275:—a term referring to the ability to be both chronically stressed and healthy. Even though psychological stress is often connected with illness or disease, most healthy individuals can still remain disease-free after being confronted with chronic stressful events. This suggests that there are individual differences in vulnerability to the potential pathogenic effects of stress; individual differences in vulnerability arise due to both genetic and psychological factors. In addition, the age at which the stress is experienced can dictate its effect on health. Research suggests chronic stress at a young age can have lifelong effects on the biological, psychological, and behavioral responses to stress later in life.
669:, allowing for it to regulate immune function. The adrenergic substances released by the sympathetic nervous system can also bind to and influence various immunological cells, further providing a connection between the systems. The HPA axis ultimately results in the release of cortisol, which generally has immunosuppressive effects. However, the effect of stress on the immune system is disputed, and various models have been proposed in an attempt to account for both the supposedly "immunodeficiency" linked diseases and diseases involving hyper activation of the immune system. One model proposed to account for this suggests a push towards an imbalance of
47:
1984:; Henderson, A.S.; Strotzka, H.; Lipowski, Z.; Yu-cun, Shen; You-xin, Xu; Strömgren, E.; Glatzel, J.; Kühne, G.-E.; Misès, R.; Soldatos, C.R.; Pull, C.B.; Giel, R.; Jegede, R.; Malt, U.; Nadzharov, R.A.; Smulevitch, A.B.; Hagberg, B.; Perris, C.; Scharfetter, C.; Clare, A.; Cooper, J.E.; Corbett, J.A.; Griffith Edwards, J.; Gelder, M.; Goldberg, D.; Gossop, M.; Graham, P.; Kendell, R.E.; Marks, I.; Russell, G.; Rutter, M.; Shepherd, M.; West, D.J.; Wing, J.; Wing, L.; Neki, J.S.; Benson, F.; Cantwell, D.; Guze, S.; Helzer, J.; Holzman, P.; Kleinman, A.; Kupfer, D.J.; Mezzich, J.; Spitzer, R.; Lokar, J.
390:
brain. People who have reported being raised in harsh environments such as verbal and physical aggression have showed a more immune dysfunction and more metabolic dysfunction. Indeed, in 1995 Toates already defined stress as a "chronic state that arises only when defense mechanisms are either being chronically stretched or are actually failing," while according to Ursin (1988) stress results from an inconsistency between expected events ("set value") and perceived events ("actual value") that cannot be resolved satisfactorily, which also puts stress into the broader context of
805:. Chronic stress also has a lot of illnesses and health care problems other than mental that comes with it. Severe chronic stress for long periods of time can lead to an increased chance of catching illnesses such as diabetes, cancer, depression, heart disease and Alzheimer's disease. More generally, prenatal life, infancy, childhood, and adolescence are critical periods in which the vulnerability to stressors is particularly high. This can lead to psychiatric and physical diseases which have long term impacts on an individual.
745:. Distant stressors did not consistently elicit a change in immune function. Another response to high impacts of chronic stress that lasts for a long period of time, is more immune dysfunction and more metabolic dysfunction. It is proven in studies that when continuously being in stressful situations, it is more likely to get sick. Also, when being exposed to stress, some claim that the body metabolizes the food in a certain way that adds extra calories to the meal, regardless of the nutritional values of the food.
704:
receiving common vaccines. Similarly, the effects that acute stressors have on the immune system may be increased when there is perceived stress and/or anxiety due to other events. For example, students who are taking exams show weaker immune responses if they also report stress due to daily hassles. While responses to acute stressors typically do not impose a health burden on young, healthy individuals, chronic stress in older or unhealthy individuals may have long-term effects that are detrimental to health.
1115:
781:. It is responsible for preparing the tissue for repair and promoting recruitment of certain cells to the wound area. Consistent with the fact that stress alters the production of cytokines, Graham et al. found that chronic stress associated with care giving for a person with Alzheimer's disease leads to delayed wound healing. Results indicated that biopsy wounds healed 25% more slowly in the chronically stressed group, or those caring for a person with Alzheimer's disease.
830:
before the damage, are not lost. Also high cortisol levels can be tied to the deterioration of the hippocampus and decline of memory that many older adults start to experience with age. These mechanisms and processes may therefore contribute to age-related disease, or originate risk for earlier-onset disorders. For instance, extreme stress (e.g. trauma) is a requisite factor to produce stress-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder.
55:
323:. But "...stress as an explanation of lived experience is absent from both lay and expert life narratives before the 1930s". Physiological stress represents a wide range of physical responses that occur as a direct effect of a stressor causing an upset in the homeostasis of the body. Upon immediate disruption of either psychological or physical equilibrium the body responds by stimulating the
595:, increased activity of the digestive system, and contraction of the bladder walls. Complex relationships between protective and vulnerability factors on the effect of childhood home stress on psychological illness, cardiovascular illness and adaption have been observed. ANS related mechanisms are thought to contribute to increased risk of cardiovascular disease after major stressful events.
473:
1123:
stress; GAS is characterized by three phases: a nonspecific alarm mobilization phase, which promotes sympathetic nervous system activity; a resistance phase, during which the organism makes efforts to cope with the threat; and an exhaustion phase, which occurs if the organism fails to overcome the threat and depletes its physiological resources.
965:
and then held no one's hand. When the women were holding their husband's hand, the response was reduced in many brain areas. When holding the stranger's hand the response was reduced a little, but not as much as when they were holding their husband's hand. Social support helps reduce stress and even more so if the support is from a loved one.
1398:", and a large amount of research was undertaken to examine links between stress and disease of all kinds. By the late 1970s, stress had become the medical area of greatest concern to the general population, and more basic research was called for to better address the issue. There was also renewed laboratory research into the
1345:, many in experimental physiology concluded that his concepts were too vague and unmeasurable. During the 1950s, Selye turned away from the laboratory to promote his concept through popular books and lecture tours. He wrote for both non-academic physicians and, in an international bestseller entitled
960:
A way to control stress is first dealing with what is causing the stress if it is something the individual has control over. Other methods to control stress and reduce it can be: to not procrastinate and leave tasks for the last minute, do things you like, exercise, do breathing routines, go out with
389:
and Jaap
Koolhaas believe that stress, based on years of empirical research, "should be restricted to conditions where an environmental demand exceeds the natural regulatory capacity of an organism". The brain cannot live in an harsh family environment, it needs some sort of stability between another
1457:
in 1980. PTSD was considered a severe and ongoing emotional reaction to an extreme psychological trauma, and as such often associated with soldiers, police officers, and other emergency personnel. The stressor may involve threat to life (or viewing the actual death of someone else), serious physical
248:
When humans are under chronic stress, permanent changes in their physiological, emotional, and behavioral responses may occur. Chronic stress can include events such as caring for a spouse with dementia, or may result from brief focal events that have long term effects, such as experiencing a sexual
981:
In other words, primary appraisal includes the perception of how stressful the problem is and the secondary appraisal of estimating whether one has more than or less than adequate resources to deal with the problem that affects the overall appraisal of stressfulness. Further, coping is flexible in
964:
One study showed that the power of having support from a loved one, or just having social support, lowered stress in individual subjects. Painful shocks were applied to married women's ankles. In some trials women were able to hold their husband's hand, in other trials they held a stranger's hand,
649:
The PVN innervation from the brain stem nuclei, particularly the noradrenergic nuclei stimulate CRH release. Other regions of the hypothalamus both directly and indirectly inhibit HPA axis activity. Hypothalamic neurons involved in regulating energy balance also influence HPA axis activity through
977:
Both personal and environmental factors influence this primary appraisal, which then triggers the selection of coping processes. Problem-focused coping is directed at managing the problem, whereas emotion-focused coping processes are directed at managing the negative emotions. Secondary appraisal
740:
proliferation, and natural killer cell cytotoxicity. Stressful event sequences did not elicit a consistent immune response; however, some observations such as decreased T-Cell proliferation and cytotoxicity, increase or decrease in natural killer cell cytotoxicity, and an increase in mitogen PHA.
