775:
398:
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96:
215:
567:
324:
2457:
2429:
33:
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186:. Alpine plants must adapt to the harsh conditions of the alpine environment, which include low temperatures, dryness, ultraviolet radiation, and a short growing season. Alpine plants display adaptations such as rosette structures, waxy surfaces, and hairy leaves. Because of the common characteristics of these zones, the
146:
defines the climate of montane forest as having a biotemperature of between 6 and 12 °C (43 and 54 °F), where biotemperature is the mean temperature considering temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) to be 0 °C (32 °F). Above the elevation of the montane forest, the trees thin
495:
of mountains, where moisture introduced by settling clouds is more effectively retained. Depending on latitude, the lower limit of montane rainforests on large mountains is generally between 1,500 and 2,500 metres (4,900 and 8,200 ft) while the upper limit is usually from 2,400 to 3,300 metres
589:
of rocks and grow only as high as the rock provides wind protection. Further growth is more horizontal than vertical, and additional rooting may occur where branches contact the soil. Snow cover may protect krummholz trees during the winter, but branches higher than wind-shelters or snow cover are
412:
are warm and dry except in winter, when they are relatively wet and mild. Montane forests located in
Mediterranean climates, known as oro-Mediterranean, exhibit towering trees alongside high biomass. These forests are typically mixed conifer and broadleaf forests, with only a few conifer species.
499:
Tropical montane forests might exhibit high sensitivity to climate change. Climate change may cause variation in temperature, precipitation and humidity, which will cause stress on tropical montane forests. The predicted upcoming impacts of climate change might significantly affect
283:
Montane forests differ from lowland forests in the same area. The climate of montane forests is colder than lowland climate at the same latitude, so the montane forests often have species typical of higher-latitude lowland forests. Humans can disturb montane forests through
746:
The adaptations for survival of drying winds and cold may make tundra vegetation seem very hardy, but in some respects the tundra is very fragile. Repeated footsteps often destroy tundra plants, leaving exposed soil to blow away, and recovery may take hundreds of years.
74:
are common at moderate elevations, due to moderate temperatures and high rainfall. At higher elevations, the climate is harsher, with lower temperatures and higher winds, preventing the growth of trees and causing the plant community to transition to
151:, and eventually fail to grow. Therefore, montane forests often contain trees with twisted trunks. This phenomenon is observed due to the increase in the wind strength with the elevation. The elevation where trees fail to grow is called the
715:
capable of converting the sun's light rays into heat. Some plants take two or more years to form flower buds, which survive the winter below the surface and then open and produce fruit with seeds in the few weeks of summer. Non-flowering
1057:
Aparecido, Luiza Maria T.; Teodoro, Gazelle S.; Mosquera, Giovanny; Brum, Mauro; Barros, Fernanda de V.; Pompeu, Patricia Vieira; Rodas, Melissa; Lazo, Patricio; Müller, Caroline S.; Mulligan, Mark; Asbjornsen, Heidi (2018).
983:
Mayor, Jordan R.; Sanders, Nathan J.; Classen, Aimée T.; Bardgett, Richard D.; Clément, Jean-Christophe; Fajardo, Alex; Lavorel, Sandra; Sundqvist, Maja K.; Bahn, Michael; Chisholm, Chelsea; Cieraad, Ellen (February 2017).
536:
the tree line may be above 4,000 m (13,000 ft), whereas in
Scotland it may be as low as 450 m (1,480 ft). Species that occur in this zone depend on the location of the zone on the Earth; for example,
750:
Alpine meadows form where sediments from the weathering of rocks has produced soils well-developed enough to support grasses and sedges. Alpine grasslands are common enough around the world to be categorized as a
711:, looking like ground-hugging clumps of moss, escape the strong winds blowing a few inches above them. Many flowering plants of the alpine tundra have dense hairs on stems and leaves to provide wind protection or
162:, dominated by grasses and low-growing shrubs. The biotemperature of the alpine zone is between 1.5 and 3 °C (34.7 and 37.4 °F). Many different plant species live in the alpine environment, including
202:
adjoining Asia's
Tibetan Plateau have been identified as the world's oldest continuous alpine ecosystem with a community of 3000 plant species, some of them continuously co-existing for 30 million years.
70:, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is a crucial factor in shaping plant community, biodiversity, metabolic processes and ecosystem dynamics for montane ecosystems. Dense montane
664:
Alpine grasslands and tundra lie above the tree line, in a world of intense radiation, wind, cold, snow, and ice. As a consequence, alpine vegetation is close to the ground and consists mainly of
2267:
389:
of North
America, climate change may cause "potential reduced snowpack, higher levels of evapotranspiration, increased summer drought" which will negatively affect montane wetlands.
135:) towards the nearest pole. The characteristic flora and fauna in the mountains tend to strongly depend on elevation, because of the change in climate. This dependency causes
1532:"South American mountain ecosystems and global change – a case study for integrating theory and field observations for land surface modelling and ecosystem management"
1475:
774:
142:
One of the typical life zones on mountains is the montane forest: at moderate elevations, the rainfall and temperate climate encourages dense forests to grow.
763:", often evolved as virtual islands, separated from other montane regions by warmer, lower elevation regions, and are frequently home to many distinctive and
83:. Due to the unique climate conditions of montane ecosystems, they contain increased numbers of endemic species. Montane ecosystems also exhibit variation in
1143:
1253:
320:. Montane forests outside Europe tend to be more species-rich, because Europe during the Pleistocene offered smaller-area refugia from the glaciers.
476:
2272:
131:, the change in climate by moving up 100 meters on a mountain is roughly equivalent to moving 80 kilometers (45 miles or 0.75° of
1125:
2365:
2045:
632:
828:. A unique feature of many wet tropical montane regions is the presence of giant rosette plants from a variety of plant families, such as
628:
624:
929:
1815:
Bruijnzee, L.A.; Veneklaas, E. J. (1998). "Climatic
Conditions and Tropical Montane Forest Productivity: The Fog Has Not Lifted Yet".
1718:"Modeling the Tropics-Wide Extent and Distribution of Cloud Forest and Cloud Forest Loss, with Implications for Conservation Priority"
947:
491:
covering the ground and vegetation, in which case they are also referred to as mossy forests. Mossy forests usually develop on the
1321:
Rundel, P.W.; D. J. Parsons; D. T. Gordon (1977). "Montane and subalpine vegetation of the Sierra Nevada and
Cascade Ranges". In
935:
728:
at temperatures as low as −10 °C (14 °F), and the outer fungal layers can absorb more than their own weight in water.
421:
are typical trees found in
Mediterranean montane forests. The broadleaf trees show more variety and are often evergreen, e.g.
1871:
1729:
1514:
1409:
1588:
Lee, Se-Yeun; Ryan, Maureen E.; Hamlet, Alan F.; Palen, Wendy J.; Lawler, Joshua J.; Halabisky, Meghan (2 September 2015).
309:
2400:
1483:
2445:
676:. Annual plants are rare in this ecosystem and usually are only a few inches tall, with weak root systems. Other common
1852:"Vulnerability of Island Tropical Montane Cloud Forests to Climate Change, with Special Reference to East Maui, Hawaii"
941:
913:
1375:
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760:
593:
76:
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509:
195:
1572:
908:
620:
397:
17:
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The lower bound of the montane zone may be a "lower timberline" that separates the montane forest from drier
918:
903:
616:
262:
1150:
574:
305:
585:, that is, crooked wood, stunted and twisted in form. At tree line, tree seedlings may germinate on the
2407:
2285:
480:
1998:
245:, is often marked by a change to hardier species that occur in less dense stands. For example, in the
2281:
953:
206:
Climates with biotemperatures below 1.5 °C (35 °F) tend to consist purely of rock and ice.
2315:
1114:
590:
usually destroyed. Well-established krummholz trees may be several hundred to a thousand years old.
2499:
1700:
1254:"Many beloved garden flowers originated in this mountain hot spot—the oldest of its kind on Earth"
2504:
2076:
1752:
1175:
237:. The elevation at which one habitat changes to another varies across the globe, particularly by
2218:
1763:(3). British Ecological Society : Journal of Ecology Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 551–570: 551–570.
