962:
576:, lateral budding from axial polyps form the basis of the trunk and branches. The rate at which a stony coral colony lays down calcium carbonate depends on the species, but some of the branching species can increase in height or length by around 10 cm (4 in) a year (about the same rate as human hair grows). Other corals, like the dome and plate species, are more bulky and may only grow 0.3 to 2 cm (0.1 to 0.8 in) per year. The rate of aragonite deposition varies diurnally and seasonally. Examination of cross sections of coral can show bands of deposition indicating annual growth. Like tree rings, these can be used to estimate the age of the coral.
731:
673:. There are sometimes as many as five million cells of these per 1 square centimetre (0.16 sq in) of coral tissue. Up to 50% of organic compounds produced by symbionts are used as food by polyps. The oxygen byproduct of photosynthesis and the additional energy derived from sugars produced by zooxanthellae enable these corals to grow at a rate up to three times faster than similar species without symbionts. These corals typically grow in shallow, well-lit, warm water with moderate to brisk turbulence and abundant oxygen, and prefer firm, non-muddy surfaces on which to settle.
551:
759:
989:, with little realisation by the authors that coral species could have varying morphologies in different habitats. Collectors were mostly limited to observing corals on reef flats, and were unable to observe the changes in morphology that occurred in more turbid, deeper-water conditions. More than 2,000 nominal species were described in this era, and by the rules of nomenclature, the name given to the first described species has precedence over the rest, even when that description is poor, and the environment and even sometimes the country of the
953:(non-symbiotic) corals. Endosymbionts, on the other hand, which rely on specialized conditions and access to light to survive, are especially vulnerable to prolonged darkness, temperature change, and eutrophication, all of which have been hallmarks of past mass extinctions. This makes zooxanthellate coral especially vulnerable to unstable conditions. Therefore, it is possible that coral and zooxanthellate coevolved loosely, with the relationship dissolving when advantages decreased, then reforming when conditions stabilized.
559:
153:
896:
113:
629:
2556:
830:
466:
1715:
385:
880:. A rugose coral seems an unlikely common ancestor because these corals had calcite rather than aragonite skeletons, and the septa were arranged serially rather than cyclically. However, it may be that similarities of scleractinians to rugosans are due to a common non-skeletalized ancestor in the early Paleozoic. Alternatively, scleractinians may have developed from a
817:, and reduces the risk of self-fertilization. Immediately after spawning, the eggs are delayed in their capability for fertilization until after the release of polar bodies. This delay, and possibly some degree of self-incompatibility, likely increases the chance of cross-fertilization. A study of four species of
947:
The fact that zooxanthellate coral make up only about half of the order is unusual, as symbiosis is almost always an all-or-nothing phenomenon. This symbiotic equilibrium suggests that there must be evolutionary processes simultaneously maintaining and limiting symbiotic relationships. This is likely
706:
Non-zooxanthellate corals are usually not reef-formers; they can be found most abundantly beneath about 500 m (1,600 ft) of water. They thrive at much colder temperatures and can live in total darkness, deriving their energy from the capture of plankton and suspended organic particles. The
1057:
The rise of molecular techniques at the end of the 20th century prompted new evolutionary hypotheses that were different from ones founded on skeletal data. Results of molecular studies explained a variety of aspects of the evolutionary biology of the
Scleractinia, including connections between and
1045:
stressed the importance of microstructural observations by proposing that stony corals begin skeletal growth by configuring calcification centers, which are genetically derived. Therefore, diverse patterns of calcification centers are vital to classification. Alloiteau later showed that established
789:
Under adverse conditions, certain species of coral resort to another type of asexual reproduction in the form of "polyp bail-out", which may allow polyps to survive even though the parent colony dies. It involves the growth of the coenosarc to seal off the polyps, detachment of the polyps and their
451:
extending over the outer surface of the skeleton and completely covering it. These sheets are continuous with the body wall of the polyps, and include extensions of the gastrovascular cavity, so that food and water can circulate between all the different members of the colony. In colonial species,
919:
at the end of the
Cretaceous, about 18 out of 67 genera surviving. Recently discovered Paleozoic corals with aragonitic skeletons and cyclic septal insertion – two features that characterize Scleractinia – have strengthened the hypothesis for an independent origin of the Scleractinia. Whether the
566:
In colonial corals, growth results from the budding of new polyps. There are two types of budding, intratentacular and extratentacular. In intratentacular budding, a new polyp develops on the oral disc, inside the ring of tentacles. This can form individual, separate polyps or a row of partially
771:
The most common means of asexual reproduction in colonial stony corals is by fragmentation. Pieces of branching corals may get detached during storms, by strong water movement or by mechanical means, and fragments fall to the sea bed. In suitable conditions, these are capable of adhering to the
456:
of the polyps causes the corallites to be interconnected, thus forming the colonies. Also, cases exist in which the adjacent colonies of the same species form a single colony by fusing. Most colonial species have very small polyps, ranging from 1 to 3 mm (0.04 to 0.12 in) in diameter,
996:
Even the concept of "the species" is suspect, with regard to corals which have large geographical ranges with a number of sub-populations; their geographic boundaries merge with those of other species; their morphological boundaries merge with those of other species; and there are no definite
952:
appears to be an evolutionary disadvantage during mass extinctions. Traits that generally enable corals to survive mass extinction include deep-water or large habitat range, non-symbiotic, solitary or small colonies, and bleaching resistance, all of which tend to characterize azooxanthellate
567:
separated polyps sharing an elongate oral disc with a series of mouths. Tentacles grow around the margin of this elongated oral disc and not around the individual mouths. This is surrounded by a single corallite wall, as is the case in the meandroid corallites of brain corals.