362:
processes strive to maintain equilibrium (homeostasis), a steady state that exists more as an ideal and less as an achievable condition. Environmental factors, internal or external stimuli, continually disrupt homeostasis; an organism's present condition is a state of constant flux moving about a
1122:
Physiologists define stress as how the body reacts to a stressor - a stimulus, real or imagined. Acute stressors affect an organism in the short term; chronic stressors over the longer term. The general adaptation syndrome (GAS), developed by Hans Selye, is a profile of how organisms respond to
829:
releases, although this can increase storage of flashbulb memories it decreases long-term potentiation (LTP). The hippocampus is important in the brain for storing certain kinds of memories and damage to the hippocampus can cause trouble in storing new memories but old memories, memories stored
239:
Chronic stressors may not be as intense as acute stressors such as natural disaster or a major accident, but persist over longer periods of time and tend to have a more negative effect on health because they are sustained and thus require the body's physiological response to occur daily. This
703:
shift in bodily functions, or just as "prolonged stress". For example, results of one study demonstrated that individuals who reported relationship conflict lasting one month or longer have a greater risk of developing illness and show slower wound healing. It can also reduce the benefits of
1262:
stage follows when the system's compensation mechanisms have successfully overcome the stressor effect (or have completely eliminated the factor which caused the stress). The high glucose, fat and amino acid levels in blood prove useful for anabolic reactions, restoration of homeostasis and
973:
Lazarus argued that, in order for a psychosocial situation to be stressful, it must be appraised as such. He argued that cognitive processes of appraisal are central in determining whether a situation is potentially threatening, constitutes a harm/loss or a challenge, or is benign.
244:
for further discussion of the biological process by which chronic stress may affect the body. For example, studies have found that caregivers, particularly those of dementia patients, have higher levels of depression and slightly worse physical health than non-caregivers.
1334:'s 1930s experiments. He started to use the term to refer not just to the agent but to the state of the organism as it responded and adapted to the environment. His theories of a universal non-specific stress response attracted great interest and contention in academic
995:
Both negative and positive stressors can lead to stress. The intensity and duration of stress changes depending on the circumstances and emotional condition of the person with it (Arnold. E and Boggs. K. 2007). Some common categories and examples of stressors include:
1239:. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means of coping with the stress. The body attempts to respond to stressful stimuli, but after prolonged activation, the body's chemical resources will be gradually depleted, leading to the final stage.
587:, decreased motility of the digestive system, secretion of the epinephrine and cortisol from the adrenal medulla, and relaxation of the bladder wall. The parasympathetic nervous response, "rest and digest", involves return to maintaining homeostasis, and involves
309:. In the 1920s and '30s, biological and psychological circles occasionally used "stress" to refer to a physiological or environmental perturbation that could cause physiological and mental "strain". The amount of strain in reaction to stress depends on the
1273:
symptoms may reappear (panic attacks, muscle aches, sore eyes, difficulty breathing, fatigue, heartburn, high blood pressure, and difficulty sleeping, etc.). If stage three is extended, long-term damage may result (prolonged vasoconstriction results in
342:
was developed as a method of assessing the risk of disease from life changes. The scale lists both positive and negative changes that elicit stress. These include things such as a major holiday or marriage, or death of a spouse and firing from a job.
757:
during chronic life stress. In patients with HIV, increased life stress and cortisol was associated with poorer progression of HIV. Also with an increased level of stress, studies have proven evidence that it can reactivate latent herpes viruses.
947:, with stress defined as a person's physiological response to an internal or external stimulus that triggers the fight-or-flight response. Stress management is effective when a person uses strategies to cope with or alter stressful situations.
4330:
DeBellis, Michael D.; Chrousos, George P.; D. Dorn, Lorah; Burke, Lillian; Helmers, Karin; Kling, Mitchel A.; K. Trickett, Penelope; Putnam, Frank W. (1994). "Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in sexually abused girls".
1461:
By the 1990s, "stress" had become an integral part of modern scientific understanding in all areas of physiology and human functioning, and one of the great metaphors of
Western life. Focus grew on stress in certain settings, such as
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injury, or threat to physical or psychological integrity. In some cases, it can also be from profound psychological and emotional trauma, apart from any actual physical harm or threat. Often, however, the two are combined.
2265:
Kobasa, S. C. (1982). The Hardy
Personality: Toward a Social Psychology of Stress and Health. In G. S. Sanders & J. Suls (Eds.), Social Psychology of Health and Illness (pp. 1–25). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
637:
in the brain, providing negative feedback by reducing ACTH release. Some evidence supports a second long term feedback that is non-sensitive to cortisol secretion. The PVN of the hypothalamus receives inputs from the
363:
homeostatic point that is that organism's optimal condition for living. Factors causing an organism's condition to diverge too far from homeostasis can be experienced as stress. A life-threatening situation such as a
219:
in reaction to severe stress and the consequent adaptive response. Chronic stress, and a lack of coping resources available, or used by an individual, can often lead to the development of psychological issues such as
913:
is determined by the disparity between an experience (real or imagined) and personal expectations, and resources to cope with the stress. Alarming experiences, either real or imagined, can trigger a stress response.
770:, and may further predispose people to other conditions associated with hypertension. Stress may precipitate abuse of drugs and/or alcohol. Stress may also contribute to aging and chronic diseases in aging, such as
1489:
The
American Psychological Association's 2015 Stress In America Study found that nationwide stress is on the rise and that the three leading sources of stress were "money", "family responsibility", and "work".
654:, which stimulates HPA axis activity. Generally, the amygdala stimulates, and the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus attenuate, HPA axis activity; however, complex relationships do exist between the regions.
528:, two branches that are both tonically active with opposing activities. The ANS directly innervates tissue through the postganglionic nerves, which is controlled by preganglionic neurons originating in the
1615:
Muthukumar, Kannan; Nachiappan, Vasanthi (1 December 2013). "Phosphatidylethanolamine from
Phosphatidylserine Decarboxylase2 is Essential for Autophagy Under Cadmium Stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae".
402:
Stress can have many profound effects on the human biological systems. Biology primarily attempts to explain major concepts of stress using a stimulus-response paradigm, broadly comparable to how a
240:
depletes the body's energy more quickly and usually occurs over long periods of time, especially when these microstressors cannot be avoided (i.e. stress of living in a dangerous neighborhood). See
622:. Multiple CRH peptides have been identified, and receptors have been identified on multiple areas of the brain, including the amygdala. CRH is the main regulatory molecule of the release of ACTH.
375:
and natural resources, can also be interpreted as stress. The brain cannot sustain an equilibrium under chronic stress; the accumulation of such an ever-deepening deficit is called chronic stress.
699:
Chronic stress is a term sometimes used to differentiate it from acute stress. Definitions differ, and may be along the lines of continual activation of the stress response, stress that causes an
382:(1907–1982) in 1926. In 1951 a commentator loosely summarized Selye's view of stress as something that "...in addition to being itself, was also the cause of itself, and the result of itself".
2088:
Schlotz W, Yim IS, Zoccola PM, Jansen L, Schulz P (2011). The perceived stress reactivity scale: Measurement invariance, stability, and validity in three countries. Psychol Assess. (pp. 80–94)
950:
There are several ways of coping with stress, such as controlling the source of stress or learning to set limits and to say "no" to some of the demands that bosses or family members may make.
1356:
concept of stress and adaptation offered the promise of helping everyone achieve health and happiness by successfully responding to changing global challenges and the problems of modern
236:, which is the loss of neurons and the connections between them. It affects the part of the brain that is important for learning, responding to the stressors and cognitive flexibility.
2231:
Calderon, R.; Schneider, R. H.; Alexander, C. N.; Myers, H. F.; Nidich, S. I.; Haney, C. (1999). "Stress, stress reduction and hypercholesterolemia in
African Americans: a review".