508:
predict reduced cloudiness in the future. Reduction in cloudiness may already be affecting the
1399:
1290:
2323:
1717:
1367:
1176:"The Holdridge Life Zones of the conterminous United States in relation to ecosystem mapping"
409:
1657:"A montane Mediterranean climate supports year-round photosynthesis and high forest biomass"
871:
Where conditions are drier, one finds montane grasslands, savannas, and woodlands, like the
487:, which gains its moisture from clouds and fog. Cloud forests often exhibit an abundance of
464:
2060:
2010:
1999:"The potential negative impacts of global climate change on tropical montane cloud forests"
1961:
1906:
1764:
1601:
1543:
1441:
1190:
1071:
1059:
997:
958:
601:
586:
505:
246:
155:. The biotemperature of the subalpine zone is between 3 and 6 °C (37 and 43 °F).
120:
8:
1800:
1479:
1174:
Lugo, Ariel E.; Brown, Sandra L.; Dodson, Rusty; Smith, Tom S.; Shugart, Hank H. (1999).
872:
756:
429:
292:. On isolated mountains, montane forests surrounded by treeless dry regions are typical "
187:
143:
2193:
2064:
2014:
1965:
1910:
1768:
1605:
1547:
1445:
1194:
1075:
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1930:
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1780:
1632:
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1457:
1322:
1206:
1095:
1039:
199:
41:
2072:
2022:
1149:. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. p. 15. Archived from
2133:
2026:
1979:
1922:
1867:
1725:
1678:
1637:
1619:
1510:
1497:
Billings, WD (1990). "The
Mountain Forests of North America and Their Environments".
1405:
1371:
1360:
1294:
1283:
1232:
1202:
1099:
1087:
1031:
1023:
794:
764:
501:
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386:
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Climate change is predicted to affect temperate montane forests. For example, in the
347:
124:
84:
1210:
2421:
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2068:
2018:
1969:
1914:
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1198:
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597:
556:
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128:
100:
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1531:
1501:. Ecological Studies. Vol. 80. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 47–86.
1863:
1614:
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685:
681:
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665:
552:
441:
359:
230:
163:
2236:
1895:"Climate Change and Its Impact on Tropical Montane Ecosystems in Southern India"
1506:
2433:
1851:
893:
813:
809:
805:
653:
612:
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266:
254:
234:
116:
59:
1755:(1 October 1959). "A Physiognomic Classification of Australian Rain Forests".
1673:
1656:
985:
2493:
2310:
2152:
2046:"A framework for the worldwide comparison of tropical woody vegetation types"
2030:
1983:
1926:
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371:
367:
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317:
218:
175:
159:
95:
80:
45:
37:
986:"Elevation alters ecosystem properties across temperate tree lines globally"
214:
2137:
1696:
1682:
1641:
1432:
Huntley, Brian (1993). "Species-Richness in North-Temperate Zone
Forests".
1035:
840:
658:
648:
484:
433:
355:
2463:
2119:
1974:
1949:
1590:"Projecting the Hydrologic Impacts of Climate Change on Montane Wetlands"
1060:"Ecohydrological drivers of Neotropical vegetation in montane ecosystems"
923:
712:
453:
375:
343:
289:
108:
104:
2350:
1009:
566:
2339:
Plant
Activity under Snow and Ice, with Particular Reference to Lichens
1934:
1894:
1784:
1722:
Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: Science for Conservation and Management
1461:
1229:
Alpine Plant Life: Functional Plant Ecology of High Mountain Ecosystems
1142:
Blyth, S.; Groombridge, B.; Lysenko, I.; Miles, L.; Newton, A. (2002).
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835:
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67:
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Loope, Lloyd L.; Giambelluca, Thomas W. (1998), Markham, Adam (ed.),
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and might result in change of species range and community dynamics.
1828:
1804:. Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications (Borneo). p. 29.
