Guze, S.; Helzer, J.; Holzman, P.; Kleinman, A.; Kupfer, D.J.; Mezzich, J.; Spitzer, R.; Lokar, J.
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observed to produce an elevation of extracellular glutamate, an increase in NMDA receptor subunits NR1 and NR2A, phosphorylated CaMKII, and c-fos. Expression of CaMKII and c-fos is attenuated by NMDA receptor antagonists, which is associated with blunted withdrawal in adult rats, but not neonatal rats While acute administration of opioids decreases AMPA receptor expression and depresses both NMDA and non-NMDA excitatory postsynaptic potentials in the NAC, withdrawal involves a lowered threshold for LTP and an increase in spontaneous firing in the NAc.
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patients. Most will have steps in place to handle severe withdrawal symptoms, either through behavioral therapy or other medications. Biological intervention should be combined with behavioral therapy approaches and other non-pharmacological techniques. Group therapies including anonymity, teamwork and sharing concerns of daily life among people who also have substance dependence issues can have a great impact on outcomes. However, these programs proved to be more effective and influential on persons who did not reach levels of serious dependence.
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legislations and agencies like the
Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) mid-20th century in response to the nation's growing substance abuse issue. These strict punishments for drug offenses shined light on the fact that drug abuse was a multi-faceted problem. The President's Advisory Commission on Narcotics and Drug Abuse of 1963 addressed the need for a medical solution to drug abuse. However, drug abuse continued to be enforced by the federal government through agencies such as the DEA and further legislations such as The
1847:, which occurs when drug taking stops. Dependence from long-term drug use may have both a somatic component, manifested by physical symptoms, and an emotional–motivation component, manifested by dysphoria. While physical dependence and withdrawal occur with some drugs of abuse (opiates, ethanol), these phenomena are not useful in the diagnosis of addiction because they do not occur with other drugs of abuse (cocaine, amphetamine) and can occur with many drugs that are not abused (propranolol, clonidine).
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1002:. These kinds of outcomes can be achieved without eliminating drug use completely. Drug treatment programs in Europe often report more favorable outcomes than those in the US because the criteria for measuring success are functional rather than abstinence-based. The supporters of programs with total abstinence from drugs as a goal believe that enabling further drug use means prolonged drug use and risks an increase in addiction and complications from addiction.
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1388:, and it was further hypothesized that this might potentially be able to cure opium addiction. However, many people did become addicted to morphine. In particular, addiction to opium became widespread among soldiers fighting in the Civil War, who very often required painkillers and thus were very often prescribed morphine. Women were also very frequently prescribed opiates, and opiates were advertised as being able to relieve "female troubles".
1117:– which is the gold standard for treatment of opioid dependence in developed countries, reducing the risk and cost to both user and society more effectively than any other treatment modality (for opioid dependence), and shows the best short-term and long-term gains for the user, with the greatest longevity, least risk of fatality, greatest quality of life, and lowest risk of relapse and legal issues including arrest and incarceration.
3678:| Living Hero Radio Show and Podcast special. With Dimitri Mobengo Mugianis, Bovenga Na Muduma, Clare S. Wilkins, Brad Burge, Tom Kingsley Brown, Susan Thesenga, Bruce K. Alexander, PhD ~ the voices of ex-addicts, researchers from The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies and Ibogaine/Iboga/Ayahuasca treatment providers sharing their experiences in breaking addiction with native medicines. January 2013
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dependence are more complex, with treatment aims including reduction in use to the point that drug use no longer interferes with normal activities such as work and family commitments; shifting the addict away from more dangerous routes of drug administration such as injecting to safer routes such as oral administration; reduction in crime committed by drug addicts; and treatment of other comorbid conditions such as
1015:, an approach that looks at the relationship between thoughts, feelings and behaviors, addressing the root cause of maladaptive behavior. Cognitive-behavioral therapy treats addiction as a behavior rather than a disease, and so is subsequently curable, or rather, unlearnable. Cognitive-behavioral therapy programs recognize that, for some individuals, controlled use is a more realistic possibility.
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phenomena. Second, the term substance dependence implies that dependence is the primary pharmacologic phenomenon underlying addiction, which is likely not true, as tolerance, sensitization, and learning and memory also play central roles. It is ironic and unfortunate that the Manual avoids use of the term addiction, which provides the best description of the clinical syndrome.
1410:(NSDUH) reports on substance dependence/abuse rates in various population demographics across the U.S. When surveying populations based on race and ethnicity in those ages 12 and older, it was observed that American Indian/Alaskan Natives were among the highest rates and Asians were among the lowest rates in comparison to other racial/ethnic groups.
2142:"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5 (5th edition)2014 102 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5 (5th edition) Washington, DC American Psychiatric Association 2013 xliv+947 pp. 9780890425541(hbck);9780890425558(pbck) ÂŁ175 $ 199 (hbck); ÂŁ45 $ 69 (pbck)".
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In the past decade, there have been growing efforts through state and local legislations to shift from criminalizing drug abuse to treating it as a health condition requiring medical intervention. 28 states currently allow for the establishment of needle exchanges. Florida, Iowa, Missouri and
Arizona
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Alcohol dependence or abuse rates were shown to have no correspondence with any person's education level when populations were surveyed in varying degrees of education from ages 26 and older. However, when it came to illicit drug use there was a correlation, in which those that graduated from college
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Internationally, the U.S. and
Eastern Europe contain the countries with the highest substance abuse disorder occurrence (5-6%). Africa, Asia, and the Middle East contain countries with the lowest worldwide occurrence (1-2%). Across the globe, those that tended to have a higher prevalence of substance
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was isolated in the early 19th century, and came to be prescribed commonly by doctors, both as a painkiller and as an intended cure for opium addiction. At the time, the prevailing medical opinion was that the addiction process occurred in the stomach, and thus it was hypothesized that patients would
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to pair unpleasant effects with the thought of alcohol use. Psychologists tend to use an integration of all these approaches to produce reliable and effective treatment. With the advanced clinical use of medications, biological treatment is now considered to be one of the most efficient interventions
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strategies. In addition, the same author suggests that social skills training adjunctive to inpatient treatment of alcohol dependence is probably efficacious. Community reinforcement has both efficacy and effectiveness data. In addition, behavioral treatment such as community reinforcement and family
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or other drugs despite problems related to use of the substance, substance dependence may be diagnosed. Compulsive and repetitive use may result in tolerance to the effect of the drug and withdrawal symptoms when use is reduced or stopped. This, along with
Substance Abuse are considered Substance Use
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Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification
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Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to
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all introduced bills to allow for the establishment of needle exchanges in 2019. These bills have grown in popularity across party lines since needle exchanges were first introduced in
Amsterdam in 1983. In addition, AB-186 Controlled substances: overdose prevention program was introduced to operate
1702:
The United States' approach to substance abuse has shifted over the last decade, and is continuing to change. The federal government was minimally involved in the 19th century. The federal government transitioned from using taxation of drugs in the early 20th century to criminalizing drug abuse with
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under the control of licensing systems. Typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates, amphetamines, cannabinoids, cocaine, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, anesthetics, hallucinogenics, derivatives and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs. Unlicensed production, supply or possession
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and group counseling. Frequently, a physician or psychiatrist will prescribe medications in order to help patients cope with the side effects of their addiction. Medications can help immensely with anxiety and insomnia, can treat underlying mental disorders (cf. self-medication hypothesis, Khantzian
1975:
It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate,
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Although the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public health grounds, it can make addiction or dependency a much more serious issue for the individual: reliable supplies of a drug become difficult to secure, and the individual becomes vulnerable to both criminal abuse and legal punishment.
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Many soldiers in the
Vietnam War were introduced to heroin and developed a dependency on the substance which survived even when they returned to the US. Technological advances in travel meant that this increased demand for heroin in the US could now be met. Furthermore, as technology advanced, more
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Treatments and attitudes toward addiction vary widely among different countries. In the US and developing countries, the goal of commissioners of treatment for drug dependence is generally total abstinence from all drugs. Other countries, particularly in Europe, argue the aims of treatment for drug
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Medical professionals need to apply many techniques and approaches to help patients with substance related disorders. Using a psychodynamic approach is one of the techniques that psychologists use to solve addiction problems. In psychodynamic therapy, psychologists need to understand the conflicts
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for opioid detoxification, for first-time users or those who wish to attempt an abstinence-based recovery (90% of opioid users relapse to active addiction within eight months or are multiple relapse patients); or replacing an opioid that is interfering with or destructive to a user's life, such as
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Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use,
1120:
In a survey of treatment providers from three separate institutions, the
National Association of Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Counselors, Rational Recovery Systems and the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors, measuring the treatment provider's responses on the "Spiritual Belief Scale" (a
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These findings led us to hypothesize that a concerted upregulation of the cAMP pathway is a general mechanism of opiate tolerance and dependence. ... We thus extended our hypothesis to suggest that, particularly within brain reward regions such as NAc, cAMP pathway upregulation represents a
1642:
at the
University of Chicago reported an analysis on disparities within admissions for substance abuse treatment in the Appalachian region, which comprises 13 states and 410 counties in the Eastern part of the U.S. While their findings for most demographic categories were similar to the national
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agonists into the locus coeruleus leads to a decrease in LC firing and norepinephrine release during withdrawal. A possible mechanism involves upregulation of NMDA receptors, which is supported by the attenuation of withdraw by NMDA receptor antagonists. Physical dependence on opioids has been
981:
Treatments for addiction vary widely according to the types of drugs involved, amount of drugs used, duration of the drug addiction, medical complications and the social needs of the individual. Determining the best type of recovery program for an addicted person depends on a number of factors,
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in the City and County of San
Francisco. The bill was vetoed on September 30, 2018, by California Governor Jerry Brown. The legality of these sites are still in discussion, so there are no such sites in the United States yet. However, there is growing international evidence for successful safe
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in the context of opioid dependence. These approaches are aimed at the process of detoxification. Medical professionals weigh the consequences of withdrawal symptoms against the risk of staying dependent on these substances. These withdrawal symptoms can be very difficult and painful times for
756:. A sustained activation of CREB thus forces a larger dose to be taken to reach the same effect. In addition, it leaves the user feeling generally depressed and dissatisfied, and unable to find pleasure in previously enjoyable activities, often leading to a return to the drug for another dose.