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that, in general, the individual examines the effectiveness of the coping on the situation; if it is not having the desired effect, they will, in general, try different strategies.
1269:
is the alternative third stage in the GAS model. At this point, all of the body's resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain normal function. The initial
188:
Acute stressful situations where the stress experienced is severe is a cause of change psychologically to the detriment of the well-being of the individual, such that symptomatic
385:
First to use the term in a biological context, Selye continued to define stress as "the non-specific response of the body to any demand placed upon it". Neuroscientists such as
1368:. He argued that all people have a natural urge and need to work for their own benefit, a message that found favor with industrialists and governments. He also coined the term
81:
such as an environmental condition. When stressed by stimuli that alter an organism's environment, multiple systems respond across the body. In humans and most mammals, the
2916:
845:. Stress may also increase reward associated with food, leading to weight gain and further changes in eating habits. Stress may contribute to various disorders, such as
2942:
Walton, Kenneth G.; Levitsky, Debra K. (2003). "Effects of the
Transcendental Meditation program on neuroendocrine abnormalities associated with aggression and crime".
1223:
intensifies the body's systemic response. Glucocorticoids can increase the concentration of glucose, fat, and amino acid in blood. In high doses, one glucocorticoid,
1101:) are thought to contribute to deficits in the maturity of an individual's stress response systems. One evaluation of the different stresses in people's lives is the
3489:
Traylen, Christopher M; Patel, Hersh R; Fondaw, Wylder; Mahatme, Sheran; Williams, John F; Walker, Lia R; Dyson, Ossie F; Arce, Sergio; Akula, Shaw M (April 2011).
559:
The activity of the sympathetic nervous system drives what is called the "fight or flight" response. The fight or flight response to emergency or stress involves
410:(brain and spinal cord) plays a crucial role in the body's stress-related mechanisms. Whether one should interpret these mechanisms as the body's response to a
513:(ANS), as mentioned above, plays an important role in translating stress into a response. The ANS responds reflexively to both physical stressors (for example
4156:
2054:
Kingston, Cara; Schuurmans-Stekhoven, James (2016). "Life hassles and delusional ideation: Scoping the potential role of cognitive and affective mediators".
1449:
3154:
Hering, Dagmara; Lachowska, Kamila; Schlaich, Markus (1 October 2015). "Role of the
Sympathetic Nervous System in Stress-Mediated Cardiovascular Disease".
2724:, who, using citations from Selye's articles concluded that 'Stress, in addition to being itself, was also the cause of itself, and the result of itself.'
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898:
or challenging work), it may be considered eustress. Persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to
4218:
Glavas, M.M.; Weinberg, J. (2006). "Stress, Alcohol
Consumption, and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis". In Yehuda, S.; Mostofsky, D.I. (eds.).
4017:
Afari, Niloofar; Ahumada, Sandra M.; Wright, Lisa
Johnson; Mostoufi, Sheeva; Golnari, Golnaz; Reis, Veronica; Cuneo, Jessica Gundy (7 February 2017).
817:
are processed through and stored. When people feel stressed, stress hormones get over-secreted, which affects the brain. This secretion is made up of
2131:
Pinquart M.; Sörensen S. (2003). "Differences between caregivers and non-caregivers in psychological health and physical health: a meta-analysis".
736:, and an increase in cell cytotoxicity. Brief naturalistic stressors elicit a shift from Th1 (cellular) to Th2 (humoral) immunity, while decreased
2510:
Captain Richard H. Rahe MC USNR; Dr Ransom J. Arthur, MD (1 March 1978). "Life Change and Illness Studies: Past History and Future Directions".
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371:
can greatly disrupt homeostasis. On the other hand, an organism's attempt at restoring conditions back to or near homeostasis, often consuming
4578:
953:
A person's capacity to tolerate the source of stress may be increased by thinking about another topic such as a hobby, listening to music, or
4612:
2167:
2819:
Ursin, H. (1988). "Expectancy and activation: An attempt to systematize stress theory". In Hellhammer, D.H.; Florin, I.; Weiner, H. (eds.).
940:. Over the long term, distress can lead to diminished health and/or increased propensity to illness; to avoid this, stress must be managed.
741:
Chronic stress elicited a shift toward Th2 immunity, as well as decreased interleukin 2, T cell proliferation, and antibody response to the
448:
Stress, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress may induce abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body:
1278:
which in turn leads to cell necrosis), as the body's immune system becomes exhausted, and bodily functions become impaired, resulting in
86:
1183:: When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body starts to respond and is in a state of alarm. During this stage, the
457:
170:
Disease risk is particularly pertinent to mental illnesses, whereby chronic or severe stress remains a common risk factor for several
615:
201:
1927:
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are the two major systems that respond to stress. Two well-known hormones that humans produce during stressful situations are
4542:
4404:
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4202:
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The brain endocrine interactions are relevant in the translation of stress into physiological and psychological changes. The
335:. The reaction of these systems causes a number of physical changes that have both short- and long-term effects on the body.
2697:
1187:
and sympathetic nervous system activate the production of catecholamines including adrenaline, engaging the popularly-known
249:
assault. Studies have also shown that psychological stress may directly contribute to the disproportionately high rates of
4651:
3099:"Family conflict, autonomic nervous system functioning, and child adaptation: State of the science and future directions"
1204:
661:
may be heavily influenced by stress. The sympathetic nervous system innervates various immunological structures, such as
4375:
3794:
2899:
681:, while also increasing risk of some illnesses associated with decreased immune system function, such as infection and
943:
Stress management encompasses techniques intended to equip a person with effective coping mechanisms for dealing with
797:'s production of growth hormone, as in children associated with a home environment involving serious marital discord,
4391:
Gozhenko, AI; Gurkalova, IP; Zukow, W; Kwasnik, Z; Mroczkowska, B (2009). Gozhenko, AI; Zukow, W; Kwasnik, Z (eds.).
2745:
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2423:; IN: A. Pettit (ed.); A Charles Richet: ses amis, ses collègues, ses élèves; p. 91; Paris; Éditions Médicales; 1926.
1953:
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17:
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de Kloet, E. Ron; Joëls, Marian; Holsboer, Florian (June 2005). "Stress and the brain: from adaptation to disease".
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Neuronal Control of Bodily Function: Basic and Clinical Aspects, Vol. 2: Neurobiological Approaches to Human Disease
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1440:
1173:. The organism's resistance to the stressor drops temporarily below the normal range and some level of shock (e.g.
1008:, noise, temperatures, or environmental issues such as a lack of control over environmental circumstances, such as
978:
refers to the evaluation of the resources available to cope with the problem, and may alter the primary appraisal.
3982:
Saveanu, Radu V.; Nemeroff, Charles B. (March 2012). "Etiology of Depression: Genetic and Environmental Factors".
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without being explicitly confessional, just "stressed out". It came to cover a huge range of phenomena from mild
611:
4250:
Davis et al. (June 2007). Prenatal Exposure to Maternal Depression and Cortisol Influences Infant Temperament.
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1986:"The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines"
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A link has been suggested between chronic stress and cardiovascular disease. Stress appears to play a role in
1075:
639:
3042:"The Medial Prefrontal Cortex: Coordinator of Autonomic, Neuroendocrine, and Behavioral Responses to Stress"
1387:, and portraying smoking as a "diversion", or in Selye's concept a "deviation", from environmental stress.
1102:
954:
712:
Acute time-limited stressors, or stressors that lasted less than two hours, results in an up regulation of
339:
4618:
2278:"Health psychology: Developing biologically plausible models linking the social world and physical health"
1486:. In popular usage, almost any event or situation between these extremes could be described as stressful.
602:
is a neuroendocrine system that mediates a stress response. Neurons in the hypothalamus, particularly the
1196:
858:
152:
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Charmandari E, Achermann JC, Carel JC, Soder O, Chrousos GP (2012). "Stress response and child health".
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Physiological Regulation of Normal States: Some Tentative Postulates Concerning Biological Homeostatics
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101:
82:
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Viner, Russell (June 1999). "Putting Stress in Life: Hans Selye and the Making of Stress Theory".