787:
548:
469:
449:
285:
238:
132:
55:
793:
The most extensive montane grasslands and shrublands occur in the
32:
1856:
Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Tropical Forest Ecosystems
850:
830:
768:
701:
418:
332:
328:
258:
1720:. In Bruijnzeel, L. A.; Scatena, F. N.; Hamilton, L. S. (eds.).
2389:
1702:
The Vegetation of the Humid Tropical Region of North Queensland
1320:
876:
865:
817:
717:
623:
subalpine zones in North America, and subalpine forests in the
544:
437:
313:
277:
273:
183:
158:
Above the tree line the ecosystem is called the alpine zone or
71:
1574:
Forest Vines to Snow Tussocks: The Story of New Zealand Plants
2439:
1695:
963:
752:
731:
721:
1141:
1056:
139:
to form: bands of similar ecosystems at similar elevations.
982:
783:
673:
488:
445:
414:
339:
179:
171:
338:
Montane forests in temperate climate occur in Europe (the
304:
Montane forests in temperate climate are typically one of
1950:"Climate change scenario for Costa Rican montane forests"
736:
1401:
Historical Biogeography of Neotropical Freshwater Fishes
1948:
Karmalkar, A. V.; Bradley, R. S.; Diaz, H. F. (2008).
2405:
1858:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 363–377,
1285:
Mountains and Man: A Study of Process and Environment
707:
Plants have adapted to the harsh alpine environment.
611:
Example subalpine zones around the world include the
2102:
Grace, John; Berninger, Frank; Nagy, Laszlo (2002).
1947:
1173:
2401:
Tree cover map for mountain forests – UNEP Map 2011
1892:
459:
2101:
2043:
1814:
1587:
1359:
1282:
767:plants which evolved in response to the cool, wet
468:Tropical montane forest at around 2,000 m in
87:, which include carbon storage and water supply.
2491:
1849:
1655:Kelly, Anne E; Goulden, Michael L (April 2016).
483:. One example of a tropical montane forest is a
1893:Sukumar, R.; Suresh, H. S.; Ramesh, R. (1995).
1404:. University of California Press. p. 311.
638:
475:In the tropics, montane forests can consist of
2345:. Vol. 46, no. 4. pp. 297–302.
1724:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–38.
1476:"European-Mediterranean Montane Mixed Forests"
1113:Goody, Richard M.; Walker, James C.G. (1972).
926:, a series of high-elevation regions in Africa
2044:Blasco, F.; Whitmore, T.C.; Gers, C. (2000).
804:. This biome also occurs in the mountains of
2104:"Impacts of Climate Change on the Tree Line"
1654:
1342:
1222:
1220:
824:in South India and the Central Highlands of
2300:
2298:
1398:Albert, James S.; Reis, Roberto E. (2011).
1112:
1397:
1289:. University of California Press. p.
1106:
930:California montane chaparral and woodlands
241:. The upper limit of montane forests, the
147:out in the subalpine zone, become twisted
2127:
1973:
1672:
1631:
1613:
1555:
1329:. New York, USA: Wiley. pp. 559–599.
1217:
1017:
581:Trees in the subalpine zone often become
532:around the world. In tropical regions of
253:, the montane forest has dense stands of
2363:
2295:
2176:
1715:
1577:. Wellington: Victoria University Press.
1496:
1251:
948:South Western Ghats montane rain forests
773:
730:
720:cling to rocks and soil. Their enclosed
652:
565:
463:
396:
392:
322:
312:, forest types that are well known from
213:
94:
31:
2341:. Circumpolar Ecosystems in Winter II.
1431:
1338:
1336:
1276:
1274:
936:Angolan montane forest-grassland mosaic
608:, is an example of a subalpine meadow.
14:
2492:
2336:
1996:
1797:
1343:Nagy, László; Grabherr, Georg (2009).
1226:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
62:in these regions strongly affects the
2185:
1357:
1314:
1280:
2446:
2191:
1751:
1529:
1499:Plant Biology of the Basin and Range
1333:
1327:Terrestrial vegetation of California
1271:
596:may be found in the subalpine zone.
428:This type of forest is found in the
310:temperate broadleaf and mixed forest
299:
2255:
1160:
221:, Hawaii, is known for its montane
24:
1570:
1131:from the original on 29 July 2016.