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The official diagnosis of drug addiction by the Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders (2000), which makes distinctions between drug use, abuse, and substance dependence, is flawed. First, diagnosis of drug use versus abuse can be arbitrary and reflect cultural norms, not medical
1204:
There are two routes typically applied to a cognitive approach to substance abuse: tracking the thoughts that pull patients to addiction and tracking the thoughts that prevent them if so from relapsing. Behavioral techniques have the widest application in treating substance related disorders.
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There is little evidence to confirm the safety or efficacy of most alternative therapies. Much of the information currently known about these therapies makes it clear that many have not been shown to be efficacious. Well-designed, stringently controlled research should be done to evaluate the
1683:. Even though the cost of producing most illegal addictive substances is very low, their illegality combined with the addict's need permits the seller to command a premium price, often hundreds of times the production cost. As a result, addicts sometimes turn to crime to support their habit.
2992:
Chambless, Dianne L.; Sanderson, William C.; Shoham, Varda; Johnson, Suzanne Bennett; Pope, Kenneth S.; Crits-Christoph, Paul; Baker, Mary; Johnson, Benjamin; Woody, Sheila R.; Sue, Stanley; Beutler, Larry; Williams, David A.; McCurry, Susan. "An Update on Empirically Validated Therapies".
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Many different ideas circulate regarding what is considered a successful outcome in the recovery from addiction. Programs that emphasize controlled drinking exist for alcohol addiction. Opiate replacement therapy has been a medical standard of treatment for opioid addiction for many years.
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findings by NSDUH, they had different results for racial/ethnic groups which varied by sub-regions. Overall, Whites were the demographic with the largest admission rate (83%), while Alaskan Native, American Indian, Pacific Islander, and Asian populations had the lowest admissions (1.8%).
1225:
Another approach is to use medicines that interfere with the functions of the drugs in the brain. Similarly, one can also substitute the misused substance with a weaker, safer version to slowly taper the patient off of their dependence. Such is the case with
1365:, and dramatic increases in the recommendation of drug usage by clinical practitioners have exacerbated the problem significantly in the 20th century. Improved means of active biological agent manufacture and the introduction of synthetic compounds, such as
333:
Withdrawal is the body's reaction to abstaining from a substance upon which a person has developed a dependence syndrome. When dependence has developed, cessation of substance-use produces an unpleasant state, which promotes continued drug use through
154:. This was done because "the tolerance and withdrawal that previously defined dependence are actually very normal responses to prescribed medications that affect the central nervous system and do not necessarily indicate the presence of an addiction."
1010:
Residential drug treatment can be broadly divided into two camps: 12-step programs and therapeutic communities. 12-step programs are a nonclinical support-group and spiritual-based approach to treating addiction. Therapy typically involves the use of
1038:(rehab) centers offer a residential treatment program for some of the more seriously addicted, in order to isolate the patient from drugs and interactions with other users and dealers. Outpatient clinics usually offer a combination of individual
1212:. It uses the principle of pairing abused substances with unpleasant stimuli or conditions; for example, pairing pain, electrical shock, or nausea with alcohol consumption. The use of medications may also be used in this approach, such as using
1174:, are used by some practitioners to alleviate the symptoms of drug addiction. In 1997, the American Medical Association (AMA) adopted, as policy, the following statement after a report on a number of alternative therapies including acupuncture:
395:
compared the harm and dependence liability of 20 drugs, using a scale from zero to three for physical dependence, psychological dependence, and pleasure to create a mean score for dependence. Selected results can be seen in the chart below.
353:(NAS), which can have severe and life-threatening effects. Addiction to drugs such as alcohol in expectant mothers not only causes NAS, but also an array of other issues which can continually affect the infant throughout their lifetime.
1837:
Addictive drugs are both rewarding and reinforcing. ... Familiar pharmacologic terms such as tolerance, dependence, and sensitization are useful in describing some of the time-dependent processes that underlie addiction. ...
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to reduce cravings and propensity for relapse amongst addicts to any drug, especially effective in stimulant users, and alcoholics (in which it is nearly as effective as benzodiazepines in preventing complications); using
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When surveying populations based on gender in those ages 12 and older, it was observed that males had a higher substance dependence rate than females. However, the difference in the rates are not apparent until after age
3169:
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Dutcher, Linda W.; Anderson, Raymond; Moore, Marah; Luna-Anderson, Carol; Meyers, Robert J.; Delaney, Harold D.; Smith, Jane Ellen (2009). "Community Reinforcement and Family Training (CRAFT): An effectiveness study".
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137:), substance dependence is redefined as a drug addiction, and can be diagnosed without the occurrence of a withdrawal syndrome. It was described accordingly: "When an individual persists in use of
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Moggi F, Giovanoli A, Strik W, Moos BS, Moos RH (January 2007). "Substance use disorder treatment programs in Switzerland and the USA: Program characteristics and 1-year outcomes".
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training (CRAFT) have helped family members to get their loved ones into treatment. Motivational intervention has also shown to be an effective treatment for substance dependence.
771:. This activation influences the dysregulated emotional state associated with psychological dependence. They found that as drug use escalates, so does the presence of CRF in human
2344:
1675:
It is unclear whether laws against illegal drug use do anything to stem usage and dependency. In jurisdictions where addictive drugs are illegal, they are generally supplied by
3469:
1376:
For the entirety of US history, drugs have been used by some members of the population. In the country's early years, most drug use by the settlers was of alcohol or tobacco.
188:– psychoactive substances that with repeated use are associated with significantly higher rates of substance use disorders, due in large part to the drug's effect on brain
2789:
Reynolds M, Mezey G, Chapman M, Wheeler M, Drummond C, Baldacchino A (March 2005). "Co-morbid post-traumatic stress disorder in a substance misusing clinical population".
346:), or both. Chemical and hormonal imbalances may arise if the substance is not re-introduced. Psychological stress may also result if the substance is not re-introduced.
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had the lowest rates. Furthermore, dependence rates were greater in unemployed populations ages 18 and older and in metropolitan-residing populations ages 12 and older.
2576:"Reflections on: "A general role for adaptations in G-Proteins and the cyclic AMP system in mediating the chronic actions of morphine and cocaine on neuronal function""
1655:, addictive drugs may be legal, legal only as part of a government sponsored study, illegal to use for any purpose, illegal to sell, or even illegal to merely possess.
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109:
factor, is now known to be a critical component and common factor in the development of virtually all forms of behavioral and drug addictions, but not dependence.
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1997) such as depression, and can help reduce or eliminate withdrawal symptomology when withdrawing from physiologically addictive drugs. Some examples are using
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including: personality, drugs of choice, concept of spirituality or religion, mental or physical illness, and local availability and affordability of programs.
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developed by the Xenova Group which is used to negate the effects of cocaine, making it suitable for use in treatment of addiction. It is created by combining
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on smokers revealed that 80% of smokers quit for six months following the treatment, and 60% remained smoking free for 5 years following the treatment.
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338:; i.e., the drug is used to escape or avoid re-entering the associated withdrawal state. The withdrawal state may include physical-somatic symptoms (
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Meyers, Robert J.; Smith, Jane Ellen; Lash, Denise N. (2005). "A program for engaging treatment-refusing substance abusers into treatment: CRAFT".
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meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.
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Smith, Jane Ellen; Milford, Jaime L.; Meyers, Robert J. (2004). "CRA and CRAFT: Behavioral approaches to treating substance-abusing individuals".
759:
In addition to CREB, it is hypothesized that stress mechanisms play a role in dependence. Koob and Kreek have hypothesized that during drug use,
75:
because of an adaptive state that has developed within the individual from psychoactive substance consumption that results in the experience of
1302:
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AJ Giannini, RQ Quinones, DM Martin. Role of beta-endorphin and cAMP in addiction and mania. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts. 15:149, 1998.
2435:
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Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse".
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309:
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serve to protect and promote public health by controlling the manufacturing, marketing, and distribution of products, like medications.
3458:, NSDUH Series H-48, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 14-4863. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014.
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925:
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Martell BA, Mitchell E, Poling J, Gonsai K, Kosten TR (July 2005). "Vaccine pharmacotherapy for the treatment of cocaine dependence".
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243:– dependence socially seen as being extremely mild compared to physical dependence (e.g., with enough willpower it could be overcome)
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3455:
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2705:"It's MORe exciting than mu: crosstalk between mu opioid receptors and glutamatergic transmission in the mesolimbic dopamine system"
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Capture rates enumerate the percentage of users who reported that they had become dependent to their respective drug at some point.