707:
growth rates of most species of non-zooxanthellate corals are significantly slower than those of their counterparts, and the typical structure for these corals is less calcified and more susceptible to mechanical damage than that of zooxanthellate corals.
1100:
RNA in 1996 to obtain similar results to Romano and
Palumbi, again concluding that the traditional families were plausible but that the suborders were incorrect. They also established that stony corals are monophyletic, including all the descendants of a
1000:
The evolutionary relationships among stony corals were first examined in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The two most advanced 19th century classifications both used complex skeletal characters; The 1857 classification of the French zoologists
1036:
The 1952 classification by French zoologist J. Alloiteau was built on these earlier systems but included more microstructural observations and did not involve the anatomical characters of the polyp. Alloiteau recognized eight suborders. In 1942,
702:
stony corals are generally nocturnal, with the polyps retracting into their skeletons during the day, thus maximising the exposure of the zooxanthellae to the light, but in the Indo-Pacific region, many species feed by day and night.
496:
The septa are secreted by the mesenteries, and are therefore added in the same order as the mesenteries are. As a result, septa of different ages are adjacent to one another, and the symmetry of the scleractinian skeleton is
790:
settlement on the seabed to initiate new colonies. In other species, small balls of tissue detach themselves from the coenosarc, differentiate into polyps and start secreting calcium carbonate to form new colonies, and in
914:
The earliest scleractinians were not reef builders, but were small, phaceloid or solitary individuals. Scleractinian corals were probably at their greatest diversity in the
Jurassic and all but disappeared in the
344:
are mostly colonial; most of these are zooxanthellate and are found in the shallow waters into which sunlight penetrates. Other corals that do not form reefs may be solitary or colonial; some of these occur at
285:
to protect its soft body. Solitary corals can be as much as 25 cm (10 in) across but in colonial species the polyps are usually only a few millimetres in diameter. These polyps reproduce asexually by
692:; these trap small organic particles which are then pulled towards and into the mouth. In a few stony corals, this is the primary method of feeding, and the tentacles are reduced or absent, an example being
804:
The overwhelming majority of scleractinian taxa are hermaphroditic in their adult colonies. In temperate regions, the usual pattern is synchronized release of eggs and sperm into the water during brief
738:
Stony corals have a great range of reproductive strategies and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Many species have separate sexes, the whole colony being either male or female, but others are
1692:
Petersen LE., Kellermann M.Y., Schupp P.J. (2019) "Secondary
Metabolites of Marine Microbes: From Natural Products Chemistry to Chemical Ecology". In: Jungblut S., Liebich V., Bode-Dalby M. (eds)
432:
that fills the interior of the body and tentacles. Unlike other cnidarians however, the cavity is subdivided by a number of radiating partitions, thin sheets of living tissue, known as
734:
Settlement and early life stages of scleractinian corals. This figure highlights on the first steps of a coral larvae (searching, attachment, and metamorphosis) toward an adult coral.
1105:, but that they are divided into two groups, the robust and complex clades. Veron suggested that both morphological and molecular systems be used in future classification schemes.
920:
early scleractinian corals were zooxanthellate is an open question. The phenomenon seems to have evolved independently on numerous occasions during the
Tertiary, and the genera
742:, with individual polyps having both male and female gonads. Some species brood their eggs but in most species, sexual reproduction results in the production of a free-swimming
608:-builders. Ahermatypic corals are either colonial or solitary and are found in all regions of the ocean and do not build reefs. Some live in tropical waters but some inhabit
961:
884:-like ancestor. It seems that skeletogenesis may have been associated with the development of symbiosis and reef formation, and may have occurred on more than one occasion.
309:
within their tissues. These give their colour to the coral which thus may vary in hue depending on what species of symbiont it contains. Stony corals are closely related to
509:
insertion is termed "cyclic" by paleontologists. By contrast, in some fossil corals, adjacent septa lie in order of increasing age, a pattern termed serial and produces a
1018:
821:
found that cross-fertilization was actually the dominant mating pattern, although three of the species were also capable of self-fertilization to varying extents.
1114:
1501:; Anders Meibom, Radoslaw Przenioslo and Maciej Mazur; Przeniosło, Radosław; Mazur, Maciej (2007). "A Cretaceous Scleractinian Coral with a Calcitic Skeleton".
813:, the eggs and sperm are released in buoyant bundles which rise to the surface. This increases the concentration of sperm and eggs and thus the likelihood of
1303:
1498:
301:
colony depends not only on the species, but also on its location, depth, the amount of water movement and other factors. Many shallow-water corals contain
849:
There is little evidence on which to base a hypothesis about the origin of the scleractinians; plenty is known about modern species but very little about
1151:
3346:
1933:
1484:
1013:'s 1897 scheme was developed using observations of skeletal microstructures, with particular attention to the structure and pattern of the septal
3207:
2792:
864:). It was not until 25 million years later that they became important reef builders, their success likely a result of teaming up with symbiotic
809:
events, often related to the phases of the moon. In tropical regions, reproduction may occur throughout the year. In many cases, as in the genus
1029:. In addition, they considered polypoid features such as the growth of the tentacles. They also distinguished families by wall type and type of
1257:
3246:
2658:
719:
715:
277:
and have a cylindrical body crowned by an oral disc in which a mouth is fringed with tentacles. Although some species are solitary, most are
579:
Solitary corals do not bud. They gradually increase in size as they deposit more calcium carbonate and produce new whorls of septa. A large
538:. The structure of both simple and compound scleractinians is light and porous, rather than solid as is the case in the prehistoric order
1752:
Dissertation zur
Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Naturwissenschaften der Fakultät für Biologie der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
1058:
within extant taxa, and supplied support for hypotheses about extant corals that are founded on the fossil record. The 1996 analysis of
2371:
Stolarski, Jarosław; Roniewicz, Ewa (2001). "Towards a new synthesis of evolutionary relationships and classification of
Scleractini".