942:Australian Alps montane grasslands
914:Sierra Nevada lower montane forest
229:Montane forests occur between the
209:
25:
2516:
2382:
2237:"Tuolumne Meadows and Tioga Road"
761:Montane grasslands and shrublands
519:
77:montane grasslands and shrublands
2472:
2455:
2427:
2415:
2388:
2373:Minnesota Conservation Volunteer
2309: This article incorporates
2304:
2266: This article incorporates
2261:
1203:10.1046/j.1365-2699.1999.00329.x
820:, the highest elevations of the
563:occur in western North America.
543:(scrub mountain pine) occurs in
460:Subtropical and tropical climate
2357:
2330:
2229:
2211:
2179:Australian Soils and Landscapes
2170:
2145:
2095:
2037:
1990:
1941:
1886:
1843:
1808:
1791:
1745:
1709:
1689:
1648:
1581:
1564:
1523:
1490:
1468:
1425:
1391:
1351:
1252:Stokstad, Erik (30 July 2020).
551:is found in Australia, and the
196:montane grassland and shrubland
1997:Foster, Pru (1 October 2001).
1345:The biology of alpine habitats
1245:
1135:
1050:
976:
909:Ecology of the Rocky Mountains
13:
1:
2225:. U.S. National Park Service.
2073:10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00032-X
2023:10.1016/S0012-8252(01)00056-3
1697:Tracey, J. G. (John Geoffrey)
1557:10.1080/17550874.2023.2196966
1536:Plant Ecology & Diversity
1530:Nagy, L; et al. (2023).
970:
90:
27:Ecosystems found in mountains
2320:Rocky Mountain National Park
2223:Rocky Mountain National Park
2192:Gold, W. (28 January 2008).
1954:Geophysical Research Letters
1864:10.1007/978-94-017-2730-3_18
1615:10.1371/journal.pone.0136385
919:East African montane forests
904:Temperate coniferous forests
639:Alpine grasslands and tundra
327:Temperate montane forest in
263:Sierra Nevada subalpine zone
115:As elevation increases, the
7:
2366:"Lichens: two lives in one"
1507:10.1007/978-3-642-74799-1_3
886:
577:, Washington, United States
575:Mount Rainier National Park
496:(7,900 to 10,800 ft).
306:temperate coniferous forest
68:fall as elevation increases
54:are found on the slopes of
10:
2521:
2243:. US National Park Service
2199:. University of Washington
1347:. Oxford University Press.
1325:, M.G.; Major, J. (eds.).
1227:Körner, Christian (2013).
1115:"Atmospheric Temperatures"
879:, like the steppes of the
642:
524:The subalpine zone is the
265:contains sparse stands of
2316:"Alpine Tundra Ecosystem"
2282:Bureau of Land Management
954:Polonyna (montane meadow)
401:Iranian oak scrub in the
198:" biome. A region in the
1358:Perry, David A. (1994).
1281:Price, Larry W. (1986).
190:groups a set of related
103:at around 750 m in
36:A subalpine lake in the
2364:Whitesel, Todd (2006).
2337:Kappen, Ludger (1993).
2274:Grassland Habitat Group
2177:McKenzie, Neil (2004).
2053:Biological Conservation
1899:Journal of Biogeography
1674:10.1093/treephys/tpv131
1434:Journal of Biogeography
1183:Journal of Biogeography
778:Alpine landscape below
771:and abundant sunlight.
510:Monteverde cloud forest
119:, due to a decrease in
2311:public domain material
2268:public domain material
2241:Yosemite National Park
2194:"BIS258 lecture notes"
790:
743:
661:
578:
528:immediately below the
472:
405:
335:
226:
117:climate becomes cooler
112:
48:
2324:National Park Service
2219:"Subalpine ecosystem"
2003:Earth-Science Reviews
1798:Clarke, C.M. (1997).
1716:Mulligan, M. (2011).
1366:. JHU Press. p.