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3736:
806:
Increased expression of AMPA receptors in nucleus accumbens MSNs is a potential mechanism of aversion produced by drug withdrawal.
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of the drug of study. Other studies in this review showed dysregulation of other neuropeptides that affect the HPA axis, including
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113:
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Ball JC, van de Wijngaart GF (July 1994). "A Dutch addict's view of methadone maintenance--an American and a Dutch appraisal".
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199:– an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake)
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1105:, with an opioid that can be administered legally, reduces or eliminates drug cravings, and does not produce a high, such as
1034:. They are commonly known and used for a variety of addictions for the individual addicted and the family of the individual.
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71:, is a biopsychological situation whereby an individual's functionality is dependent on the necessitated re-consumption of a
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361:
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3470:"An Analysis of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Disparities & Access to Treatment Services in the Appalachian Region"
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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
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scale measuring belief in the four spiritual characteristics of AA identified by Ernest Kurtz); the scores were found to
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1937:"Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms"
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Motlagh, Farid Esmaeili; Ibrahim, Fatimah; Rashid, Rusdi Abd; Seghatoleslam, Tahereh; Habil, Hussain (5 April 2016).
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of a particular substance, route of administration, and time are critical factors for developing a drug dependence.
277:– a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress
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is defined as an adaptive state that develops in response to repeated drug administration, and is unmasked during
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The defining feature of addiction is compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. ...
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In the United States, drug policy is primarily controlled by the federal government. The Department of Justice's
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Giannini AJ (June 1996). "Alexithymia, affective disorders and substance abuse: possible cross-relationships".
2043:"The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines"
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713:
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O'Donohue, William; Ferguson, Kyle E. (2006). "Evidence-based practice in psychology and behavior analysis".
2629:"The role of the locus coeruleus and N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) and AMPA receptors in opiate withdrawal"
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Behavioral programming is considered critical in helping those with addictions achieve abstinence. From the
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in the treatment provider's responses on the "Addiction Belief Scale" (a scale measuring adherence to the
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261:– stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach
3695:"WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence – WHO Technical Report Series, No. 915 – Thirty-third Report"
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Noda Y, Nabeshima T (October 2004). "Opiate physical dependence and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors".
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3641:
2442:
2337:"Supporting mothers with opioid addiction is the best bet in fighting neonatal abstinence syndrome"
939:
705:
343:
239:
1695:
enforces controlled substances laws and regulations. The Department of Health and Human Services'
382:
of a drug varies from substance to substance, and from individual to individual. Dose, frequency,
5248:
5238:
5216:
4630:
4439:
4071:
3925:
2314:
1789:
151:
3665:
1205:
Behavioral psychologists can use the techniques of "aversion therapy", based on the findings of
5268:
5088:
5055:
4980:
4975:
4768:
4525:
4486:
4317:
4215:
4095:
4035:
4014:
3973:
3962:
3906:
3809:
3774:
2994:
1209:
1158:
999:
918:
899:
335:
273:
1310:
5330:
5258:
5243:
5155:
4753:
4220:
4004:
3943:
3008:
1935:
Blum K, Werner T, Carnes S, Carnes P, Bowirrat A, Giordano J, Oscar-Berman M, Gold M (2012).
1784:
1755:
1730:
1146:
3687:
2920:
Schaler JA (1997). "Addiction Beliefs of Treatment Providers: Factors Explaining Variance".
2409:
5253:
5110:
4798:
4775:
4717:
4692:
4476:
4249:
3989:
3721:
1126:
1023:
3456:
Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings
2042:
8:
5177:
5060:
5010:
5005:
4995:
4990:
4941:
4707:
4509:
4394:
4338:
4328:
4171:
4082:
3936:
3931:
3823:
3794:
3626:
3388:
1740:
1027:
1019:
955:
912:
859:
830:
818:
780:
772:
339:
285:– the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
223:
86:
2436:"Dangerousness of Drugs A Guide To The Risks And Harms Associated With Substance Misuse"
2306:
211:– the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
5360:
5323:
5298:
5288:
5083:
5020:
5000:
4702:
4623:
4323:
4265:
4054:
3702:
3330:
3290:
3268:
3196:
3145:
3118:
2902:
2767:
2731:
2704:
2600:
2575:
2551:
2527:"Biological substrates of reward and aversion: a nucleus accumbens activity hypothesis"
2526:
2502:
2477:
2391:
2276:
2251:
2223:
2206:
2014:
1989:
1961:
1936:
1909:
1884:
1861:
1859:
1779:
1659:
1392:
drugs were synthesized and discovered, opening up new avenues to substance dependency.
1122:
906:
871:
829:
has been implicated as the mechanism responsible for certain aspects of opioid-induced
792:
121:
106:
20:
2478:"Stress, dysregulation of drug reward pathways, and the transition to drug dependence"
2379:
833:. The temporal course of withdrawal correlates with LC firing, and administration of
5318:
5160:
4687:
4366:
3954:
3752:
3362:
3337:
3260:
3201:
3150:
2947:
2894:
2841:
2837:
2806:
2802:
2771:
2736:
2685:
2650:
2645:
2628:
2605:
2556:
2542:
2507:
2383:
2281:
2228:
2185:
2159:
2019:
2005:
1966:
1914:
1824:
1385:
877:
768:
725:
203:
72:
51:
3635:
3631:
3272:
2906:
1856:
4851:
4748:
4728:
4682:
4556:
4040:
3256:
3252:
3191:
3181:
3140:
3130:
3099:
3072:
3045:
2974:
2937:
2929:
2886:
2833:
2798:
2763:
2726:
2716:
2677:
2640:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2546:
2538:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2395:
2375:
2271:
2263:
2218:
2151:
2038:
2009:
2001:
1956:
1948:
1904:
1896:
1664:
1048:
383:
232:
1871:
966:
Addiction is a complex but treatable condition. It is characterized by compulsive
5342:
5226:
4951:
4361:
4183:
3814:
3788:
3646:
2865:
2681:
1952:
1760:
1750:
1680:
1370:
1052:
1044:
1031:
822:
800:
741:
733:
633:
575:
537:
328:
215:
173:
147:
117:
76:
24:
2890:
1379:
The 19th century saw opium usage in the US become much more common and popular.
5208:
5036:
4740:
4677:
4431:
4121:
3877:
3418:
2068:
2056:
1735:
975:
788:
753:
653:
594:
499:
281:
252:– stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them
177:
138:
81:
19:
This article is about drug and alcohol dependence. For alcohol dependence, see
3186:
3135:
2933:
2859:
Nils Bejerot: Swedish addiction epidemic in an international perspective, 1988
5375:
5221:
4646:
3778:
2951:
2721:
2163:
2112:
1217:
that psychologists may use as treatment for those with substance dependence.
1110:
1085:
1060:
1056:
945:
796:
729:
265:
256:
247:
189:
98:
94:
3615:
3611:
2155:
862:, evidence of tolerance or withdrawal, or without physiological dependence.
269:– an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it
4277:
3264:
3205:
3154:
2845:
2810:
2740:
2689:
2609:
2560:
2511:
2387:
2285:
2232:
2023:
1970:
1918:
1652:
1552:
Illicit Drug Dependence Demographics (Education, Employment, and Regional)
1362:
1149:
literature, several evidence based intervention programs have emerged: (1)
1075:, for withdrawal from barbiturates or benzodiazepines; using drugs such as
971:
967:
709:
480:
150:
and substance dependence were eliminated and replaced with the category of
3506:
2898:
2858:
2775:
2654:
2267:
228:
124:
4517:
4468:
1866:
1676:
1658:
Most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug-like
1358:
1206:
1171:
556:
3594:
5293:
5133:
4970:
4604:
4161:
4115:
3560:"Bill Text - AB-186 Controlled substances: overdose prevention program"
1346:
1248:
1213:
1184:
1089:
1068:
1064:
1039:
891:
784:
391:
56:
3426:
2942:
4662:
4650:
4645:
4498:
3422:
3103:
3076:
3049:
2978:
1106:
1102:
1081:
1072:
995:
745:
184:
168:
16:
Need for a drug, whose discontinuation results in withdrawal symptoms
3507:"Drug Enforcement in the United States: History, Policy, and Trends"
3038:
Journal of Behavior Analysis in Health, Sports, Fitness and Medicine
1900:
4571:
4412:
4407:
4306:
4288:
4135:
3994:
2182:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
2082:
1821:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
1384:
not become addicted to morphine if it was injected into them via a
1380:
1366:
1274:
1270:
1227:
1098:
1076:
932:
887:
883:
749:
643:
518:
423:
365:
Mental health as a risk factor for illicit drug dependency or abuse
4830:
2252:"Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction"
1349:
of drug addiction has occurred to some degree throughout recorded
102:
4804:
4537:
4238:
3332:
The chemical muse: drug use and the roots of Western civilization
3116:
3034:
2184:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–375.
1823:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–368.
1350:
1262:
1252:
1244:
683:
663:
461:
442:
3468:
Zhang Z, Infante A, Meit M, English N, Dunn M, Bowers K (2008).
4892:
4350:
3606:
1258:
1094:
863:
855:
673:
419:
3359:
Pharmakon: Plato, Drug Culture, and Identity in Ancient Athens
2307:"Are addictions classified as being a mental health disorder?"