916:
420:. The base of the polyp secretes the stony material from which the coral skeleton is formed. The body wall of the polyp consists of
3181:
3220:
570:
Extratentacular budding always results in separate polyps, each with its own corallite wall. In the case of bushy corals such as
876:(100 million years ago). Some may have developed from a common ancestor, either an anemone-like coral without a skeleton, or a
2737:
485:
of the lower part of the body, and initially forms a cup surrounding this part of the polyp. The interior of the cup contains
2889:
2344:
2310:
1998:
1709:
1617:
1563:
1468:
1332:
750:
into a polyp. In colonial species, this initial polyp then repeatedly divides asexually, to give rise to the entire colony.
3225:
585:
for example normally has a single mouth, may be about 25 cm (10 in) long and have more than a thousand septa.
2812:
1418:
2827:
3308:
2932:
2772:
2462:
1877:
1372:
1126:
3251:
2863:
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sandwiched between two layers of epidermis. The mouth is at the centre of the oral disc and leads into a tubular
2384:
2027:
1129:
lists the following families as being included in the order
Scleractinia. Some species have not been placeable (
3233:
2787:
1968:
1353:
Stanley, G. D. The evolution of modern corals and their early history. Earth-Science Rev. 60, 195–225 (2003).
2712:
1882:, Willis BL; Babcock; Bull; Oliver; Wallace; Willis (March 1984). "Mass spawning in tropical reef corals".
1497:
730:
330:
2112:
Dishon, Gal; Grossowicz, Michal; Krom, Michael; Guy, Gilad; Gruber, David F.; Tchernov, Dan (2020-03-03).
1793:"Polyp bail-out : an escape response to environmental stress and new means of reproduction in corals"
3129:
3116:
2817:
2777:
1589:
868:. Nine of the sub-orders were in existence by the end of the Triassic and three more had appeared by the
498:
152:
17:
3134:
782:
have been shown to be capable of forming new colonies after fragmentation. This process is used in the
3300:
294:
with a common skeleton, which may be up to several metres in diameter or height according to species.
3351:
3261:
2904:
2669:
1658:
Adi
Zweifler; Noa Simon-Blecher; Daniela Pica; Benny K. K. Chan; Jonathan Roth; Yair Achituv (2020).
470:
369:
1025:, and Wells again in 1956, used the patterns of the septal trabeculae to divide the group into five
3313:
2914:
2767:
2732:
1364:
2409:
1117:(CITES) meaning that their international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated.
2757:
481:
The skeleton of an individual scleractinian polyp is known as a corallite. It is secreted by the
368:
is currently unresolved. In modern times stony corals numbers are expected to decline due to the
1947:
Stanley, G. D. (1981). "Early history of scleractinian corals and its geological consequences".
3094:
3056:
2899:
2752:
792:
684:
and even small fish. In addition to capturing prey in this way, many stony corals also produce
209:
3287:
2300:
1835:
Heyward, A.J.; Babcock, R.C. (1986). "Self- and cross-fertilization in scleractinian corals".
1553:
493:, projecting upwards from the base. Each of these plates is flanked by a pair of mesenteries.
3341:
3336:
3282:
2894:
2858:
2822:
2664:
2652:
2630:
2334:
1927:
1603:
1010:
841:
778:
763:
550:
429:
3274:
3212:
542:. Scleractinians are also distinguished from rugosans by their pattern of septal insertion.
3155:
3103:
3004:
2942:
2747:
2455:
2190:
2125:
1956:
1891:
1844:
1804:
1510:
1047:
1038:
944:, all in different families, each have both zooxanthellate and non-zooxanthellate members.
453:
396:. Colonies can reach considerable size, consisting of a large number of individual polyps.
8:
2922:
2717:
2692:
1657:
1424:
1002:
982:
773:
758:
514:
513:. Scleractinians secrete a stony exoskeleton in which the septa are inserted between the
486:
482:
373:
2194:
2129:
2114:"Evolutionary Traits that Enable Scleractinian Corals to Survive Mass Extinction Events"
1960:
1895:
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2221:
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2154:
2094:
2039:
2031:
1915:
1860:
1534:
1478:
978:
694:
581:
510:
502:
234:
147:
3269:
3142:
3108:
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2722:
2340:
2306:
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2265:
2226:
2208:
2159:
2141:
2086:
2078:
2014:
Ezaki, Yoichi (1998). "Paleozoic Scleractinia: progenitors or extinct experiments?".
1994:
1907:
1705:
1613:
1559:
1526:
1464:
1156:
1082:
873:
521:
444:, the stony cup in which it sits, being pulled back by sheet-like retractor muscles.
282:
3121:
2679:
2285:
2098:
2043:
1919:
1864:
1538:
596:
Stony corals occur in all the world's oceans. There are two main ecological groups.