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283:
The term "stress" had none of its contemporary connotations before the 1920s. It is a form of the
2834:
van Kampen, H.S. (2019). "The principle of consistency and the cause and function of behaviour".
2761:
Koolhaas J, et al. (2011). "Stress revisited: A critical evaluation of the stress concept".
1937:
1439:) was coined in the mid-1970s, in part through the efforts of anti-Vietnam War activists and the
603:
310:
46:
31:
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1871:"Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry"
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friends, and take a break. Having support from a loved one also helps a lot in reducing stress.
677:(Th2). The proposed imbalance involved hyperactivity of the Th2 system leading to some forms of
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or embody the act of stress itself is part of the ambiguity in defining what exactly stress is.
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4019:"Psychological Trauma and Functional Somatic Syndromes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
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The second major physiological stress-response center, the HPA axis, regulates the release of
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109:
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3212:"The role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in neuroendocrine responses to stress"
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1985:
1811:"Neurobiology of BDNF in fear memory, sensitivity to stress, and stress-related disorders"
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to refer to the causative event or stimulus, as opposed to the resulting state of stress.
614:, which travel through the hypophysial portal vessel where they travel to and bind to the
305:
to refer to the internal distribution of a force exerted on a material body, resulting in
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Viner R (1999). "Putting Stress in Life: Hans Selye and the Making of Stress Theory".
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Khansari D.; Murgo A.; Faith R. (May 1990). "Effects of stress on the immune system".
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The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses, such as general trouble with the
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can also cause stress. Students and workers may face performance pressure stress from
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4266:"Maternal antenatal anxiety and children's behavioural/emotional problems at 4 years"
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3171:
3136:
3118:
3079:
3061:
3019:
3001:
2963:
2922:
2895:
2851:
2778:
2741:
2687:
2677:
2611:
2576:
2535:
2527:
2470:
2450:
2359:
2334:
2330:
2299:
2248:
2240:
2190:
2148:
2071:
1949:
1908:
1890:
1850:
1838:
1830:
1788:
1770:
1709:
1691:
1641:
1633:
1585:
1577:
1467:
1228:
1005:
937:
933:
923:
895:
771:
742:
717:
643:
545:
533:
434:
209:
193:
136:
4532:
3968:
3733:
3227:
3191:
2863:
2790:
2774:
2588:
2230:
2202:
1810:
1653:
1565:
1394:
started to adopt Selye's concept; they sought to quantify "life stress" by scoring "
4505:
4489:
4442:
4340:
4277:
4138:
4118:
4083:
4046:
4030:
3991:
3938:
3899:
3862:
3780:
3760:
3713:
3669:
3632:
3616:
3575:
3559:
3518:
3502:
3461:
3453:
3412:
3404:
3360:
3342:
3301:
3285:
3239:
3223:
3163:
3126:
3110:
3069:
3053:
3009:
2993:
2951:
2843:
2770:
2603:
2566:
2519:
2442:
2400:
2392:
2326:
2289:
2182:
2140:
2063:
1981:
1941:
1898:
1882:
1822:
1778:
1699:
1683:
1625:
1463:
1418:
became a key center of stress research, attempting to understand and reduce combat
1376:
1287:
822:
713:
678:
564:
553:
418:
403:
328:
302:
229:
148:
4087:
2523:
625:
The secretion of ACTH into systemic circulation allows it to bind to and activate
27:
Organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition or a stimulus
4557:
4478:"The "Father of Stress" Meets "Big Tobacco": Hans Selye and the Tobacco Industry"
4034:
2877:
2847:
2681:
1444:
1353:
1311:
1291:
1220:
1184:
1079:
818:
794:
619:
576:
426:
241:
205:
3620:
1886:
4446:
2446:
2144:
2011:
1999:
1930:. In Gelder, Michael; Andreasen, Nancy; Lopez-Ibor, Juan; Geddes, John (eds.).
1399:
1307:
1279:
838:
694:
651:
572:
568:
442:
332:
324:
284:
257:
171:
4344:
3995:
3717:
3563:
3408:
3167:
3114:
2571:
2554:
1826:
1629:
1114:
127:, which influences many bodily functions such as metabolic, psychological and
4630:
4501:
4493:
4414:
4042:
3952:
3858:
3628:
3571:
3514:
3356:
3347:
3297:
3235:
3175:
3122:
3065:
3005:
2881:
2531:
2454:
2244:
2186:
1894:
1834:
1774:
1695:
1637:
1581:
1407:
1391:
1162:
1032:
826:
778:
733:
658:
541:
453:
430:
316:
189:
160:
156:
132:
131:. The SAM and HPA axes are regulated by several brain regions, including the
128:
74:
66:
3802:
1207:, producing glucocorticoids (cortisol, aka the S-hormone or stress-hormone).
4519:
4291:
4130:
4060:
4003:
3960:
3911:
3903:
3876:
3772:
3725:
3646:
3589:
3532:
3475:
3442:"Stress and health: psychological, behavioral, and biological determinants"
3426:
3374:
3315:
3274:"STRESS AND HEALTH: Psychological, Behavioral, and Biological Determinants"
3253:
3183:
3140:
3083:
3023:
2855:
2782:
2580:
2396:
2338:
2303:
2252:
2194:
2152:
2075:
1912:
1842:
1792:
1713:
1645:
1589:
1529:
1514:
1357:
1299:
1166:
1158:
1098:
1067:
846:
767:
721:
537:
514:
438:
386:
319:
used it in 1926 to refer to external factors that disrupted what he called
261:
197:
144:
4352:
4282:
4265:
4095:
3681:
2955:
833:
Chronic stress also shifts learning, forming a preference for habit based
37:"Environmental stress" redirects here. For the manufacturing process, see
4550:
2607:
2539:
1426:
1415:
1232:
1200:
1192:
1150:
1028:
802:
662:
646:. Through these inputs, it receives and can respond to changes in blood.
607:
472:
437:
to its environment. Below there follows a brief biological background of
359:
351:
320:
117:
3040:
McKlveen, Jessica M.; Myers, Brent; Herman, James P. (7 February 2017).
1482:
to the kind of severe problems that might result in a real breakdown of
2067:
1544:
1479:
1335:
1331:
1203:, and increased glucose in blood. There is also some activation of the
1097:(e.g. prenatal exposure to maternal stress, poor attachment histories,
798:
700:
379:
368:
291:
164:
90:
70:
4608:
4454:
3764:
3506:
3390:
3272:
Schneiderman, Neil; Ironson, Gail; Siegel, Scott D. (1 January 2005).
3057:
2462:
1926:
Ehlers, Anke; Harvey, Allison G.; Bryant, Richard A. (October 2012) .
1383:
and the promotion of the concept of stress, clouding the link between
1338:
and he undertook extensive research programs and publication efforts.
894:. Where stress enhances function (physical or mental, such as through
777:
The immune system also plays a role in stress and the early stages of
232:(see below for further information). Chronic stress also causes brain
3439:
2997:
1471:
1411:
1403:
1036:
580:
560:
449:
253:
216:
54:
4252:
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
4122:
3748:
2686:. Foreword by Paul J. Rosch. Nova Science Publishers. p. viii.
2485:
1687:
3746:
3605:"HPA axis responsiveness to stress: Implications for healthy aging"
1509:
1475:
1419:
1361:
1303:
1275:
1224:
1052:
1040:
887:
881:
834:
814:
599:
584:
549:
411:
221:
140:
124:
94:
78:
2683:
Anthology of Stress Revisited: Selected Works Of James H. Humphrey
378:
The ambiguity in defining this phenomenon was first recognized by
264:. Specifically, acute and chronic stress have been shown to raise
4533:
Shalev, Arieh Y.; Yehuda, Rachel; Alexander C. McFarlane (2000).