2037:
728:(NAcc) is one brain structure that has been implicated in the
85:, a distinct concept from substance dependence, is defined as
4902:
4897:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4871:
4864:
4857:
4825:
4810:
1354:
1266:
1240:
826:
704:
Two factors have been identified as playing pivotal roles in
176:
disorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (including
143:
89:, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. An
3751:
3065:
International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy
1406:
dependence were in their twenties, unemployed, and men. The
1361:
practices, improvements in access to drugs, advancements in
4820:
4815:
3454:
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration,
3242:
2991:
2788:
1990:"Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions"
991:
2365:
1981:
4845:
3389:"History of Drug Use and Drug Users in the United States"
2747:
2083:"Diagnostic criteria for Substance Dependence: DSM IV–TR"
219:– symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use
1885:"Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction"
775:. In rat models, the separate use of CRF inhibitors and
740:(cAMP) immediately after a high and triggers changes in
79:
and that necessitates the re-consumption of the drug. A
3660:
3535:"Needle exchanges find new champions among Republicans"
3467:
2823:
349:
Infants also experience substance withdrawal, known as
1934:
815:
760:
2964:
2175:
2173:
1497:
Substance Use in Different Genders w/ Respect to Age
1183:
In addition, new research surrounding the effects of
130:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
5096:
Community reinforcement approach and family training
3584:
2753:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1277:
in the human body so that it is no longer effective.
795:, which enkephalin acts upon, is influential in the
752:
release into the NAcc by temporarily inhibiting the
2179:
1818:
1373:, are also factors contributing to drug addiction.
180:) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences
3329:
3089:
2412:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. January 2014.
2249:
2170:
3682:A social history of America's most popular drugs.
1807:
127:. Within the framework of the 4th edition of the
5373:
4289:Acute intoxication from hallucinogens (bad trip)
3305:
2250:Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT (January 2016).
3062:
2702:
227:– dependence that involves persistent physical–
3661:American Society of Addiction Medicine website
2524:
2469:
2198:
1882:
951:304.90 Other (or unknown) substance dependence
4631:
3737:
2667:
2243:
1299:The examples and perspective in this section
1269:but being used to create human anti-nicotine
303:
3417:
3236:
2852:
2567:
1795:Severity of Alcohol Dependence Questionnaire
4294:Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder
2913:
2441:. National Addiction Center. Archived from
1928:
1047:for alcohol detoxification, which prevents
767:(HPA axis) and other stress systems in the
699:
4638:
4624:
3744:
3730:
3287:"CelticPharma: TA-NIC Nicotine Dependence"
2204:
1317:, or create a new section, as appropriate.
854:"Substance dependence", as defined in the
791:that regulates pain. It also appears that
694:
310:
296:
3195:
3185:
3144:
3134:
2998:
2941:
2730:
2720:
2644:
2626:
2599:
2550:
2501:
2475:
2275:
2222:
2013:
1960:
1908:
1775:Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test
1333:Learn how and when to remove this message
1136:
1051:and complications; using a slow taper of
3382:
3380:
3378:
3357:Rinella, Michael A. (23 November 2011).
3170:"Acupuncture therapy for drug addiction"
3119:"Acupuncture therapy for drug addiction"
2876:
2782:
2207:"Cellular basis of memory for addiction"
1165:
360:
114:International Classification of Diseases
4424:Kindling (sedative–hypnotic withdrawal)
3356:
3327:
2919:
2573:
1883:Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (October 2011).
1709:Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984
1190:
369:
231:withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and
5374:
4567:Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy
3232:. New York, NY: Worth. pp. 1–589.
3167:
1876:
1414:Substance Use in Racial/Ethnic Groups
1408:National Survey on Drug Use and Health
1395:
1133:or the free-will model of addiction).
809:
4619:
4091:Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions
3725:
3504:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3375:
3227:
3223:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3215:
2817:
2347:from the original on 11 November 2017
2317:from the original on 11 November 2021
1987:
1693:Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)
1220:
1199:
849:
722:cAMP response element binding protein
116:classifies substance dependence as a
3399:from the original on 7 December 2013
3168:Miller, Michael (24 February 2023).
1285:
1157:; (3) cue exposure therapy; and (4)
1022:, with prominent examples including
736:. In the NAcc, CREB is activated by
342:), emotional-motivational symptoms (
5309:Discrimination against drug addicts
3688:NIDA for Teens: Brain and Addiction
3686:National Institute on Drug Abuse: "
799:and can regulate the expression of
765:hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
13:
5171:Tobacco cessation clinics in India
4598:Anabolic-androgenic steroids abuse
4227:Synthetic cannabinoid use disorder
3437:
3212:
2768:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1994.tb00974.x
2482:The American Journal of Psychiatry
2416:from the original on 17 April 2014
2211:Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
1697:Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
1179:efficacy of alternative therapies.
948:(or phencyclidine-like) dependence
14:
5398:
4147:Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder
3580:
3514:Federation of American Scientists
3386:
2762:(7): 799–802, discussion 803–14.
2294:of severe substance-use disorder.
2123:from the original on 13 June 2015
2093:from the original on 12 June 2015
1018:One of many recovery methods are
160:Addiction and dependence glossary
5356:
5355:
5234:Low-threshold treatment programs
5101:Motivational enhancement therapy
4200:Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome
2838:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.05.017
2803:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.08.017
2703:Chartoff EH, Connery HS (2014).
2670:European Journal of Pharmacology
2543:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.06.075
2476:Koob G, Kreek MJ (August 2007).
2006:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010
1686:
1640:National Opinion Research Center
1290:
1155:community reinforcement approach
866:substance dependencies include:
614:
5314:Dopamine dysregulation syndrome
5304:Category:Vaccines against drugs
4157:Caffeine-induced sleep disorder
4049:Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
3552:
3527:
3498:
3461:
3411:
3350:
3321:
3279:
3161:
3110:
3083:
3056:
3028:
2985:
2958:
2922:Addiction Research & Theory
2870:
2696:
2661:
2620:
2525:Carlezon WA, Thomas MJ (2009).
2518:
2460:
2428:
2402:
2359:
2329:
2299:
2256:New England Journal of Medicine
1705:Controlled Substances Act (CSA)
1400:
1170:Alternative therapies, such as
356:
4551:Sudden sniffing death syndrome
4206:Intravenous marijuana syndrome
3800:Post-acute-withdrawal syndrome
3257:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.032
2592:10.1016/j.brainres.2015.12.039
2494:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.05030503
2135:
2105:
2075:
2030:
1679:, who are often involved with
1646:
1059:, sometimes including another
1036:Substance-abuse rehabilitation
1005:
738:cyclic adenosine monophosphate
714:corticotropin-releasing factor
1:
4937:Adverse childhood experiences
4378:Opioid-induced endocrinopathy
2627:Rasmussen K (December 1995).
2380:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4
1941:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
1801:
961:
744:that affect proteins such as
322:
5166:Nicotine replacement therapy
5151:Intensive outpatient program
5139:Residential treatment center
5079:Cognitive behavioral therapy
4591:Anabolic-androgenic steroids
4118:(alcohol use disorder (AUD))
4060:Positional alcohol nystagmus
4025:Alcohol-related brain damage
3361:. Rowman & Littlefield.
2682:10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.07.017
2646:10.1016/0893-133X(95)00082-O
2205:Nestler EJ (December 2013).
1953:10.1080/02791072.2012.662112
1889:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
1711:, and Anti-Drug Abuse Acts.
1013:cognitive-behavioral therapy
844:
748:; dynorphin peptides reduce
351:neonatal abstinence syndrome
7:
5382:Substance-related disorders
4764:Internet addiction disorder
4455:Benzodiazepine use disorder
4384:Opioid-induced constipation
4372:Opioid-induced hyperalgesia
4066:Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome
4030:Alcohol withdrawal syndrome
3819:Substance-related disorders
3784:Substance-induced psychosis
3756:substance-related disorders
3328:Hillman DC (22 July 2008).
2891:10.2466/pr0.1996.78.3c.1389
2826:Drug and Alcohol Dependence
2791:Drug and Alcohol Dependence
2150:(3): 36–37. 11 March 2014.
1723:
1313:, discuss the issue on the
1234:
779:antagonists both decreased
23:. For substance abuse, see
10:
5403:
5199:List of twelve-step groups
4152:Caffeine-induced psychosis
4083:Respiratory tract diseases
4068:(WKS, Korsakoff psychosis)
3865:Combined drug intoxication
3564:leginfo.legislature.ca.gov
3505:Sacco L (2 October 2014).
3092:The Behavior Analyst Today
2967:The Behavior Analyst Today
2574:Nestler EJ (August 2016).
2059:. bluebook.doc. p. 65
1988:Olsen CM (December 2011).