3034:
3009:
2625:
2582:
2506:
2380:
2257:
2216:
2198:
2149:
2133:
2070:
2023:
1964:
1899:
1852:
1812:
1697:
1675:
1518:
1181:
1074:
1046:
morphological classifications were unbalanced and that there were many examples of
900:
881:
680:, but those with larger polyps take correspondingly larger prey, including various
658:
647:
597:
393:
341:
278:
2059:"Species selection and the macroevolution of coral coloniality and photosymbiosis"
1903:
1664:(Balnoidea: Pyrgomatidae) an epibiont of scleractinias in stylasterids (Hydrozoa)"
3147:
3029:
2999:
2848:
2702:
2647:
2448:
1988:
1679:
1287:
1201:
1166:
1113:
All Scleractinian corals (excluding fossils) are listed under Appendix II of the
1085:. In addition, there is no distinguishing morphological character that separates
1066:
854:
806:
653:
Non-reef-forming or ahermatypic corals, which mostly do not contain zooxanthellae
413:
274:
3238:
2113:
1701:
558:
409:
3014:
2782:
2727:
2531:
2137:
1879:
1719:
1297:
1292:
1267:
1262:
1241:
1221:
1186:
1176:
1171:
1161:
1131:
1102:
1026:
990:
949:
908:
885:
786:
hobby to increase stock without the necessity to harvest corals from the wild.
711:
666:
490:
357:
1086:
600:
are mostly colonial corals which tend to live in clear, oligotrophic, shallow
336:
Stony corals occur in all the world's oceans. Much of the framework of modern
3330:
3079:
2967:
2687:
2637:
2526:
2501:
2269:
2245:
2212:
2145:
2082:
1659:
1308:
1277:
1236:
1211:
1081:
affiliated with different suborders were now located on the same branch of a
1059:
1022:
836:
814:
783:
747:
739:
670:
306:
122:
70:
2336:
Corals in Space and Time: The Biogeography and Evolution of the Scleractinia
2261:
2203:
1990:
Corals in Space and Time: The Biogeography and Evolution of the Scleractinia
1522:
440:
are also located within the cavity walls. The polyp is retractable into the
416:
and have a cylindrical body crowned by an oral disc surrounded by a ring of
2980:
2797:
2572:
2564:
2516:
2483:
2277:
2230:
2163:
2090:
1911:
1530:
1395:
1282:
1226:
1191:
1042:
986:
877:
681:
613:
530:
457:
although some solitary species may be as large as 25 cm (10 in).
361:
346:
194:
2435:
3194:
3088:
2973:
2762:
2697:
2511:
2496:
2491:
2440:
1231:
1196:
1145:
1140:
1006:
677:
617:
475:
337:
310:
45:
329:, but a few species brood their eggs. Asexual reproduction is mostly by
3039:
3024:
2947:
2937:
2927:
2642:
2620:
2602:
2587:
2577:
2475:
2392:
2058:
2035:
1856:
1817:
1792:
1581:
1251:
1093:
833:
428:
which descends for some distance into the body before opening into the
90:
55:
2074:
895:
388:
Diagram showing a coral polyp, its corallite, coenosarc and coenosteum
112:
3199:
3168:
3019:
1586:
Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals
1420:
Reef-Building Corals Lose Out to Softer Cousins Due To Global Warming
1272:
1216:
1206:
1097:
1014:
934:
922:
889:
859:
699:
662:
609:
525:
448:
441:
433:
365:
317:. Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most species release
314:
302:
290:, but remain attached to each other, forming a multi-polyp colony of
164:
95:
3050:
2179:"Repeated loss of coloniality and symbiosis in scleractinian corals"
1509:(5847). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 92–94.
3186:
3173:
3073:
2707:
2555:
2545:
2521:
1635:
1320:
1316:
1246:
928:
904:
869:
829:
628:
601:
572:
421:
417:
405:
353:
333:, when part of a colony becomes detached and reattaches elsewhere.
326:
270:
266:
184:
85:
80:
65:
60:
50:
872:(200 million years ago), with a further suborder appearing in the
2807:
2592:
2370:
1718:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
1637:
1070:
1030:
940:
743:
634:
535:
447:
The polyps are connected by horizontal sheets of tissue known as
425:
322:
291:
287:
100:
75:
1459:
Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004).
718:, but a recent study recorded evidence of living pyrgomatids in
2832:
2539:
2302:
Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs: Structure, Form and Process
981:
of Scleractinia is particularly challenging. Many species were
850:
539:
534:) had a non-aragonite skeletal structure which was composed of
506:
412:
stage in their life cycle. The individual animals are known as
318:
263:
174:
554:
Meandering corallite walls of an intratentacular budding coral
465:
384:
3295:
3160:
2610:
2471:
2177:
Barbeitos, M. S.; Romano, S. L.; Lasker, H. R. (2010-06-14).
1714:
1078:
1051:
865:
689:
685:
437:
298:
137:
131:
1077:, but not into the traditional suborders. For example, some
27:
Order of Hexacorallia which produce a massive stony skeleton
2385:
10.1666/0022-3360(2001)075<1090:TANSOE>2.0.CO;2
2305:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 954–957.
2028:
10.1666/0094-8373(1998)024[0227:PSPOEE]2.3.CO;2
605:
2332:
1986:
1834:
1601:
2615:
2410:"WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species - Scleractinia"
1555:
Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments
1062:
562:
Separate corallites of an extratentacular budding species
2246:"Photosymbiosis and the Evolution of Modern Coral Reefs"
1969:
10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<507:EHOSCA>2.0.CO;2
710:
Scleratinians were previously believed to be obligatory
2111:
1115:
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
1009:'s was based on macroscopic skeletal characters, while
776:
and starting new colonies. Even such massive corals as
746:
larva that eventually settles on the seabed to undergo
313:, and like them are armed with stinging cells known as
1720:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1558:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 199.
1069:
found that molecular data supported the assembling of
321:
into the sea where fertilisation takes place, and the
2176:
853:
specimens, which first appeared in the record in the
642:
Scleractinians fall into one of two main categories:
1636:
Romano, Sandra L.; Cairns, Stephen D. (2002-10-28).