4263:
2355:
The International Journal of Indian Psychology, Volume 1, Issue 1
1380:
1063:
1056:
1021:
899:
630:
355:
233:
2652:"Six ways to spot emotional manipulation before it destroys you"
2602:
Dattatreya, Shruthi (2014). "Can Stress Take the Cost of Life".
2317:
Keil R.M.K. (2004). "Coping and Stress: A Conceptual Analysis".
4074:
Selye (1975). "Confusion and controversy in the stress field".
2918:
The Handbook of Stress Science: Biology, Psychology, and Health
1966:
1672:"Neural Regulation of Endocrine and Autonomic Stress Responses"
1483:
1295:
1219:
is the second stage. During this stage, increased secretion of
1017:
737:
682:
666:
588:
372:
3703:
3393:"Stress, Age, and Immune Function: Toward a Lifespan Approach"
1980:
1869:
Segerstrom, Suzanne C.; Miller, Gregory E. (7 February 2017).
1566:"Cadmium-induced oxidative stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae"
813:
Chronic stress is seen to affect the parts of the brain where
464:
has also been associated with abnormalities in these systems.
4390:
2915:
PhD, Richard Contrada; PhD, Andrew Baum (29 September 2010).
2358:. Lulu International Press & RED'SHINE Publication. Inc.
1341:
While the work attracted continued support from advocates of
1083:
1048:
1044:
1013:
295:
4329:
3749:"Pediatric stress: hormonal mediators and human development"
2720:, I included the comments of one physician published in the
2053:
1027:
Social issues can also cause stress, such as struggles with
108:, which dedicates energy to more relevant bodily systems to
3818:
3816:
3814:
3812:
3747:
Charmandari E, Kino T, Souvatzoglou E, Chrousos GP (2003).
3659:
2056:
Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice
1809:
Notaras, Michael; van den Buuse, Maarten (3 January 2020).
1670:
Ulrich-Lai, Yvonne M.; Herman, James P. (7 February 2017).
1009:
1001:
4016:
3491:"Virus reactivation: a panoramic view in human infections"
2716:] had difficulties, and in helping him to prepare his
2165:
1564:
Nachiappan, Vasanthi; Muthukumar, Kannan (December 2010).
1134:
is the first stage, which is divided into two phases: the
886:
Selye published in year 1975 a model dividing stress into
100:
The sympathoadrenal medullary (SAM) axis may activate the
3488:
3271:
2712:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1414:
not necessarily tied to Selye's original hypotheses. The
1149:: During this phase, the body can endure changes such as
729:
417:
The central nervous system works closely with the body's
4217:
3809:
3841:
Yau, Yvonne H. C.; Potenza, Marc N. (7 February 2017).
3153:
50:
Schematic overview of the classes of stresses in plants
4333:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
3097:
El-Sheikh, Mona; Erath, Stephen A. (7 February 2017).
2130:
1745:
433:
functions in ways that ought to make an organism more
4108:
2876:
2553:
Goldstein, David S.; Kopin, Irwin J. (January 2007).
1450:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
4264:
O'Connor; Heron; Golding; Beveridge; Glover (2002).
4153:"The Silent Denial of Stress in a Competitive World"
2890:(2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. p.
1808:
1757:
Stephens, Mary Ann C.; Wand, Gary (1 January 2012).
1614:
1563:
301:, "to draw tight". The word had long been in use in
3391:Graham J.; Christian L.; Kiecolt-Glaser J. (2006).
3039:
271:However, it is possible for individuals to exhibit
4535:International handbook of human response to trauma
3822:Kalat, J. W. (2013). Biological Psychology. p. 383
3440:Schneiderman N.; Ironson G.; Siegel S. D. (2005).
3386:
3384:
3210:Smith, Sean M.; Vale, Wylie W. (7 February 2017).
2166:Cohen, S; Janicki-Deverts, D; Miller, GE. (2007).
1925:
1470:techniques were developed. The term also became a
1118:A diagram of the general adaptation syndrome model
905:The difference between experiences that result in
346:
268:and are associated with clinical coronary events.
3831:Kalat, J. W. (2013). Biological Psychology. p. 97
3653:
278:
4628:
1868:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1669:
4195:Stress, Coping, and Development, Second Edition
3981:
3381:
1474:, a way of referring to problems and eliciting
354:is a concept central to the idea of stress. In
4476:Petticrew, Mark P.; Lee, Kelley (March 2011).
4370:(2nd Canadian ed.). McGraw-Hill Ryerson.
4307:Affect Regulation & the Repair of the Self
3548:"Chronic Psychosocial Stress and Hypertension"
3096:
2941:
2552:
2275:
1109:
563:, increased heart rate and force contraction,
517:), and to higher level inputs from the brain.
4613:European Agency for Safety and Health at Work
3331:"Neural control of chronic stress adaptation"
3205:
3203:
3201:
3035:
3033:
2975:
2973:
2126:
2124:
1857:
1570:Indian Journal of Biochemistry and Biophysics
1379:from 1958 and they were undeclared allies in
837:, and decreased task flexibility and spatial
789:Chronic stress has also been shown to impair
753:Some studies have observed increased risk of
4475:
4428:
4426:
4424:
4365:
3740:
3697:
2986:American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education
2982:"Physiology of the Autonomic Nervous System"
2378:
1756:
1665:
1663:
1235:) and brings the body to a state similar to
1191:. Adrenaline temporarily provides increased
688:
313:. Excessive strain would appear as illness.
4180:Psychological Stress and the Coping Process
2649:
2316:
1169:—the stressor effect. This phase resembles
4537:. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.
3931:Acta Neurologica Scandinavica Supplementum
3840:
3596:
3198:
3030:
2970:
2833:
2601:
2276:Miller, G.; Chen, E.; Cole, S. W. (2009).
2121:
458:hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis
4509:
4421:
4366:Taylor, Shelley; Sirois, Fuschia (2012).
4281:
4050:
3942:
3890:Clauw, Daniel J. (2014). "Fibromyalgia".
3866:
3636:
3579:
3522:
3465:
3416:
3364:
3346:
3305:
3243:
3209:
3130:
3073:
3013:
2806:Stress: Conceptual and Biological Aspects
2570:
2404:
2293:
2159:
1902:
1804:
1802:
1782:
1703:
1660:
864:
720:. This type of stress saw in increase in
650:the release of neurotransmitters such as
87:hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
4222:Nutrients, Stress, and Medical Disorders
3927:"The chronic fatigue syndrome—an update"
3602:
2980:McCorry, Laurie Kelly (15 August 2007).
2823:. Kirkland, WA: Huber. pp. 313–334.
2760:
2740:(Rev. ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
2676:
2310:
2224:
1113:
928:Responses to stress include adaptation,
857:, as well as other mental illnesses and
616:corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor
471:
397:
202:International Classification of Diseases
53:
45:
4432:
4177:
3925:Wyller, Vegard Bruun (1 January 2007).
3545:
3458:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141
3290:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141
3267:
3265:
3263:
2979:
2827:
2483:
2351:
2112:
1410:bases of stress, conceived as a useful
14:
4629:
4304:
4298:
4211:
4192:
4186:
3924:
3328:
2914:
2803:
2763:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
2650:Worthington, James (9 November 2014).
2295:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163551
1799:
1364:" for positive stress, by contrast to
1321:
990:
968:
841:, probably through alterations of the
4642:Stress (biological and psychological)
4526:
4226:. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. pp.
4073:
3889:
3694:Powell, Brasel, & Blizzard, 1967.
3546:Spruill, Tanya M. (7 February 2017).
2818:
2735:
2432:
2379:Cooke-Taylor, C.R. (3 October 1936).
2108:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2094:
902:or withdrawal (depression) behavior.
629:, where it stimulates the release of
4393:Pathology: Medical student's library
3984:Psychiatric Clinics of North America
3446:Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
3335:Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience
3278:Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
3260:
2700:from the original on 24 October 2015
2115:7 and a half lessons about the brain
1936:(2nd ed.). oxfordmedicine.com:
467:
532:. The ANS receives inputs from the
24:
4581:from the original on 16 March 2017
4159:from the original on 19 April 2012
3603:Aguilera, Greti (1 January 2011).