1281:
1265:in development similar to
1151:behavioral marital therapy
1115:opioid replacement therapy
326:
18:
5351:
5281:
5264:Supervised injection site
5207:
5194:Addiction recovery groups
5186:
5146:Heroin-assisted treatment
5124:
5106:Motivational interviewing
5069:
5048:
5035:
4960:
4929:
4920:
4789:
4716:
4670:
4661:
4582:
4536:
4497:
4461:Benzodiazepine dependence
4445:Benzodiazepine withdrawal
4406:
4349:
4305:
4276:
4255:Prenatal cocaine exposure
4237:
4182:
4134:
4108:
4081:
4003:
3972:
3953:
3918:Gastrointestinal diseases
3916:
3892:
3885:
3876:
3842:
3762:
3588:
3187:10.1186/s13020-016-0088-7
3136:10.1186/s13020-016-0088-7
2934:10.3109/16066359709002970
2709:Frontiers in Pharmacology
2052:World Health Organization
1746:Risk factors in pregnancy
1143:applied behavior analysis
1020:12-step recovery programs
896:benzodiazepine dependence
718:gene transcription factor
291:
164:
159:
50:
42:
37:
4947:Psychological dependence
4781:Digital media addictions
4020:Alcoholic polyneuropathy
3984:Alcohol-related dementia
3902:Alcoholic cardiomyopathy
3855:Polysubstance dependence
3828:Psychological dependence
3666:Health-EU Portal – Drugs
3314:Drug Addiction Treatment
2722:10.3389/fphar.2014.00116
1867:MedlinePlus Encyclopedia
940:Polysubstance dependence
860:physiological dependence
858:, can be diagnosed with
706:psychological dependence
700:Psychological dependence
411:Psychological dependence
344:psychological dependence
240:psychological dependence
93:is a drug which is both
5249:Needle exchange program
5239:Managed alcohol program
5217:Category:Harm reduction
4440:Benzodiazepine overdose
4072:Wernicke encephalopathy
3926:Alcoholic liver disease
3894:Cardiovascular diseases
2633:Neuropsychopharmacology
2156:10.1108/rr-10-2013-0256
1790:Paddington Alcohol Test
1273:in a person to destroy
1000:mental health disorders
787:which is an endogenous
695:Biomolecular mechanisms
152:substance use disorders
5269:Tobacco harm reduction
5089:Contingency management
5056:Alcohol detoxification
4769:Internet sex addiction
4526:Amphetamine dependence
4487:Barbiturate dependence
4318:Green Tobacco Sickness
4216:Amotivational syndrome
4096:Alcoholic lung disease
4036:Alcoholic hallucinosis
4015:Alcoholic hallucinosis
3963:Alcoholic ketoacidosis
3907:Alcohol flush reaction
3775:Substance intoxication
3701:. 2003. Archived from
3676:Trips Beyond Addiction
3016:Cite journal requires
2410:"Marijuana Drug Facts"
2113:"Substance Dependence"
1872:Substance use disorder
1720:injection facilities.
1422:Dependence/Abuse Rate
1210:classical conditioning
1181:
1159:contingency management
1137:Behavioral programming
919:Amphetamine dependence
900:barbiturate dependence
894:dependence (including
366:
336:negative reinforcement
274:substance use disorder
73:psychoactive substance
5331:Motivational salience
5259:Stimulant maintenance
5244:Moderation Management
5156:Methadone maintenance
4221:Cannabis use disorder
3944:Auto-brewery syndrome
2879:Psychological Reports
2313:. 16 September 2020.
2268:10.1056/NEJMra1511480
1785:CRAFFT Screening Test
1756:Stimulant maintenance
1731:Addictive personality
1176:
1166:Alternative therapies
1147:behavioral psychology
921:(or amphetamine-like)
364:
5387:Substance dependence
5254:Responsible drug use
5111:Motivational therapy
4776:Video game addiction
4477:Barbiturate overdose
4250:Cocaine intoxication
3990:Alcohol intoxication
3832:Substance dependence
3671:people, drug addicts
2864:22 June 2007 at the
1717:safe injection sites
1311:improve this section
1301:may not represent a
1191:Treatment and issues
1024:Alcoholics Anonymous
814:Upregulation of the
414:Physical dependence
380:dependence liability
376:dependence potential
370:Dependence potential
146:(released in 2013),
65:Substance dependence
38:Substance dependence
5178:Twelve-step program
5061:Drug detoxification
4942:Physical dependence
4510:Stimulant psychosis
4395:Opioid use disorder
4339:Nicotine dependence
4329:Nicotine withdrawal
4172:Caffeine dependence
3932:Alcoholic hepatitis
3824:Physical dependence
3795:Neonatal withdrawal
3393:www.druglibrary.org
3230:Abnormal Psychology
2885:(3 Pt 2): 1389–90.
2537:(Suppl 1): 122–32.
1741:Physical dependence
1609:small metropolitan
1597:no-degree, college
1589:large metropolitan
1553:
1498:
1415:
1396:Society and culture
1145:literature and the
1093:illicitly-obtained
1028:Narcotics Anonymous
956:Nicotine dependence
913:Cannabis dependence
831:physical dependence
819:signal transduction
810:Physical dependence
781:self-administration
773:cerebrospinal fluid
340:physical dependence
224:physical dependence
142:Disorders." In the
5336:Incentive salience
5324:Inhibitory control
5299:Category:Addiction
5289:Addiction medicine
5084:Relapse prevention
5021:Tanning dependence
4324:Nicotine poisoning
4266:Cocaine dependence
4195:Cannabis arteritis
4055:Korsakoff syndrome
3955:Endocrine diseases
3293:on 6 December 2009
1780:CAGE questionnaire
1563:Employment status
1551:
1496:
1413:
1221:Medicinal approach
1200:Cognitive approach
907:Cocaine dependence
872:Alcohol dependence
850:DSM classification
793:ÎĽ-opioid receptors
367:
204:drug sensitization
107:gene transcription
21:Alcohol dependence
5369:
5368:
5319:Cognitive control
5277:
5276:
5161:Smoking cessation
5116:Physical exercise
5031:
5030:
5017:Non-drug stimuli
4916:
4915:
4760:Internet-related
4613:
4612:
4367:Opioid withdrawal
4130:
4129:
4104:
4103:
3705:on 9 October 2012
3656:
3655:
3431:Our World in Data
3425:(December 2019).
3368:978-0-7391-4687-3
3343:978-0-312-35249-3
3228:Comer RJ (2013).
2531:Neuropharmacology
2374:(9566): 1047–53.
2144:Reference Reviews
2039:Sartorius, Norman
1994:Neuropharmacology
1651:Depending on the
1636:
1635:
1629:non-metropolitan
1617:college graduate
1545:
1544:
1488:
1487:
1478:American Indian/
1469:Pacific Islander
1467:Native Hawaiian/
1386:hypodermic needle
1343:
1342:
1335:
1261:is a proprietary
1251:with inactivated
878:Opioid dependence
769:extended amygdala
726:nucleus accumbens
692:
691:
612:
611:
320:
319:
209:reverse tolerance
62:
61:
32:Medical condition
5394:
5359:
5358:
5046:
5045:
4927:
4926:
4852:G9a-like protein
4668:
4667:
4640:
4633:
4626:
4617:
4616:
4557:Toluene toxicity
4041:Delirium tremens
3937:Zieve's syndrome
3890:
3889:
3883:
3882:
3746:
3739:
3732:
3723:
3722:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3586:
3585:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3570:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3545:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3520:
3511:
3502:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3485:
3479:. Archived from
3474:
3465:
3459:
3452:
3435:
3434:
3415:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3384:
3373:
3372:
3354:
3348:
3347:
3335:
3325:
3319:
3318:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3289:. Archived from
3283:
3277:
3276:
3245:Biol. Psychiatry
3240:
3234:
3233:
3225:
3210:
3209:
3199:
3189:
3174:Chinese Medicine
3165:
3159:
3158:
3148:
3138:
3123:Chinese Medicine
3114:
3108:
3107:
3104:10.1037/h0100044
3087:
3081:
3080:
3077:10.1037/h0100737
3060:
3054:
3053:
3050:10.1037/h0100376
3032:
3026:
3025:
3019:
3014:
3012:
3004:
3002:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2979:10.1037/h0100155
2962:
2956:
2955:
2945:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2874:
2868:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2821:
2815:
2814:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2734:
2724:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2648:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2603:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2554:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2505:
2473:
2467:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2453:
2448:on 11 April 2014
2447:
2440:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2421:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2352:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2279:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2226:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2177:
2168:
2167:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2128:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2066:
2064:
2047:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2017:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1964:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1912:
1880:
1874:
1863:
1854:
1853:
1816:
1665:criminal offence
1557:Education level
1554:
1550:
1499:
1495:
1416:
1412:
1338:
1331:
1327:
1324:
1318:
1294:
1293:
1286:
1049:delirium tremens
828:
817:
762:
716:" (CRF) and the
622:
621:
399:
398:
384:pharmacokinetics
312:
305:
298:
233:delirium tremens
157:
156:
67:, also known as
35:
34:
5402:
5401:
5397:
5396:
5395:
5393:
5392:
5391:
5372:
5371:
5370:
5365:
5347:
5343:Sober companion
5273:
5227:Reagent testing
5203:
5182:
5126:
5120:
5071:
5065:
5040:
5038:
5027:
4956:
4912:
4799:Transcriptional
4791:
4785:
4712:
4698:Methylphenidate
4693:Methamphetamine
4657:
4644:
4614:
4609:
4578:
4539:
4532:
4493:
4411:
4402:
4362:Opioid overdose
4345:
4301:
4272:
4233:
4178:
4126:
4100:
4077:
4006:
3999:
3976:system diseases
3975:
3968:
3949:
3912:
3872:
3844:
3838:
3815:Substance abuse
3758:
3750:
3708:
3706:
3693:
3657:
3652:
3651:
3597:
3583:
3578:
3568:
3566:
3558:
3557:
3553:
3543:
3541:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3518:
3516:
3509:
3503:
3499:
3489:
3487:
3486:on 17 June 2018
3483:
3472:
3466:
3462:
3453:
3438:
3419:Ritchie, Hannah
3416:
3412:
3402:
3400:
3387:Casey, Elaine.