777:
759:. The biome, called "
734:
656:
569:
506:Global climate models
467:
410:Mediterranean climate
400:
393:Mediterranean climate
326:
217:
98:
66:because temperatures
35:
2397:at Wikimedia Commons
1975:10.1029/2008GL033940
1486:on 15 February 2006.
1231:. Berlin: Springer.
959:Altitudinal zonation
713:red-colored pigments
121:atmospheric pressure
2157:Gymnosperm Database
2065:2000BCons..95..175B
2015:2001ESRv...55...73F
1966:2008GeoRL..3511702K
1911:1995JBiog..22..533S
1801:Nepenthes of Borneo
1769:1959JEcol..47..551W
1606:2015PLoSO..1036385L
1548:2023PlEcD..16....1N
1480:World Wildlife Fund
1446:1993JBiog..20..163H
1195:1999JBiog..26.1025L
1076:2018Ecohy..11E1932A
1010:10.1038/nature21027
1002:2017Natur.542...91M
873:Ethiopian Highlands
757:World Wildlife Fund
430:Mediterranean Basin
408:Montane forests in
188:World Wildlife Fund
2442:Montane ecosystems
2120:10.1093/aob/mcf222
1757:Journal of Ecology
791:
744:
662:
657:Alpine flora near
633:Hengduan mountains
579:
473:
406:
336:
227:
200:Hengduan Mountains
113:
85:ecosystem services
52:Montane ecosystems
49:
2393:Media related to
1873:978-94-017-2730-3
1731:978-0-521-76035-5
1516:978-3-642-74801-1
1411:978-0-520-26868-5
1362:Forest Ecosystems
1124:. Prentice-Hall.
666:perennial grasses
502:biodiversity loss
481:coniferous forest
387:Pacific Northwest
316:and northeastern
300:Temperate climate
164:perennial grasses
127:of airmasses. In
125:adiabatic cooling
111:subalpine forests
16:(Redirected from
2512:
2485:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2468:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2448:
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2431:
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2419:
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2355:
2354:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2308:
2307:
2302:
2293:
2292:
2291:on 24 July 2008.
2290:
2284:. Archived from
2279:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2233:
2227:
2226:
2215:
2209:
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2141:
2131:
2108:Annals of Botany
2099:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2082:on 23 March 2012
2081:
2075:. Archived from
2050:
2041:
2035:
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1994:
1988:
1987:
1977:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1905:(2/3): 533–536.
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1705:, pp. 34–38
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1215:
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1189:(5): 1025–1038.
1180:
1171:
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1157:
1155:
1148:
1144:"Mountain Watch"
1139:
1133:
1132:
1130:
1119:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1084:10.1002/eco.1932
1054:
1048:
1047:
1021:
980:
682:prostrate shrubs
678:plant life-forms
629:western Himalaya
625:eastern Himalaya
598:Tuolumne Meadows
557:mountain hemlock
477:broadleaf forest
403:Zagros Mountains
129:middle latitudes
21:
2520:
2519:
2515:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2500:Montane ecology
2490:
2489:
2488:
2478:
2473:
2471:
2467:from Wiktionary
2461:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2447:sister projects
2444:at Knowledge's
2438:
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2395:Montane ecology
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1991:
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1919:10.2307/2845951
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1777:10.2307/2257290
1750:
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1694:
1690:
1661:Tree Physiology
1653:
1649:
1600:(9): e0136385.
1586:
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1569:
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1156:on 11 May 2008.
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996:(7639): 91–95.
981:
977:
973:
968:
944:, an ecoregion.
938:, an ecoregion.
932:, an ecoregion.
889:
881:Tibetan Plateau
802:Andes Mountains
726:photosynthesize
651:
643:Main articles:
641:
615:in Europe, the
553:subalpine larch
522:
479:in addition to
462:
442:southwestern US
395:
360:Rocky Mountains
302:
231:submontane zone
212:
210:Montane forests
93:
28:
23:
22:
15:
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11:
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2502:
2487:
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2383:External links
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2184:
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2144:
2114:(4): 537–544.
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1960:(11): L11702.
1940:
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1807:
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1667:(4): 459–468.
1647:
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1571:Dawson, John.