1349:
1347:
1065:
undertaken by American zoologists Sandra Romano and
948:
because despite the energetic benefits it provides,
888:
appears to indicate that scleractinian corals are a
796:, unfertilised eggs can develop into viable larvae.
676:
Most stony corals extend their tentacles to feed on
520:All modern scleractinian skeletons are composed of
408:and like other members of the group, do not have a
281:. The founding polyp settles and starts to secrete
1982:
1980:
1978:
1790:
1694:YOUMARES 9 - The Oceans: Our Research, Our Future
1610:Scleractinia Fauna of Taiwan II. The Robust Group
1344:
969:collected by the Royal Indian Marine Survey ship
3328:
1458:
2183:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1551:
845:, are doubtfully ancestors of the Scleractinia.
2404:
2402:
1993:. Cornell University Press. pp. 109–120.
1975:
1764:
1362:
340:is formed by scleractinians. Reef-building or
2659:The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
2456:
2298:
1878:Harrison PL, Babcock RC, Bull GD, Oliver JK,
1767:"Coral fragmentation: Not just for beginners"
997:distinctions between species and subspecies.
620:down to about 6,000 m (20,000 ft).
2366:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2339:. Cornell University Press. pp. 30–31.
2328:
2326:
2324:
2322:
1932:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1871:
1491:
1483:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
688:films they can move over their bodies using
2399:
1738:
2470:
2463:
2449:
2292:
1830:
1828:
616:waters, or live at great depths, from the
352:Stony corals first appeared in the Middle
111:
2353:
2319:
2220:
2202:
2153:
1816:
1741:"Life history of the Scleractinian Coral
1668:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
1631:
1629:
3347:Extant Middle Triassic first appearances
1784:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1660:"A stranger among us: the occurrence of
960:
894:
828:
757:
729:
627:
557:
549:
528:, however, a prehistoric scleractinian (
464:
392:Scleractinian corals may be solitary or
383:
2243:
2056:
2022:(2). Paleontological Society: 227–234.
1946:
1825:
1577:
1575:
1390:
1388:
824:
767:can be fragmented to form new colonies.
753:
14:
3329:
2738:Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
1626:
1463:. Cengage Learning. pp. 132–137.
799:
404:Stony corals are members of the class
273:. The individual animals are known as
120:Scleractinian corals, illustration by
3055:
3054:
2890:Environmental issues with coral reefs
2444:
2013:
1725:
1602:Chang-feng Dai; Sharon Horng (2009).
1454:
1452:
1333:Environmental issues with coral reefs
650:, which mostly contain zooxanthellae;
604:waters; they are the world's primary
3301:934ECA05-C75E-FFA7-E108-FC4FFDC61A66
3262:f7e2b2b4-0f0b-4163-8e3e-ac653dd920da
1572:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1385:
1356:
2333:Veron, John Edward Norwood (1995).
1987:Veron, John Edward Norwood (1995).
1017:. In 1943, the American zoologists
714:of another group of barnacles, the
638:extends its polyps at night to feed
24:
839:with calcite skeletons, like this
25:
3363:
2429:
2244:Stanley, George D. (2006-05-12).
1461:Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition
1429:
956:
297:The shape and appearance of each
2933:International Coral Reef Society
2773:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System
2554:
1745:: a population genetic approach"
1713:
1373:World Register of Marine Species
1127:World Register of Marine Species
356:, but their relationship to the
151:
43:
2864:Stony coral tissue loss disease
2237:
2170:
2105:
2050:
2007:
1940:
1758:
1686:
1651:
1612:]. 國立臺灣大學出版中心. p. 39.
1108:
591:
305:unicellular organisms known as
1797:Marine Ecology Progress Series
1595:
1545:
1412:
1089:, only molecular differences.
722:, casting doubt on this idea.
13:
1:
2793:Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
1904:10.1126/science.223.4641.1186
1338:
899:Scleractinian coral from the
725:
399:
269:that build themselves a hard
225:
2057:Simpson, Carl (2013-04-09).
1096:and his co-workers analyzed
657:In reef-forming corals, the
325:larvae drift as part of the
262:, are marine animals in the
7:
2818:Southeast Asian coral reefs
1702:10.1007/978-3-030-20389-4_8
1696:, pages 159–180, Springer.
1365:"Scleractinia Bourne, 1900"
1326:
1120:
1050:between fossils and recent
524:in the form of crystals of
460:
10:
3368:
2778:New Caledonia barrier reef
2138:10.1038/s41598-020-60605-2
1791:Sammarco, Paul W. (1982).
1680:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa017
1640:. Tree of Life Web Project
623:
379:
3063:
2992:
2960:
2913:
2882:
2841:
2678:
2670:Spur and groove formation
2601:
2563:
2552:
2482:
2436:Tree of Life – zoantharia
1092:The Australian zoologist
661:are usually replete with
545:
471:Diploria labyrinthiformis
370:effects of global warming
240:
233:
222:
217:
148:Scientific classification
146:
129:
119:
110:
41:Middle Triassic - Recent
34:
2733:East African coral coast
1552:Gornitz, Vivien (2009).
349:where no light reaches.
2373:Journal of Paleontology
2262:10.1126/science.1123701
2204:10.1073/pnas.0914380107
1765:Calfo, Anthony (2008).
1523:10.1126/science.1149237
1363:Hoeksema, Bert (2015).
862: million years ago
2900:Coral reef restoration
2299:Hopley, David (2011).
1019:Thomas Wayland Vaughan
974:
911:
846:
793:Pocillopora damicornis
768:
735:
639:
563:
555:
478:
389:
3283:Paleobiology Database
2895:Coral reef protection
2859:Skeletal eroding band
2665:Catlin Seaview Survey
2653:Census of Coral Reefs
2631:mesophotic coral reef
2414:www.marinespecies.org
1011:Francis Grant Ogilvie
985:before the advent of
964:
917:mass extinction event
898:
842:Grewingkia canadensis
832:
779:Montastraea annularis
764:Montastraea annularis
761:
733:
631:
561:
553:
517:in multiples of six.