3385:
3376:
3369:
3355:
3351:
3344:
3326:
3322:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3296:
3294:
3285:
3284:
3280:
3241:
3237:
3226:
3213:
3166:
3162:
3115:
3111:
3088:
3084:
3061:
3057:
3033:
3029:
3017:
3015:
3006:
3005:
3000:10.1.1.372.4223
2990:
2986:
2963:
2959:
2918:
2914:
2875:
2871:
2866:Wayback Machine
2857:
2853:
2822:
2818:
2787:
2783:
2752:
2748:
2701:
2697:
2666:
2662:
2625:
2621:
2572:
2568:
2523:
2519:
2474:
2470:
2465:
2461:
2451:
2449:
2445:
2438:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2419:
2417:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2364:
2360:
2350:
2348:
2343:. 10 May 2017.
2335:
2334:
2330:
2320:
2318:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2292:
2248:
2244:
2203:
2199:
2192:
2178:
2171:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2126:
2124:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2096:
2094:
2081:
2080:
2076:
2062:
2060:
2045:
2035:
2031:
1986:
1982:
1933:
1929:
1901:10.1038/nrn3111
1881:
1877:
1864:
1857:
1849:
1848:
1839:
1836:
1831:
1817:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1765:
1761:Substance abuse
1751:Self medication
1726:
1689:
1681:organized crime
1670:
1649:
1480:Alaskan Native
1419:Race/Ethnicity
1403:
1398:
1371:methamphetamine
1339:
1328:
1322:
1319:
1308:
1295:
1291:
1284:
1237:
1223:
1202:
1193:
1168:
1139:
1053:benzodiazepines
1045:benzodiazepines
1032:Pills Anonymous
1008:
964:
852:
847:
838:
823:locus coeruleus
821:pathway in the
812:
801:stress hormones
742:gene expression
734:drug dependence
702:
697:
617:
538:Benzodiazepines
372:
359:
331:
329:Drug withdrawal
325:
316:
216:drug withdrawal
174:biopsychosocial
148:substance abuse
69:drug dependence
46:Drug dependence
33:
28:
25:Substance abuse
17:
12:
11:
5:
5400:
5390:
5389:
5384:
5367:
5366:
5364:
5363:
5352:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5345:
5340:
5339:
5338:
5328:
5327:
5326:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5285:
5283:
5279:
5278:
5275:
5274:
5272:
5271:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5231:
5230:
5229:
5219:
5213:
5211:
5209:Harm reduction
5205:
5204:
5202:
5201:
5196:
5190:
5188:
5187:Support groups
5184:
5183:
5181:
5180:
5175:
5174:
5173:
5168:
5158:
5153:
5148:
5143:
5142:
5141:
5130:
5128:
5122:
5121:
5119:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5092:
5091:
5086:
5075:
5073:
5067:
5066:
5064:
5063:
5058:
5052:
5050:
5049:Detoxification
5043:
5033:
5032:
5029:
5028:
5026:
5025:
5024:
5023:
5015:
5014:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4986:Benzodiazepine
4983:
4978:
4973:
4964:
4962:
4958:
4957:
4955:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4933:
4931:
4924:
4918:
4917:
4914:
4913:
4911:
4910:
4909:
4908:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4868:
4861:
4854:
4849:
4836:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4795:
4793:
4787:
4786:
4784:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4772:
4771:
4766:
4758:
4757:
4756:
4751:
4743:
4741:Palatable food
4738:
4737:
4736:
4731:
4722:
4720:
4714:
4713:
4711:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4674:
4672:
4665:
4659:
4658:
4643:
4642:
4635:
4628:
4620:
4611:
4610:
4608:
4607:
4602:
4601:
4600:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4575:
4574:
4572:Inhalant abuse
4569:
4561:
4560:
4559:
4554:
4544:
4542:
4534:
4533:
4531:
4530:
4529:
4528:
4514:
4513:
4512:
4503:
4501:
4495:
4494:
4492:
4491:
4490:
4489:
4481:
4480:
4479:
4465:
4464:
4463:
4458:
4449:
4448:
4447:
4442:
4432:benzodiazepine
4428:
4427:
4426:
4417:
4415:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4400:
4399:
4398:
4389:
4388:
4387:
4381:
4375:
4369:
4364:
4355:
4353:
4347:
4346:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4341:
4333:
4332:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4311:
4309:
4303:
4302:
4300:
4299:
4298:
4297:
4291:
4282:
4280:
4274:
4273:
4271:
4270:
4269:
4268:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4252:
4243:
4241:
4235:
4234:
4232:
4231:
4230:
4229:
4224:
4218:
4210:
4209:
4208:
4203:
4197:
4188:
4186:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4176:
4175:
4174:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4140:
4138:
4132:
4131:
4128:
4127:
4125:
4124:
4122:Binge drinking
4119:
4112:
4110:
4106:
4105:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4098:
4093:
4087:
4085:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4075:
4069:
4063:
4057:
4052:
4046:
4045:
4044:
4038:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4011:
4009:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3980:
3978:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3966:
3959:
3957:
3951:
3950:
3948:
3947:
3941:
3940:
3939:
3934:
3922:
3920:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3910:
3904:
3898:
3896:
3887:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3869:
3868:
3859:
3858:
3857:
3848:
3846:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3821:
3807:
3806:
3805:
3804:
3803:
3797:
3786:
3781:
3766:
3764:
3760:
3759:
3749:
3748:
3741:
3734:
3726:
3720:
3719:
3691:
3684:
3679:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3654:
3653:
3650:
3649:
3638:
3619:
3598:
3593:
3592:
3590:
3589:Classification
3582:
3581:External links
3579:
3577:
3576:
3551:
3526:
3497:
3460:
3436:
3410:
3374:
3367:
3349:
3342:
3320:
3317:. 8 June 2020.
3304:
3278:
3235:
3211:
3160:
3109:
3098:(4): 391–403.
3082:
3055:
3027:
3018:|journal=
2984:
2973:(3): 335–350.
2957:
2928:(4): 367–384.
2912:
2869:
2851:
2816:
2781:
2746:
2695:
2676:(1–3): 121–8.
2660:
2639:(4): 295–300.
2619:
2580:Brain Research
2566:
2517:
2488:(8): 1149–59.
2468:
2459:
2427:
2401:
2358:
2328:
2298:
2262:(4): 363–371.
2242:
2217:(4): 431–443.
2197:
2190:
2169:
2134:
2104:
2074:
2069:Microsoft Bing
2057:Microsoft Word
2029:
2000:(7): 1109–22.
1980:
1927:
1895:(11): 623–37.