3329:Herman, James P. (8 August 2013).
3216:Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
2944:Journal of Offender Rehabilitation
2718:First Annual report on Stress 1951
2658:from the original on 19 April 2015
2168:"Psychological Stress and Disease"
2091:
1946:10.1093/med/9780199696758.001.0001
1195:, increased blood pressure due to
808:
761:
425:becomes primarily active during a
421:to regulate these mechanisms. The
25:
4663:
4609:"Research on Work-Related Stress"
4597:
4571:"2015 Stress in America Snapshot"
4482:American Journal of Public Health
2555:"Evolution of concepts of stress"
2026:"Meaning of aetiology in English"
1933:New Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry
1763:Alcohol Research: Current Reviews
1596:from the original on 25 July 2019
1447:. The condition was added to the
755:upper respiratory tract infection
167:and susceptibility to diseases.
153:stress can alter memory functions
77:, is an organism's response to a
4604:The American Institute of Stress
4197:. New York: The Guilford Press.
3944:10.1111/j.1600-0404.2007.00840.x
2331:10.1046/j.1365-2648.2003.02955.x
1618:Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics
1441:Vietnam Veterans Against the War
1247:The third stage could be either
821:, including cortisol, which are
707:
429:, regulating many of the body's
112:adaptation to stress, while the
58:Neurohormonal response to stress
4563:
4469:
4384:
4359:
4323:
4257:
4244:
4171:
4145:
4102:
4067:
4010:
3975:
3918:
3883:
3834:
3825:
3787:
3688:
3539:
3482:
3433:
3322:
3147:
3103:Development and Psychopathology
3090:
2935:
2921:. Springer Publishing Company.
2908:
2870:
2812:
2797:
2775:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.02.003
2754:
2729:
2670:
2643:
2595:
2546:
2503:
2484:Demetre, D. C. (25 June 2007).
2477:
2426:
2413:
2372:
2345:
2269:
2259:
2082:
2047:
2018:
1227:, begins to act similarly to a
612:corticotropin releasing hormone
445:and how they relate to stress.
347:Biological need for equilibrium
30:For other kinds of stress, see
3397:Journal of Behavioral Medicine
2113:Barrett, Lisa Feldman (2020).
1973:
1919:
1720:
1608:
1557:
1432:post-traumatic stress disorder
1390:From the late 1960s, academic
1375:Selye was in contact with the
1326:The current usage of the word
784:
522:parasympathetic nervous system
279:Etymology and historical usage
114:parasympathetic nervous system
39:Environmental stress screening
13:
1:
4088:10.1080/0097840X.1975.9940406
3843:"Stress and Eating Behaviors"
3228:10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.4/ssmith
3046:Journal of Neuroendocrinology
2808:. Chichester, England: Wiley.
2524:10.1080/0097840X.1978.9934972
1550:
1455:posttraumatic stress disorder
1076:obsessive compulsive disorder
1031:or difficult individuals and
985:
955:spending time in a wilderness
748:
640:nucleus of the solitary tract
530:intermediolateral cell column
406:sensory system operates. The
177:
4395:. Radom University. p.
4035:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000010
3674:10.1016/0167-5699(90)90069-l
3552:Current Hypertension Reports
3156:Current Hypertension Reports
2848:10.1016/j.beproc.2018.12.013
2352:IJIP.In (31 December 2013).
1422:and psychiatric casualties.
1318:and other mental illnesses.
1103:Holmes and Rahe stress scale
1035:, or relationship conflict,
1012:, air and/or water quality,
859:functional somatic syndromes
793:in children by lowering the
392:cognitive-consistency theory
340:Holmes and Rahe stress scale
151:. Through these mechanisms,
7:
4111:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
3795:"Renew-Stress on the Brain"
3621:10.1016/j.exger.2010.08.023
2385:The British Medical Journal
2319:Journal of Advanced Nursing
2282:Annual Review of Psychology
2002:. bluebook.doc. p. 110
1887:10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.601
1676:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
1493:
1197:peripheral vasoconstriction
1110:General adaptation syndrome
1093:Adverse experiences during
1043:, and major events such as
875:
633:. Steroid hormones bind to
520:The ANS is composed of the
10:
4668:
4652:Sympathetic nervous system
4447:10.1177/030631299029003003
2447:10.1177/030631299029003003
2145:10.1037/0882-7974.18.2.250
2032:Cambridge University Press
2030:dictionary.cambridge.org (
1349:, for the general public.
1242:
1211:
1126:
921:
879:
868:
692:
526:sympathetic nervous system
423:sympathetic nervous system
181:
106:sympathetic nervous system
36:
29:
4435:Social Studies of Science
4345:10.1210/jcem.78.2.8106608
4309:. New York: W.W. Norton.
3996:10.1016/j.psc.2011.12.001
3718:10.1126/scisignal.2003595
3564:10.1007/s11906-009-0084-8
3409:10.1007/s10865-006-9057-4
3168:10.1007/s11906-015-0594-5
3115:10.1017/S0954579411000034
2572:10.1080/10253890701288935
2435:Social Studies of Science
1995:World Health Organization
1827:10.1038/s41380-019-0639-2
1759:"Stress and the HPA Axis"
1630:10.1007/s12013-013-9667-8
1535:Stress in early childhood
1360:. Selye coined the term "
1062:Life experiences such as
917:
909:and those that result in
774:and metabolic disorders.
689:Effects of chronic stress
4494:10.2105/AJPH.2009.177634
4193:Aldwin, Carolyn (2007).
4182:. New York: McGraw-Hill.
3609:Experimental Gerontology
3348:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00061
2187:10.1001/jama.298.14.1685
1928:"Acute stress reactions"
1525:Trier social stress test
1520:Plant stress measurement
1500:Autonomic nervous system
1271:autonomic nervous system
1189:fight-or-flight response
851:chronic fatigue syndrome
635:glucocorticoid receptors
620:anterior pituitary gland
511:autonomic nervous system
102:fight-or-flight response
83:autonomic nervous system
4076:Journal of Human Stress
3847:Minerva Endocrinologica
2722:British Medical Journal
2512:Journal of Human Stress
2233:Ethnicity & Disease
1938:Oxford University Press
1396:significant life events
716:and down regulation of
679:immune hypersensitivity
604:paraventricular nucleus
200:, are experienced. The
129:immunological functions
4305:Schore, Allan (2003).
4178:Lazarus, R.S. (1966).
4023:Psychosomatic Medicine
3904:10.1001/jama.2014.3266
3799:The Franklin Institute
2880:; Gilbert, Daniel T.;
2631:Cite journal requires
2397:10.1136/bmj.2.3952.694
1875:Psychological Bulletin
1343:psychosomatic medicine
1263:regeneration of cells.
1119:
1090:and project deadlines.
1000:Sensory input such as
871:Stress (psychological)
865:Psychological concepts
506:
408:central nervous system
251:coronary heart disease
59:
51:
4283:10.1192/bjp.180.6.502
2956:10.1300/J076v36n01_04
2836:Behavioural Processes
2804:Toates, F.M. (1995).
2710:Even Selve [
1540:Weathering hypothesis
1177:) may be experienced.
1117:
627:Melanocortin receptor
475:
454:catecholamine systems
398:Biological background
365:major physical trauma
57:
49:
4556:17 June 2007 at the
2736:Selye, Hans (1978).
2654:. The Fusion Model.
2608:10.2139/ssrn.2456211
2381:"Stress of Homework"
2212:on 24 September 2015
2133:Psychology and Aging
1815:Molecular Psychiatry
945:psychological stress
930:psychological coping
843:dopaminergic systems
791:developmental growth
726:natural killer cells
204:includes a group of
184:Psychological stress
116:returns the body to
2878:Schacter, Daniel L.