1563:
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1440:(2): 163–180.
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1258:Science | AAAS
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894:Forest ecology
890:
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885:
875:, and montane
814:Mount Kinabalu
810:central Africa
709:Cushion plants
640:
637:
621:Rocky Mountain
613:French Prealps
534:Southeast Asia
521:
520:Subalpine zone
518:
461:
458:
394:
391:
301:
298:
296:" ecosystems.
267:whitebark pine
255:lodgepole pine
235:subalpine zone
211:
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176:cushion plants
101:mountain birch
92:
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60:alpine climate
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617:Sierra Nevada
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602:Sierra Nevada
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571:Subalpine fir
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368:Sierra Nevada
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364:Cascade Range
361:
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107:, typical of
106:
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81:alpine tundra
78:
73:
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47:
46:United States
43:
39:
38:Cascade Range
34:
30:
19:
2484:from Commons
2479:
2462:
2441:
2372:
2359:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2319:
2286:the original
2273:
2257:
2245:. Retrieved
2240:
2231:
2222:
2213:
2201:. Retrieved
2187:
2178:
2172:
2160:. Retrieved
2156:
2153:"Pinus mugo"
2147:
2111:
2107:
2097:
2084:. Retrieved
2077:the original
2056:
2052:
2039:
2006:
2002:
1992:
1957:
1953:
1943:
1902:
1898:
1888:
1877:, retrieved
1855:
1845:
1820:
1816:
1810:
1799:
1793:
1760:
1756:
1747:
1735:. Retrieved
1721:
1711:
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1660:
1650:
1597:
1593:
1583:
1573:
1566:
1539:
1535:
1525:
1498:
1492:
1484:the original
1470:
1437:
1433:
1427:
1415:. Retrieved
1400:
1393:
1381:. Retrieved
1361:
1353:
1344:
1326:
1316:
1304:. Retrieved
1284:
1261:. Retrieved
1257:
1247:
1228:
1186:
1182:
1151:the original
1137:
1121:
1108:
1070:(3): e1932.
1067:
1064:Ecohydrology
1063:
1052:
993:
989:
978:
870:
859:
849:
839:
829:
792:
749:
745:
706:
663:
659:Cascade Pass
649:Alpine plant
610:
592:
580:
538:
523:
498:
485:cloud forest
474:
434:North Africa
427:
407:
384:
356:Appalachians
337:
303:
282:
271:
261:, while the
228:
205:
157:
141:
114:
109:Scandinavian
51:
50:
29:
2464:Definitions
1879:20 February
1122:Atmospheres
1019:1874/394068
924:Afromontane
795:Neotropical
722:algal cells
526:biotic zone
454:Afghanistan
376:New Zealand
344:Carpathians
290:agriculture
105:Trollheimen
99:A stand of
2494:Categories
2247:5 February
2162:5 February
971:References
856:New Guinea
836:Afrotropic
826:New Guinea
786:Mountain,
780:Malyovitsa
741:Swiss Alps
735:An alpine
698:bryophytes
696:, such as
694:cryptogams
690:graminoids
606:California
540:Pinus mugo
514:Costa Rica
378:, and the
294:sky island
251:California
223:vegetation
194:into the "
192:ecoregions
137:life zones
91:Life zones
42:Washington
2422:Mountains
2031:0012-8252
1984:1944-8007
1927:0305-0270
1753:Webb, Len
1624:1932-6203
1100:134197371
1092:1936-0592
1028:1476-4687
899:Tree line
846:Neotropic
688:-forming
635:of Asia.
583:krummholz
530:tree line
380:Himalayas
243:tree line
153:tree line
149:krummholz
144:Holdridge
64:ecosystem
56:mountains
2351:40511430
2203:15 March
2138:12324278
2086:11 March
1823:(1): 3.
1699:(1982),
1683:26764269
1642:26331850
1594:PLOS ONE
1263:1 August
1211:11733879
1126:Archived
1036:28117440
887:See also
788:Bulgaria
680:include
587:lee side
549:snow gum
470:Malaysia
450:Pakistan
440:and the
286:forestry
280:region.