1875:
1855:
1829:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1771:
1768:Questionnaires
1764:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1736:Dual diagnosis
1733:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1688:
1685:
1648:
1645:
1634:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1558:
1543:
1542:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1521:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1510:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1486:
1485:
1482:
1475:
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1471:
1464:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1455:
1452:
1448:
1447:
1444:
1440:
1439:
1436:
1432:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1423:
1420:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1341:
1340:
1305:of the subject
1303:worldwide view
1298:
1296:
1289:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1278:
1256:
1236:
1233:
1222:
1219:
1201:
1198:
1192:
1189:
1167:
1164:
1138:
1135:
1063:agent such as
1055:or a taper of
1007:
1004:
976:harm reduction
963:
960:
959:
958:
952:
949:
942:
936:
929:
922:
915:
909:
903:
880:
874:
851:
848:
846:
843:
836:
811:
808:
789:opioid peptide
763:activates the
754:reward pathway
724:" (CREB). The
701:
698:
696:
693:
690:
689:
686:
680:
679:
676:
670:
669:
666:
660:
659:
656:
650:
649:
646:
640:
639:
636:
630:
629:
626:
616:
613:
610:
609:
606:
603:
600:
597:
591:
590:
587:
584:
581:
578:
572:
571:
568:
565:
562:
559:
553:
552:
549:
546:
543:
540:
534:
533:
530:
527:
524:
521:
515:
514:
511:
508:
505:
502:
496:
495:
492:
489:
486:
483:
477:
476:
473:
470:
467:
464:
458:
457:
454:
451:
448:
445:
439:
438:
435:
432:
429:
426:
416:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
389:An article in
371:
368:
358:
355:
327:Main article:
324:
321:
318:
317:
315:
314:
307:
300:
292:
289:
288:
287:
286:
278:
270:
262:
253:
244:
236:
220:
212:
200:
192:
190:reward systems
185:addictive drug
181:
162:
161:
91:addictive drug
82:drug addiction
60:
59:
54:
48:
47:
44:
40:
39:
31:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5399:
5388:
5385:
5383:
5380:
5379:
5377:
5362:
5354:
5353:
5350:
5344:
5341:
5337:
5334:
5333:
5332:
5329:
5325:
5322:
5321:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5286:
5284:
5280:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5228:
5225:
5224:
5223:
5222:Drug checking
5220:
5218:
5215:
5214:
5212:
5210:
5206:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5191:
5189:
5185:
5179:
5176:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5163:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5140:
5137:
5136:
5135:
5132:
5131:
5129:
5123:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5081:
5080:
5077:
5076:
5074:
5068:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5053:
5051:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5034:
5022:
5019:
5018:
5016:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4968:
4966:
4965:
4963:
4959:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4934:
4932:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4919:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4873:
4869:
4867:
4866:
4862:
4860:
4859:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4847:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4838:
4837:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4806:
4802:
4801:
4800:
4797:
4796:
4794:
4788:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4761:
4759:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4746:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4726:
4724:
4723:
4721:
4719:
4715:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4673:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4647:Reinforcement
4641:
4636:
4634:
4629:
4627:
4622:
4621:
4618:
4606:
4603:
4599:
4596:
4595:
4593:
4592:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4581:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4564:
4562:
4558:
4555:
4552:
4549:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4543:
4541:
4535:
4527:
4524:
4523:
4521:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4508:
4507:
4505:
4504:
4502:
4500:
4496:
4488:
4485:
4484:
4482:
4478:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4459:
4456:
4453:
4452:
4450:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4437:
4435:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4409:
4405:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4385:
4382:
4379:
4376:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4359:
4357:
4356:
4354:
4352:
4348:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4334:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4319:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4310:
4308:
4304:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4286:
4284:
4283:
4281:
4279:
4275:
4267:
4264:
4263:
4261:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4247:
4245:
4244:
4242:
4240:
4236:
4228:
4225:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4211:
4207:
4204:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4189:
4187:
4185:
4181:
4173:
4170:
4169:
4167:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4137:
4133:
4123:
4120:
4117:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4107:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4088:
4086:
4084:
4080:
4073:
4070:
4067:
4064:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4050:
4047:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4012:
4010:
4008:
4002:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3977:
3971:
3964:
3961:
3960:
3958:
3956:
3952:
3945:
3942:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3921:
3919:
3915:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3899:
3897:
3895:
3891:
3888:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3875:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3860:
3856:
3853:
3852:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3845:substance use
3841:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3816:
3813:
3812:
3811:
3808:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3779:Drug overdose
3776:
3773:
3772:
3771:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3754:
3747:
3742:
3740:
3735:
3733:
3728:
3727:
3724:
3718:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3689:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3648:
3644:
3643:
3639:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3599:
3596:
3591:
3587:
3565:
3561:
3555:
3540:
3536:
3530:
3515:
3508:
3501:
3482:
3478:
3471:
3464:
3457:
3451:
3449:
3447:
3445:
3443:
3441:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3414:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3383:
3381:
3379:
3370:
3364:
3360:
3353:
3345:
3339:
3336:. Macmillan.
3334:
3333:
3324:
3316:
3315:
3308:
3292:
3288:
3282:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3251:(2): 158–64.
3250:
3246:
3239:
3231:
3224:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3207:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3164:
3156:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3113:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3086:
3078:
3074:
3071:(2): 90–100.
3070:
3066:
3059:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3031:
3023:
3010:
3001:
2996:
2988:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2961:
2953:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2873:
2867:
2863:
2860:
2855:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2820:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2785:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2742:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2699:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2623:
2616:
2611:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2513:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2472:
2463:
2444:
2437:
2431:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2302:
2295:
2287:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2246:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2193:
2191:9780071481274
2187:
2183:
2176:
2174:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2138:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2108:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2078:
2070:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2044:
2040:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1931:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1879:
1873:
1869:
1868:
1862:
1860:
1852:
1846:
1842:
1832:
1830:9780071481274
1826:
1822:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1806:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1728:
1721:
1718:
1712:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1687:United States
1684:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1654:
1644:
1641:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1549:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1513:12 and older
1512:
1511:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1483:
1481:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1411:
1409:
1393:
1389:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1337:
1334:
1326:
1323:February 2014
1316:
1312:
1306:
1304:
1297:
1288:
1287:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1243:is an active
1242:
1239:
1238:
1232:
1229:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1208:
1197:
1188:
1186:
1180:
1175:
1173:
1163:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1134:
1132:
1131:disease model
1128:
1124:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1111:buprenorphine
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1086:alpha-agonist
1083:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1061:antiepileptic
1058:
1057:phenobarbital
1054:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1014:
1003:
1001:
997:
993:
987:
983:
979:
977:
973:
969:
957:
953:
950:
947:
946:Phencyclidine
943:
941:
937:
934:
930:
927:
923:
920:
916:
914:
910:
908:
904:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
879:
875:
873:
869:
868:
867:
865:
861:
857:
842:
839:
832:
824:
820:
807:
804:
802:
798:
797:reward system
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
757:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
732:component of
731:
730:psychological
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
687:
685:
682:
681:
677:
675:
672:
671:
667:
665:
662:
661:
657:
655:
652:
651:
647:
645:
642:
641:
637:
635:
632:
631:
627:
624:
623:
620:
615:Capture rates
607:
604:
601:
598:
596:
593:
592:
588:
585:
582:
579:
577:
574:
573:
569:
566:
563:
560:
558:
555:
554:
550:
547:
544:
541:
539:
536:
535:
531:
528:
525:
522:
520:
517:
516:
512:
509:
506:
503:
501:
498:
497:
493:
490:
487:
484:
482:
479:
478:
474:
471:
468:
465:
463:
460:
459:
455:
452:
449:
446:
444:
441:
440:
436:
433:
430:
427:
425:
421:
418:
417:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
400:
397:
394:
393:
387:
385:
381:
377:
363:
354:
352:
347:
345:
341:
337:
330:
313:
308:
306:
301:
299:
294:
293:
290:
284:
283:
279:
276:
275:
271:
268:
267:
266:sensitization
263:
260:
258:
254:
251:
249:
245:
242:
241:
237:
234:
230:
226:
225:
221:
218:
217:
213:
210:
206:
205:
201:
198:
197:
193:
191:
187:
186:
182:
179:
175:
171:
170:
166:
165:
163:
158:
155:
153:
149:
145:
140:
136:
132:
131:
126:
123:
119:
115:
110:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
83:
78:
74:
70:
66:
58:
55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
36:
30:
26:
22:
4921:
4870:
4863:
4856:
4844:
4803:
4745:Sex-related
4654:
4589:
4516:
4467:
4430:
4278:Hallucinogen
4005:Neurological
3831:
3753:Psychoactive
3707:. Retrieved
3703:the original
3699:apps.who.int
3698:
3640:
3621:
3601:
3567:. Retrieved
3563:
3554:
3542:. Retrieved
3539:usatoday.com
3538:
3529:
3517:. Retrieved
3513:
3500:
3488:. Retrieved
3481:the original
3476:
3463:
3430:
3413:
3401:. Retrieved
3392:
3358:
3352:
3331:
3323:
3313:
3307:
3295:. Retrieved
3291:the original
3281:
3248:
3244:
3238:
3229:
3177:
3173:
3163:
3126:
3122:
3112:
3095:
3091:
3085:
3068:
3064:
3058:
3044:(1): 80–90.
3041:
3037:
3030:
3009:cite journal
2987:
2970:
2966:
2960:
2925:
2921:
2915:
2882:
2878:
2872:
2854:
2832:(1): 75–83.
2829:
2825:
2819:
2797:(3): 251–8.
2794:
2790:
2784:
2759:
2755:
2749:
2712:
2708:
2698:
2673:
2669:
2663:
2636:
2632:
2622:
2613:
2583:
2579:
2569:
2534:
2530:
2520:
2485:
2481:
2471:
2462:
2450:. Retrieved
2443:the original
2430:
2418:. Retrieved
2404:
2371:
2367:
2361:
2349:. Retrieved
2341:sheknows.com
2340:
2331:
2319:. Retrieved
2310:
2301:
2289:
2259:
2255:
2245:
2236:
2214:
2210:
2200:
2181:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2125:. Retrieved
2116:
2107:
2095:. Retrieved
2086:
2077:
2067:– via
2061:. Retrieved
2050:www.who.int
2049:
2032:
1997:
1993:
1983:
1974:
1947:(1): 38–55.