468:
430:gastrovascular cavity
387:
3005:Aquaculture of coral
2788:Non-tropical regions
1771:Reefkeeping Magazine
1739:Maier, Elke (2010).
1396:"Appendices | CITES"
1048:convergent evolution
825:Evolutionary history
754:Asexual reproduction
2923:Coral Reef Alliance
2813:Solomon Archipelago
2718:Belize Barrier Reef
2693:African coral reefs
2195:2010PNAS..10711877B
2189:(26): 11877–11882.
2130:2020NatSR..10.3903D
1961:1981Geo.....9..507S
1896:1984Sci...223.1186H
1849:1986MarBi..90..191H
1809:1982MEPS...10...57S
1743:Seriatopora hystrix
1515:2007Sci...318...92S
1499:Stolarski, Jaroslaw
1425:Scientific American
1003:Henri Milne-Edwards
800:Sexual reproduction
374:ocean acidification
2869:White band disease
2854:Black band disease
2823:Tuvalu Archipelago
2803:Raja Ampat Islands
2743:Great Barrier Reef
2118:Scientific Reports
1857:10.1007/BF00569127
1818:10.3354/meps010057
1073:into the existing
975:
912:
847:
769:
736:
695:Acropora acuminata
640:
582:Ctenactis echinata
564:
556:
511:bilateral symmetry
505:. This pattern of
479:
390:
3324:
3323:
3270:Open Tree of Life
3057:Taxon identifiers
3048:
3047:
2956:
2955:
2874:White pox disease
2723:Coral Sea Islands
2346:978-0-8014-8263-2
2312:978-90-481-2638-5
2256:(5775): 857–858.
2075:10.1111/evo.12083
2000:978-0-8014-8263-2
1710:978-3-030-20388-7
1619:978-986-01-8745-8
1565:978-1-4020-4551-6
1470:978-81-315-0104-7
1157:Anthemiphylliidae
1083:phylogenetic tree
874:Middle Cretaceous
648:hermatypic corals
598:Hermatypic corals
522:calcium carbonate
342:hermatypic corals
283:calcium carbonate
249:
248:
213:
141:
16:(Redirected from
3359:
3352:Anthozoan orders
3317:
3316:
3304:
3303:
3291:
3290:
3278:
3277:
3265:
3264:
3255:
3254:
3242:
3241:
3239:NBNSYS0000160957
3229:
3228:
3216:
3215:
3203:
3202:
3190:
3189:
3177:
3176:
3164:
3163:
3151:
3150:
3138:
3137:
3125:
3124:
3112:
3111:
3099:
3098:
3097:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3052:
3051:
3035:Deep-water coral
3010:Coral dermatitis
2911:
2910:
2626:Deep-water coral
2558:
2465:
2458:
2451:
2442:
2441:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2406:
2397:
2396:
2379:(6): 1090–1108.
2368:
2351:
2350:
2330:
2317:
2316:
2296:
2290:
2289:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2224:
2206:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2157:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2069:(6): 1607–1621.
2054:
2048:
2047:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1984:
1973:
1972:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1931:
1923:
1890:(4641): 1186–9.
1875:
1869:
1868:
1832:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1779:
1778:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1749:
1736:
1723:
1717:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1674:(4): 1077–1094.
1655:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1645:
1633:
1624:
1623:
1599:
1593:
1579:
1570:
1569:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1482:
1474:
1456:
1427:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1406:
1392:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1379:
1360:
1354:
1351:
1182:Dendrophylliidae
1152:Agathiphylliidae
901:Matmor Formation
882:Corallimorpharia
863:
659:endodermal cells
646:Reef-forming or
487:radially aligned
454:asexual division
208:
156:
155:
135:
115:
105:
42:
38:Temporal range:
32:
31:
21:
3367:
3366:
3362:
3361:
3360:
3358:
3357:
3356:
3327:
3326:
3325:
3320:
3312:
3307:
3299:
3294:
3286:
3281:
3273:
3268:
3260:
3258:
3250:
3245:
3237:
3232:
3224:
3219:
3211:
3206:
3198:
3193:
3185:
3180:
3172:
3167:
3159:
3154:
3146:
3141:
3133:
3128:
3120:
3115:
3107:
3102:
3093:
3092:
3087:
3078:
3077:
3072:
3059:
3049:
3044:
3030:Coralline algae
3000:Artificial reef
2988:
2961:Symbiotic algae
2952:
2909:
2905:Reef resilience
2878:
2849:Coral bleaching
2837:
2703:Andros, Bahamas
2674:
2648:Coral reef fish
2597:
2559:
2550:
2478:
2469:
2432:
2427:
2418:
2416:
2408:
2407:
2400:
2369:
2354:
2347:
2331:
2320:
2313:
2297:
2293:
2242:
2238:
2175:
2171:
2110:
2106:
2055:
2051:
2012:
2008:
2001:
1985:
1976:
1945:
1941:
1925:
1924:
1876:
1872:
1833:
1826:
1789:
1785:
1776:
1774:
1763:
1759:
1747:
1737:
1726:
1691:
1687:
1656:
1652:
1643:
1641:
1634:
1627:
1620:
1600:
1596:
1590:Greenwood Press
1580:
1573:
1566:
1550:
1546:
1496:
1492:
1476:
1475:
1471:
1457:
1430:
1423:March 24, 2013
1417:
1413:
1404:
1402:
1394:
1393:
1386:
1377:
1375:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1345:
1341:
1329:
1313:
1288:Schizocyathidae
1202:Fungiacyathidae
1167:Caryophylliidae
1123:
1111:
1103:common ancestor
1067:Stephen Palumbi
1023:John West Wells
959:
858:
855:Middle Triassic
827:
802:
756:
728:
667:dinoflagellates
626:
594:
588:
548:
463:
402:
382:
207:
150:
142:
121:
106:
104:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
40:
39:
36:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3365:
3355:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3322:
3321:
3319:
3318:
3305:
3292:
3279:
3266:
3256:
3243:
3230:
3217:
3204:
3191:
3178:
3165:
3152:
3139:
3126:
3113:
3100:
3085:
3069:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3015:Precious coral
3012:
3007:
3002:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2984:
2977:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2951:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2919:
2917:
2908:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2845:
2843:
2842:Coral diseases
2839:
2838:
2836:
2835:
2830:
2828:Virgin Islands
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2728:Coral Triangle
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2684:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2623:
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2613:
2607:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2595:
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2580:
2575:
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2561:
2560:
2553:
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2549:
2548:
2542:
2536:
2535:
2534:
2529:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
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2486:
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2479:
2468:
2467:
2460:
2453:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2431:
2430:External links
2428:
2426:
2425:
2398:
2352:
2345:
2318:
2311:
2291:
2236:
2169:
2104:
2049:
2006:
1999:
1974:
1939:
1870:
1843:(2): 191–195.