1728:"Biology of stress"
1322:History in research
1316:clinical depression
1072:clinical depression
991:Health risk factors
969:Cognitive appraisal
593:bronchoconstriction
462:Aggressive behavior
4619:Coping With Stress
2738:The stress of life
2678:Humphrey, James H.
2068:10.1111/papt.12089
1505:Defense physiology
1385:smoking and cancer
1237:hyperaldosteronism
1120:
1082:, or insufficient
507:
260:and its etiologic
196:, and anxiety and
60:
52:
4544:978-0-306-46095-1
4406:978-83-61047-18-6
4368:Health Psychology
4316:978-0-393-70407-5
4237:978-1-58829-432-6
4204:978-1-57230-840-4
4155:. 17 March 2012.
3765:10.1159/000069325
3706:Science Signaling
3507:10.2217/fvl.11.21
3058:10.1111/jne.12272
2928:978-0-8261-1771-7
2882:Wegner, Daniel M.
2365:978-1-365-01645-5
2181:(14): 1685–1687.
1982:Sartorius, Norman
1821:(10): 2251–2274.
1468:stress management
1229:mineralocorticoid
1175:circulatory shock
1171:Addison's disease
934:stress management
924:Stress management
896:strength training
743:influenza vaccine
718:specific immunity
671:cellular immunity
644:lamina terminalis
546:prefrontal cortex
502:pituitary gland=
468:Biology of stress
450:serotonin systems
215:which have their
194:depersonalization
137:prefrontal cortex
18:Stress (medicine)
16:(Redirected from
4659:
4647:Endocrine system
4637:Stress (biology)
4591:
4590:
4588:
4586:
4567:
4561:
4548:
4530:
4524:
4523:
4513:
4473:
4467:
4466:
4430:
4419:
4418:
4388:
4382:
4381:
4363:
4357:
4356:
4327:
4321:
4320:
4302:
4296:
4295:
4285:
4261:
4255:
4248:
4242:
4241:
4225:
4215:
4209:
4208:
4190:
4184:
4183:
4175:
4169:
4168:
4166:
4164:
4149:
4143:
4142:
4106:
4100:
4099:
4071:
4065:
4064:
4054:
4014:
4008:
4007:
3979:
3973:
3972:
3946:
3922:
3916:
3915:
3887:
3881:
3880:
3870:
3838:
3832:
3829:
3823:
3820:
3807:
3806:
3801:. Archived from
3791:
3785:
3784:
3753:Hormone Research
3744:
3738:
3737:
3701:
3695:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3662:Immunology Today
3657:
3651:
3650:
3640:
3600:
3594:
3593:
3583:
3543:
3537:
3536:
3526:
3486:
3480:
3479:
3469:
3437:
3431:
3430:
3420:
3388:
3379:
3378:
3368:
3350:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3309:
3269:
3258:
3257:
3247:
3207:
3196:
3195:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3134:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3077:
3037:
3028:
3027:
3017:
2998:10.5688/aj710478
2977:
2968:
2967:
2939:
2933:
2932:
2912:
2906:
2905:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2816:
2810:
2809:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2769:(5): 1291–1301.
2758:
2752:
2751:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2707:
2705:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2634:
2629:
2627:
2619:
2599:
2593:
2592:
2574:
2550:
2544:
2543:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2486:"What is Stress"
2481:
2475:
2474:
2430:
2424:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2297:
2273:
2267:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2211:
2205:. Archived from
2172:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2128:
2119:
2118:
2110:
2089:
2086:
2080:
2079:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2009:
2007:
1990:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1964:
1962:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1906:
1866:
1855:
1854:
1806:
1797:
1796:
1786:
1754:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1707:
1667:
1658:
1657:
1624:(3): 1353–1363.
1612:
1606:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1561:
1464:workplace stress
1377:tobacco industry
1288:digestive system
823:steroid hormones
714:natural immunity
675:humoral immunity
631:steroid hormones
565:vasoconstriction
554:monoamine nuclei
505:
500:
495:
486:
481:
419:endocrine system
404:psychobiological
172:mental illnesses
149:stria terminalis
21:
4667:
4666:
4662:
4661:
4660:
4658:
4657:
4656:
4627:
4626:
4624:
4600:
4595:
4594:
4584:
4582:
4569:
4568:
4564:
4558:Wayback Machine
4545:
4531:
4527:
4474:
4470:
4431:
4422:
4407:
4389:
4385:
4378:
4364:
4360:
4328:
4324:
4317:
4303:
4299:
4270:Br J Psychiatry
4262:
4258:
4249:
4245:
4238:
4216:
4212:
4205:
4191:
4187:
4176:
4172:
4162:
4160:
4151:
4150:
4146:
4123:10.1038/nrn1683
4107:
4103:
4072:
4068:
4015:
4011:
3980:
3976:
3923:
3919:
3898:(15): 1547–55.
3888:
3884:
3839:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3821:
3810:
3805:on 11 May 2012.
3793:
3792:
3788:
3745:
3741:
3702:
3698:
3693:
3689:
3658:
3654:
3601:
3597:
3544:
3540:
3495:Future Virology
3487:
3483:
3438:
3434:
3389:
3382:
3327:
3323:
3270:
3261:
3208:
3199:
3152:
3148:
3095:
3091:
3038:
3031:
2978:
2971:
2940:
2936:
2929:
2913:
2909:
2902:
2875:
2871:
2832:
2828:
2817:
2813:
2802:
2798:
2759:
2755:
2748:
2734:
2730:
2703:
2701:
2694:
2675:
2671:
2661:
2659:
2648:
2644:
2632:
2630:
2621:
2620:
2600:
2596:
2551:
2547:
2508:
2504:
2494:
2492:
2490:sciencebeta.com
2482:
2478:
2431:
2427:
2418:
2414:
2377:
2373:
2366:
2350:
2346:
2315:
2311:
2274:
2270:
2264:
2260:
2229:
2225:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2170:
2164:
2160:
2129:
2122:
2111:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2052:
2048:
2038:
2036:
2024:
2023:
2019:
2005:
2003:
1988:
1978:
1974:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1924:
1920:
1867:
1858:
1807:
1800:
1755:
1746:
1736:
1734:
1726:
1725:
1721:
1688:10.1038/nrn2647
1668:
1661:
1613:
1609:
1599:
1597:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1496:
1445:Chaim F. Shatan
1354:biopsychosocial
1324:
1312:angina pectoris
1302:/obstipation),
1292:occult bleeding
1245:
1221:glucocorticoids
1214:
1185:locus coeruleus
1181:Antishock phase
1129:
1112:
993:
988:
971:
936:, anxiety, and
926:
920:
884:
878:
873:
867:
819:glucocorticoids
811:
809:Psychopathology
795:pituitary gland
787:
764:
762:Chronic disease
751:
710:
697:
691:
577:gluconeogenesis
569:bronchodilation
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
487:
484:
482:
479:
478:hypothalamus =
477:
470:
427:stress response
400:
349:
281:
242:allostatic load
186:
180:
161:immune function
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4665:
4655:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4622:
4621:
4616:
4606:
4599:
4598:External links
4596:
4593:
4592:
4562:
4543:
4525:
4488:(3): 411–418.
4468:
4441:(3): 391–410.
4420:
4405:
4383:
4377:978-0070319790
4376:
4358:
4339:(2): 249–255.
4322:
4315:
4297:
4256:
4254:, v46 n6 p737.
4243:
4236:
4210:
4203:
4185:
4170:
4144:
4117:(6): 463–475.
4101:
4066:
4009:
3974:
3917:
3882:
3853:(3): 255–267.
3833:
3824:
3808:
3786:
3739:
3696:
3687:
3668:(5): 170–175.
3652:
3615:(2–3): 90–95.
3595:
3538:
3501:(4): 451–463.
3481:
3452:(1): 607–628.
3432:
3403:(4): 389–400.
3380:
3321:
3259:
3222:(4): 383–395.
3197:
3146:
3109:(2): 703–721.