239:latitude
233:and the
133:latitude
123:and the
2434:Ecology
2408:Portals
2142:fig. 1.
2129:4240388
2092:p. 178.
2061:Bibcode
2011:Bibcode
1962:Bibcode
1935:2845951
1907:Bibcode
1817:Ecology
1785:2257290
1765:Bibcode
1737:9 March
1633:4557981
1602:Bibcode
1544:Bibcode
1462:2845669
1442:Bibcode
1417:9 March
1383:9 March
1323:Barbour
1306:9 March
1191:Bibcode
1072:Bibcode
1044:4455333
998:Bibcode
877:steppes
858:), and
851:Cyathea
831:Lobelia
800:of the
769:climate
765:endemic
755:by the
739:in the
718:lichens
702:lichens
686:tussock
600:in the
594:Meadows
493:saddles
419:juniper
333:Germany
329:Bavaria
259:red fir
184:lichens
72:forests
2349:
2343:Arctic
2136:
2126:
2029:
1982:
1933:
1925:
1870:
1837:176859
1835:
1783:
1728:
1681:
1640:
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1513:
1460:
1408:
1374:
1297:
1235:
1209:
1098:
1090:
1042:
1034:
1026:
990:Nature
866:Hawaii
818:Borneo
798:páramo
782:Peak,
692:; and
672:, and
670:sedges
631:, and
559:, and
547:, the
545:Europe
489:mosses
438:Mexico
366:, and
354:(e.g.,
350:), in
346:, and
314:Europe
278:desert
274:steppe
182:, and
180:mosses
168:sedges
58:. The
2481:Media
2369:(PDF)
2347:JSTOR
2313:from
2289:(PDF)
2278:(PDF)
2270:from
2197:(PDF)
2080:(PDF)
2049:(PDF)
1931:JSTOR
1833:JSTOR
1781:JSTOR
1458:JSTOR
1207:S2CID
1179:(PDF)
1154:(PDF)
1147:(PDF)
1129:(PDF)
1118:(PDF)
1096:S2CID
1040:S2CID
964:Biome
753:biome
674:forbs
172:forbs
2249:2024
2205:2009
2164:2024
2134:PMID
2088:2012
2027:ISSN
1980:ISSN
1923:ISSN
1881:2021
1868:ISBN
1739:2012
1726:ISBN
1679:PMID
1638:PMID
1620:ISSN
1511:ISBN
1419:2012
1406:ISBN
1385:2012
1372:ISBN
1308:2012
1295:ISBN
1265:2020
1233:ISBN
1088:ISSN
1032:PMID
1024:ISSN
841:Puya
808:and
806:east
784:Rila
737:mire
724:can
700:and
647:and
619:and
452:and
446:Iran
417:and
415:Pine
348:more
340:Alps
288:and
257:and
2124:PMC
2116:doi
2069:doi
2019:doi
1970:doi
1915:doi
1860:doi
1825:doi
1773:doi
1669:doi
1628:PMC
1610:doi
1552:doi
1503:doi
1450:doi
1291:271
1199:doi
1080:doi
1014:hdl
1006:doi
994:542
868:).
848:),
838:),
816:of
604:of
573:in
512:in
370:),
308:or
276:or
249:of
79:or
2496::
2371:.
2322:.
2318:.
2297:^
2280:.
2239:.
2221:.
2155:.
2132:.
2122:.
2112:90
2110:.
2106:.
2067:.
2057:95
2055:.
2051:.
2025:.
2017:.
2007:55
2005:.
2001:.
1978:.
1968:.
1958:35
1956:.
1952:.
1929:.
1921:.
1913:.
1903:22
1901:.
1897:.
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1854:,
1831:.
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1819:.
1779:.
1771:.
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1759:.
1677:.
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1663:.
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1636:.
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1618:.
1608:.
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1596:.
1592:.
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1540:16
1538:.
1534:.
1509:.
1478:.
1456:.
1448:.
1438:20
1436:.
1370:.
1368:49
1335:^
1293:.
1273:^
1256:.
1219:^
1205:.
1197:.
1187:26
1185:.
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