1837:Marine Biology
1824:
1783:
1773:. Reef Central
1757:
1724:
1685:
1650:
1638:"Scleractinia"
1625:
1618:
1594:
1571:
1564:
1544:
1490:
1469:
1428:
1411:
1384:
1355:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1312:
1311:
1306:
1300:
1298:Stenocyathidae
1295:
1293:Siderastreidae
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1268:Pocilloporidae
1265:
1263:Plesiastreidae
1260:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1242:Montastraeidae
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1222:Lobophylliidae
1219:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1187:Diploastreidae
1184:
1179:
1177:Deltocyathidae
1174:
1172:Coscinaraeidae
1169:
1164:
1162:Astrocoeniidae
1159:
1154:
1148:
1143:
1137:
1132:Incertae sedis
1122:
1119:
1110:
1107:
958:
957:Classification
955:
950:photosymbiosis
909:Makhtesh Gadol
886:DNA sequencing
826:
823:
801:
798:
755:
752:
740:hermaphroditic
727:
724:
655:
654:
651:
625:
622:
593:
590:
547:
544:
462:
459:
401:
398:
381:
378:
347:abyssal depths
254:, also called
247:
246:
245:
244:
238:
237:
231:
230:
224:About 35, see
220:
219:
215:
214:
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26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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3302:
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3257:
3253:
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3227:
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3218:
3214:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3192:
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3183:
3179:
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3170:
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3157:
3153:
3149:
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3123:
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3114:
3110:
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3058:
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3041:
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3031:
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3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2971:
2970:
2969:
2968:Zooxanthellae
2966:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2938:Project AWARE
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2915:Organizations
2912:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
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2887:
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2881:
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2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2783:Ningaloo Reef
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
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2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2688:List of reefs
2686:
2685:
2683:
2681:
2680:Coral regions
2677:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2660:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
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2639:
2636:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2624:
2622:
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2609:
2608:
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2604:
2600:
2594:
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2589:
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2576:
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2537:
2533:
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2518:
2515:
2513:
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1309:Turbinoliidae
1307:
1305:
1301:
1299:
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1278:Psammocoridae
1276:
1274:
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1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
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1237:Micrabaciidae
1235:
1233:
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1212:Gardineriidae
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1060:mitochondrial
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1024:
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1016:
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991:type specimen
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861:
856:
852:
844:
843:
838:
837:rugose corals
835:
831:
822:
820:
816:
815:fertilization
812:
808:
797:
795:
794:
787:
785:
784:reef aquarium
781:
780:
775:
766:
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748:metamorphosis
745:
741:
732:
723:
721:
717:
713:
708:
704:
701:
697:
696:
691:
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683:
682:invertebrates
679:
674:
672:
671:zooxanthellae
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452:the repeated
450:
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427:
423:
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397:
395:
386:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
362:rugose corals
359:
355:
350:
348:
343:
339:
334:
332:
331:fragmentation
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
307:zooxanthellae
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133:
128:
124:
123:Ernst Haeckel
118:
114:
109:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
47:
33:
30:
19:
3342:Hexacorallia
3337:Scleractinia
3122:Scleractinia
3109:Scleractinia
3095:Scleractinia
3065:Scleractinia
3064:
2981:Symbiodinium
2979:
2972:
2883:Conservation
2798:Pulley Ridge
2657:
2565:Octocorallia
2484:Hexacorallia
2417:. Retrieved
2413:
2376:
2372:
2335:
2301:
2294:
2253:
2249:
2239:
2186:
2182:
2172:
2121:
2117:
2107:
2066:
2062:
2052:
2019:
2016:Paleobiology
2015:
2009:
1989:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1928:cite journal
1887:
1883:
1873:
1840:
1836:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1775:. Retrieved
1770:
1760:
1751:
1742:
1693:
1688:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1653:
1642:. Retrieved
1609:
1604:
1597:
1585:
1554:
1547:
1506:
1502:
1493:
1460:
1419:
1414:
1403:. Retrieved
1399:
1376:. Retrieved
1368:
1358:
1319:accepted as
1283:Rhizangiidae
1258:Oulastreidae
1227:Meandrinidae
1192:Euphylliidae
1130:
1124:
1112:
1109:Conservation
1091:
1056:
1035:
999:
995:
993:is unknown.