3089:
3052:(6): 446–456.
3029:
2969:
2950:(1–4): 67–87.
2934:
2927:
2907:
2901:978-1429237192
2900:
2869:
2826:
2811:
2796:
2753:
2746:
2728:
2692:
2669:
2642:
2633:|journal=
2594:
2565:(2): 109–120.
2545:
2502:
2476:
2441:(3): 391–410.
2425:
2419:W. B. Cannon;
2412:
2371:
2364:
2344:
2325:(6): 659–665.
2309:
2268:
2258:
2239:(3): 451–462.
2223:
2158:
2139:(2): 250–267.
2120:
2090:
2081:
2062:(4): 445–463.
2046:
2017:
2012:Microsoft Bing
2000:Microsoft Word
1972:
1954:
1918:
1881:(4): 601–630.
1856:
1798:
1769:(4): 468–483.
1744:
1719:
1682:(6): 397–409.
1659:
1607:
1576:(6): 383–387.
1555:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1495:
1492:
1400:neuroendocrine
1347:Stress of Life
1323:
1320:
1314:), along with
1308:cardiovascular
1284:
1283:
1280:decompensation
1264:
1244:
1241:
1213:
1210:
1209:
1208:
1193:muscular tonus
1178:
1155:hypoosmolarity
1138:phase and the
1128:
1125:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1091:
1080:heavy drinking
1060:
1025:
1024:, or mobility.
992:
989:
987:
984:
970:
967:
922:Main article:
919:
916:
880:Main article:
877:
874:
869:Main article:
866:
863:
839:working memory
810:
807:
786:
783:
763:
760:
750:
747:
709:
706:
695:Chronic stress
693:Main article:
690:
687:
652:neuropeptide Y
573:glycogenolysis
469:
466:
443:neurochemistry
399:
396:
348:
345:
333:immune systems
290:, derived via
285:Middle English
280:
277:
182:Main article:
179:
176:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4664:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4634:
4632:
4625:
4620:
4617:
4614:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4601:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4566:
4559:
4555:
4552:
4546:
4540:
4536:
4529:
4521:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4472:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4429:
4427:
4425:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4387:
4379:
4373:
4369:
4362:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4326:
4318:
4312:
4308:
4301:
4293:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4260:
4253:
4247:
4239:
4233:
4229:
4224:
4223:
4214:
4206:
4200:
4196:
4189:
4181:
4174:
4158:
4154:
4148:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4105:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4070:
4062:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4013:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3978:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3921:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3886:
3878:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3837:
3828:
3819:
3817:
3815:
3813:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3790:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3759:(4): 161–79.
3758:
3754:
3750:
3743:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3700:
3691:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3656:
3648:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3599:
3591:
3587:
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3577:
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3569:
3565:
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3542:
3534:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3485:
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3436:
3428:
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3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
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3385:
3376:
3372:
3367:
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3358:
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3336:
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3317:
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3251:
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3112:
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3067:
3063:
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3043:
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3034:
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3016:
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3007:
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2995:
2991:
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2983:
2976:
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2961:
2957:
2953:
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2945:
2938:
2930:
2924:
2920:
2919:
2911:
2903:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2873:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2822:
2815:
2807:
2800:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2749:
2747:9780070562127
2743:
2739:
2732:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2714:
2699:
2695:
2693:9781594546402
2689:
2685:
2684:
2679:
2673:
2657:
2653:
2646:
2638:
2625:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
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2578:
2573:
2568:
2564:
2560:
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2529:
2525:
2521:
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2506:
2491:
2487:
2480:
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2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2429:
2422:
2416:
2407:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2391:(3952): 694.
2390:
2386:
2382:
2375:
2367:
2361:
2357:
2356:
2348:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
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2279:
2272:
2262:
2254:
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2246:
2242:
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2162:
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2138:
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2127:
2125:
2116:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2085:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2050:
2035:
2033:
2027:
2021:
2013:
2001:
1997:
1996:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1968:
1957:
1955:9780199696758
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
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1993:www.who.int
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1530:Xenohormesis
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416:
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266:serum lipids
262:risk factors
247:
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198:hyperarousal
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4029:(1): 2–11.
3284:: 607–628.
2518:(1): 3–15.
2288:: 501–524.
1732:CESH / CSHS
1427:psychiatric
1416:US military
1233:aldosterone
1201:tachycardia
1151:hypovolemia
1147:Shock phase
1095:development
1029:conspecific
803:child abuse
785:Development
663:bone marrow
608:vasopressin
483:amygdala =
360:biochemical
352:Homeostasis
321:homeostasis
118:homeostasis
4631:Categories
3755:(Review).
3708:(Review).
3162:(10): 80.
2887:Psychology
2117:. Picador.
1551:References
1545:Endorphins
1480:irritation
1429:diagnosis
1381:litigation
1336:physiology
1332:Hans Selye
1310:problems (
1306:, or even
1267:Exhaustion
1249:exhaustion
1217:Resistance
986:Assessment
938:depression
855:depression
799:alcoholism
772:depression
749:Infectious
701:allostatic
673:(Th1) and
606:, release
456:, and the
380:Hans Selye
369:starvation
311:resilience
292:Old French
226:depression
210:behavioral
178:Psychology
165:metabolism
91:adrenaline
71:biological
65:, whether
4615:(EU-OSHA)
4502:0090-0036
4463:145291588
4415:750538315
4043:0033-3174
3953:0065-1427
3859:0391-1977
3629:0531-5565
3572:1522-6417
3515:1746-0794
3357:1662-5153
3298:1548-5943
3236:1294-8322
3176:1534-3111
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1835:1476-5578
1775:2168-3492
1696:1471-003X
1638:1559-0283
1582:0975-0959
1472:euphemism
1412:heuristic
1404:molecular
1140:antishock
1041:break ups
1037:deception
825:that the
581:lipolysis
561:mydriasis
329:endocrine
299:stringere
294:from the
288:destresse
273:hardiness
258:mortality
254:morbidity
222:delusions
217:aetiology
213:disorders
4579:Archived
4554:Archived
4520:20466961
4292:12042228
4163:17 March
4157:Archived
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1600:1 August
1594:Archived
1590:21355423
1510:HPA axis
1494:See also
1476:sympathy
1420:neurosis
1370:stressor
1366:distress
1362:eustress
1352:A broad
1304:diabetes
1276:ischemia
1260:Recovery
1253:recovery
1225:cortisol
1205:HPA axis
1053:marriage
932:such as
911:distress
907:eustress
892:distress
888:eustress
882:Eustress
876:Eustress
835:learning
815:memories
665:and the
600:HPA axis
585:sweating
550:midbrain
435:adaptive
412:stressor
141:amygdala
125:cortisol
95:cortisol
79:stressor
4585:6 April
4551:on-line
4511:3036703
4353:8106608
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2006:23 June
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1243:Stage 3
1212:Stage 2
1142:phase.
1127:Stage 1
1064:poverty
1057:divorce
1022:freedom
1014:housing
900:anxiety
618:on the
534:medulla
358:, most
356:biology
325:nervous
303:physics
234:atrophy
230:anxiety
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1018:health
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589:miosis
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331:, and
307:strain
206:mental
157:reward
147:, and
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4459:S2CID
4451:JSTOR
4135:S2CID
3965:S2CID
3777:S2CID
3730:S2CID
3188:S2CID
2960:S2CID
2860:S2CID
2787:S2CID
2704:2 May
2585:S2CID
2467:S2CID
2459:JSTOR
2210:(PDF)
2199:S2CID
2171:(PDF)
1989:(PDF)
1979:Drs;
1847:S2CID
1650:S2CID
1136:shock
1132:Alarm
1088:exams
1084:sleep
1045:birth
1039:, or
801:, or
296:Latin
110:acute
4587:2017
4539:ISBN
4516:PMID
4498:ISSN
4411:OCLC
4401:ISBN
4372:ISBN
4349:PMID
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4288:PMID
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2664:2015
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