1944:
1940:
1930:
1922:
1892:
1888:
1878:
1865:
1844:
1840:
1834:
1820:
1767:
1766:
1713:
1701:
1690:
1677:drug dealers
1674:
1669:
1657:
1653:jurisdiction
1650:
1637:
1583:un-employed
1577:high school
1546:
1535:18 or older
1492:
1489:
1479:
1468:
1404:
1401:Demographics
1390:
1378:
1375:
1363:biochemistry
1359:agricultural
1344:
1329:
1320:
1300:
1224:
1203:
1194:
1182:
1177:
1169:
1140:
1119:
1017:
1009:
988:
984:
980:
968:drug craving
965:
926:Hallucinogen
853:
813:
805:
777:CRF receptor
758:
710:neuropeptide
703:
618:
481:Barbiturates
390:
388:
379:
375:
373:
357:Risk factors
348:
332:
280:
272:
264:
255:
246:
238:
222:
214:
208:
202:
195:
194:
183:
167:
134:
128:
111:
90:
80:
68:
64:
63:
29:
5070:Behavioral
4981:Barbiturate
4976:Amphetamine
4754:Pornography
4749:Intercourse
4683:Amphetamine
4649:disorders:
4518:amphetamine
4469:barbiturate
3709:26 February
3477:www.arc.gov
2321:21 December
1647:Legislation
1459:Mixed race
1357:"). Modern
1172:acupuncture
1125:41% of the
1006:Residential
628:% of users
557:Amphetamine
248:reinforcing
122:behavioural
99:reinforcing
43:Other names
5376:Categories
5294:Allen Carr
5134:Drug rehab
5125:Treatment
5041:management
5037:Treatment
4971:Alcoholism
4952:Withdrawal
4922:Dependence
4840:Epigenetic
4792:mechanisms
4725:Financial
4718:Behavioral
4655:dependence
4499:Stimulants
4162:Caffeinism
4116:Alcoholism
3789:Withdrawal
3569:2 November
3519:1 November
3490:1 November
3427:"Drug Use"
3423:Roser, Max
3297:27 October
2943:1903/25227
1845:withdrawal
1841:Dependence
1802:References
1660:substances
1623:full-time
1603:part-time
1347:phenomenon
1271:antibodies
1249:norcocaine
1214:disulfiram
1185:psilocybin
1090:loperamide
1069:pregabalin
1065:gabapentin
1040:counseling
962:Management
935:dependence
928:dependence
892:anxiolytic
785:enkephalin
392:The Lancet
323:Withdrawal
196:dependence
87:compulsive
77:withdrawal
57:Psychiatry
5072:therapies
4961:Disorders
4663:Addiction
4651:addiction
4605:Chocolate
4007:disorders
3403:3 January
2995:CiteSeerX
2952:1476-7392
2756:Addiction
2164:0950-4125
2117:BehaveNet
2087:BehaveNet
1451:Hispanic
1315:talk page
1107:methadone
1103:oxycodone
1082:clonidine
1073:valproate
996:hepatitis
845:Diagnosis
746:dynorphin
282:tolerance
257:rewarding
169:addiction
95:rewarding
52:Specialty
5361:Category
5282:See also
5127:programs
5006:Nicotine
4996:Cannabis
4991:Caffeine
4930:Concepts
4790:Cellular
4734:Shopping
4729:Gambling
4703:Nicotine
4538:Volatile
4413:hypnotic
4408:Sedative
4307:Nicotine
4184:Cannabis
4136:Caffeine
3995:Hangover
3843:Combined
3397:Archived
3273:22415520
3265:16038686
3206:27053944
3155:27053944
2907:27080462
2862:Archived
2846:16782286
2811:15734225
2741:24904419
2690:15464026
2610:26740398
2586:: 71–4.
2561:18675281
2512:17671276
2420:18 April
2414:Archived
2388:17382831
2351:28 April
2345:Archived
2315:Archived
2286:26816013
2233:24459410
2121:Archived
2091:Archived
2024:21459101
1971:22641964
1919:21989194
1724:See also
1381:Morphine
1367:fentanyl
1309:You may
1275:nicotine
1235:Vaccines
1228:Suboxone
1207:Pavlov's
1127:variance
1099:dilaudid
1077:baclofen
933:Inhalant
888:hypnotic
884:Sedative
750:dopamine
644:Caffeine
634:Cannabis
576:Cannabis
519:Ketamine
424:Morphine
408:Pleasure
125:disorder
5001:Cocaine
4688:Cocaine
4678:Alcohol
4583:Related
4540:solvent
4351:Opioids
4239:Cocaine
4032:(AWS):
3974:Nervous
3928:(ALD):
3878:Alcohol
3763:General
3647:D019966
3544:18 July
3197:4822281
3146:4822281
2899:8816054
2776:8081178
2732:4034717
2715:: 116.
2655:8747753
2601:4927417
2552:2635333
2503:2837343
2396:5903121
2311:YouTube
2277:6135257
2224:3898681
2127:12 June
2097:12 June
2063:23 June
2015:3139704
1962:4040958
1910:3272277
1569:Region
1508:Female
1351:history
1282:History
1263:vaccine
1253:cholera
1245:vaccine
1123:explain
972:seeking
954:305.10
944:304.90
938:304.80
931:304.60
924:304.50
917:304.40
911:304.30
905:304.20
882:304.10
876:304.00
870:303.90
684:Tobacco
664:Cocaine
654:Alcohol
595:Ecstasy
500:Alcohol
462:Tobacco
443:Cocaine
259:stimuli
250:stimuli
229:somatic
178:alcohol
139:alcohol
5011:Opioid
4967:Drugs
4893:HDAC10
4708:Opioid
4594:: SUD
4553:(SSDS)
4296:(HPPD)
4051:(FASD)
3802:(PAWS)
3365:
3340:
3271:
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3194:
3180:: 16.
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2997:
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2368:Lancet
2284:
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2231:
2221:
2188:
2162:
2022:
2012:
1969:
1959:
1917:
1907:
1827:
1707:, the
1586:15.2%
1572:Rates
1566:Rates
1560:Rates
1538:11.4%
1524:12-17
1516:10.8%
1484:14.9%
1473:11.3%
1462:10.9%
1443:White
1435:Black
1427:Asian
1353:(see "
1259:TA-NIC
1255:toxin.
1153:; (2)
1095:heroin
1088:, and
1030:, and
864:DSM-IV
856:DSM-IV
708:: the
688:31.9%
678:23.1%
674:Heroin
668:16.7%
658:15.4%
420:Heroin
135:DSM-IV
118:mental
4903:SIRT2
4898:SIRT1
4888:HDAC9
4883:HDAC5
4878:HDAC4
4872:HDAC3
4865:HDAC2
4858:HDAC1
4831:NF-ÎşB
4826:GluR2
4811:c-Fos
4805:ΔFosB
4457:(BUD)
4397:(OUD)
4386:(OIC)
4380:(OIE)
4374:(OIH)
4320:(GTS)
4257:(PCE)
4223:(CUD)
4202:(CHS)
4062:(PAN)
4043:(DTs)
3986:(ARD)
3965:(AKA)
3946:(ABS)
3909:(AFR)
3867:(CDI)
3510:(PDF)
3484:(PDF)
3473:(PDF)
3269:S2CID
2903:S2CID
2452:6 May
2446:(PDF)
2439:(PDF)
2392:S2CID
2046:(PDF)
2036:Drs;
1663:is a
1632:6.6%
1626:9.5%
1620:0.9%
1612:8.4%
1606:9.3%
1600:2.1%
1592:8.6%
1580:2.5%
1541:5.8%
1530:5.2%
1527:5.3%
1519:5.8%
1505:Male
1454:8.6%
1446:8.4%
1438:7.4%
1430:4.6%
1355:Opium
1267:TA-CD
1241:TA-CD
1101:, or
1084:, an
1071:, or
890:, or
523:1.54
144:DSM-5
103:ΔFosB
5039:and
4821:CREB
4816:Cdk5
4671:Drug
4653:and
4563:SUD
4547:SID
4522:SUD
4506:SID
4483:SUD
4473:SID
4451:SUD
4436:SID
4420:SID
4391:SUD
4358:SID
4335:SUD
4314:SID
4285:SID
4262:SUD
4246:SID
4212:SUD
4191:SID
4168:SUD
4143:SID
4074:(WE)
3861:SID
3851:SUD
3711:2015
3642:MeSH
3627:9-CM
3571:2018
3546:2019
3521:2018
3492:2018
3405:2014
3363:ISBN
3338:ISBN
3299:2009
3261:PMID
3202:PMID
3151:PMID
3022:help
2948:ISSN
2895:PMID
2842:PMID
2807:PMID
2772:PMID
2737:PMID
2686:PMID
2651:PMID
2606:PMID
2584:1645
2557:PMID
2508:PMID
2454:2014
2422:2014
2384:PMID
2353:2018
2323:2020
2282:PMID
2229:PMID
2186:ISBN
2160:ISSN
2129:2015
2099:2015
2065:2021
2020:PMID
1967:PMID
1915:PMID
1825:ISBN
1638:The
1502:Age
1369:and
1345:The
998:and
992:AIDS
898:and
827:CREB
816:cAMP
625:Drug
608:0.7
599:1.13
589:0.8
580:1.51
570:1.1
561:1.67
551:1.8
542:1.83
532:1.0
529:1.7
526:1.9
513:1.6
504:1.93
494:1.8
485:2.01
475:1.8
466:2.21
456:1.3
447:2.39
437:3.0
428:3.00
405:Mean
402:Drug
374:The
172:– a
120:and
112:The
105:, a
97:and
4907:...
4846:G9a
4109:SUD
3886:SID
3810:SUD
3770:SID
3717:pdf
3636:304
3632:303
3623:ICD
3616:F19
3614:.2-
3612:F10
3603:ICD
3253:doi
3192:PMC
3182:doi
3141:PMC
3131:doi
3100:doi
3073:doi
3046:doi
2975:doi
2938:hdl
2930:doi
2887:doi
2834:doi
2799:doi
2764:doi
2727:PMC
2717:doi
2678:doi
2674:500
2641:doi
2596:PMC
2588:doi
2547:PMC
2539:doi
2498:PMC
2490:doi
2486:164
2376:doi
2372:369
2272:PMC
2264:doi
2260:374
2219:PMC
2152:doi
2010:PMC
2002:doi
1957:PMC
1949:doi
1905:PMC
1897:doi
1491:17.
1109:or
978:".
825:by
761:CRF
648:9%
638:9%
605:1.2
602:1.5
586:1.7
583:1.9
567:1.9
564:2.0
548:2.1
545:1.7
510:1.9
507:2.3
491:2.2
488:2.0
472:2.6
469:2.3
453:2.8
450:3.0
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