987:scuba diving
976:
971:Investigator
970:
967:Madreporaria
966:
946:
939:
933:
927:
921:
913:
890:monophyletic
878:rugose coral
848:
840:
819:Scleractinia
818:
810:
803:
791:
788:
777:
770:
762:
737:
720:stylasterids
709:
705:
693:
675:
665:unicellular
656:
641:
633:
595:
592:Distribution
587:
580:
578:
571:
569:
565:
531:Coelosimilia
529:
519:
495:
480:
469:
446:
403:
391:
351:
335:
311:sea anemones
296:
259:
256:stony corals
255:
252:Scleractinia
251:
250:
243:Madreporaria
223:
205:Scleractinia
204:
195:Hexacorallia
35:Stony corals
29:
3195:iNaturalist
3089:Wikispecies
2974:Amphidinium
2763:Lakshadweep
2698:Amazon Reef
2603:Coral reefs
2476:coral reefs
2124:(1): 3903.
1955:(11): 507.
1582:Piper, Ross
1232:Merulinidae
1197:Flabellidae
1146:Agariciidae
1141:Acroporidae
1007:Jules Haime
965:A deep-sea
716:pyrgomatids
678:zooplankton
632:Hard coral
618:photic zone
515:mesenteries
489:plates, or
476:brain coral
434:mesenteries
338:coral reefs
260:hard corals
134:Appendix II
18:Stony coral
3331:Categories
3040:Fire coral
3025:Coral sand
2948:Reef Check
2928:Green Fins
2643:Microatoll
2583:Organ pipe
2507:Hermatypic
2419:2020-10-17
1880:Wallace CC
1777:2015-05-03
1662:Cantellius
1644:2015-05-03
1405:2022-01-14
1378:2015-05-03
1339:References
1304:Stylinidae
1252:Oculinidae
1094:John Veron
1039:W.H. Bryan
1015:trabeculae
834:Palaeozoic
726:Life cycle
400:Soft parts
315:cnidocytes
3020:Coral rag
2943:Reef Ball
2713:Baa Atoll
2270:0036-8075
2213:0027-8424
2146:2045-2322
2083:0014-3820
2063:Evolution
1803:: 57–65.
1479:cite book
1400:cites.org
1273:Poritidae
1217:Guyniidae
1207:Fungiidae
1098:ribosomal
1027:suborders
983:described
935:Cladocora
923:Astrangia
774:substrate
700:Caribbean
669:known as
663:symbiotic
610:temperate
526:aragonite
483:epidermis
449:coenosarc
442:corallite
418:tentacles
366:Paleozoic
218:Families
171:Kingdom:
165:Eukaryota
3074:Wikidata
2768:Maldives
2758:Kiribati
2708:Apo Reef
2638:Fringing
2593:Sea pens
2588:Sea fans
2546:Tabulate
2532:Staghorn
2502:Elegance
2286:36133573
2278:16690848
2231:20547851
2164:32127555
2099:37450754
2091:23730756
2044:89177036
1920:31244527
1912:17742935
1865:85911200
1584:(2007),
1539:22233075
1531:17916731
1327:See also
1321:Faviidae
1317:Mussidae
1247:Mussidae
1121:Families
1075:families
979:taxonomy
929:Madracis
905:Jurassic
870:Jurassic
811:Acropora
807:spawning
602:tropical
573:Acropora
503:biradial
461:Skeleton
422:mesoglea
406:Anthozoa
394:colonial
358:tabulate
354:Triassic
327:plankton
303:symbiont
279:colonial
271:skeleton
267:Cnidaria
235:Synonyms
185:Cnidaria
181:Phylum:
175:Animalia
161:Domain:
3080:Q195605
2808:Red Sea
2753:Jamaica
2527:Elkhorn
2512:Chalice
2393:1307078
2250:Science
2222:2900674
2191:Bibcode
2155:7054358
2126:Bibcode
2036:2401240
1957:Bibcode
1949:Geology
1892:Bibcode
1884:Science
1845:Bibcode
1805:Bibcode
1511:Bibcode
1503:Science
1071:species
1043:D. Hill
1031:budding
941:Oculina
892:group.
744:planula
635:Favites
624:Ecology
536:calcite
426:pharynx
380:Anatomy
364:of the
323:planula
319:gametes
288:budding
201:Order:
191:Class:
136: (
125:, 1904
3275:712383
3259:NZOR:
3174:1SCLRO
2833:Yabiji
2573:Bamboo
2540:Rugose
2517:Pillar
2472:Corals
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1605:台灣石珊瑚誌
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1467:
1087:clades
1079:genera
973:, 1898
851:fossil
612:seas,
546:Growth
540:Rugosa
507:septal
499:radial
438:gonads
436:. The
414:polyps
410:medusa
292:clones
275:polyps
264:phylum
212:, 1900
210:Bourne
3309:WoRMS
3296:Plazi
3226:52839
3213:11376
3208:IRMNG
3200:47532
3135:24790
2993:Other
2748:India
2621:Coral
2611:Atoll
2522:Table
2497:Brain
2492:Black
2389:JSTOR
2282:S2CID
2095:S2CID
2040:S2CID
2032:JSTOR
1916:S2CID
1861:S2CID
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866:algae
712:hosts
690:cilia
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614:polar
491:septa
299:coral
138:CITES
132:CITES
3314:1363
3288:6108
3252:6125
3247:NCBI
3221:ITIS
3182:GBIF
3169:EPPO
3161:1799
3130:BOLD
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2474:and
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1995:ISBN
1934:link
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