624:
instances been used as a systematic character. None of the nests of any stenogastrine species has a petiole (or peduncle), which is one of the more striking differences with respect to the nests of other eusocial wasps. Rather, cells are built directly on various kinds of flat or threadlike substrates. Another important difference is that these wasps use a construction material which is of a poor quality compared to that used by other social wasps. According to
Hansell (1996), this is because their mandibles are not suitable for the collection of long vegetable fibres as are those of other vespids. Moreover, the collected material is kept together by a cement (salivary) secretion which is too scarce (and probably not so good) to assure the production of a good paper paste. Hansell maintains this limits the possibility of building large nests and, consequently, the formation of large colonies prevents the development of a more evolved sociality in these wasps.
478:
Dufour's gland. Then, she may inspect the cell again, retaining all the substance in her mouthparts. After stretching the abdomen, the wasp bends it again, with the sting extruded, towards her mouth and collects the egg as it emerges, allowing its concave surface to adhere to the patch of abdominal secretion. The egg is then placed in the cell and stuck to the bottom by a drop of secretion present on its convex surface. The first patch of abdominal substance is left on the concave surface of the egg. After placing the egg, the wasp bends her abdomen again and collects a larger patch of abdominal secretion that is added to the previous patch on the egg.
78:
500:
reopened some 2–3 days afterwards so the adults can eliminate the larval faeces which have been emitted by the larvae after pupation. Once the larval meconium is eliminated, the hole in the operculum is closed again by the adults. The pupa changes its position in the cell with the body along the longitudinal axis and its head towards the operculum with the abdomen bent towards the mouthparts. The development from egg to emergence varies widely according to various species and environmental situations, but knowledge about this is quite limited. The complete larval development lasts a minimum of 43 days on average in
720:
611:
411:
570:
insurance-based advantage over lone wasps because if they die, most of the brood they have partly reared will be brought to maturity by surviving nestmates. A strict age-based inheritance queue seems to regulate the access to reproduction in this species: new dominants are the oldest female in their groups in most of the cases. In many nests, some brood could not be assigned to existing adult females. This indicates the high adult mortality rates result in direct advantages to helpers in the form of colony inheritance, and indirect advantages via life insurance.
311:
566:
able to mate, thus are able to lay fertilized (female) eggs and becoming potential new colony foundresses. This course depends on the situation which they find on their natal colony. They can leave the maternal colony to try to found their own colonies; they can remain on the maternal nest waiting to succeed the dominant female when she fails or try to dethrone her; or they can resign themselves to work as workers to rear a certain number of individuals which are genetically related to themselves.
101:
682:
487:
the secretion mass. Afterwards, cuds of chewed food are inserted by the adults into the secretion mass which is not in itself a food, but rather a substrate which permits the larvae to remain attached to the cell and a "dish" to collect the supplements of the adults. The more the larva increases in size, the less is the secretion added by the adults, so a fourth-instar larva remains curled in the cell pushing its back against the cell walls.
25:
735:: The genus includes two species with the most highly camouflaged nests consisting of a row of cells, the first of which is attached with its bottom to the tip of a thread-like suspension. The second cell is attached to the lower end of the first, the third to that of the second and so on. A special conical structure is built above the line of cells acting as a "drop stopper".
452:
the end of the abdomen with the mouth parts when they bend the gastrum ventrally. This is particularly important in egg laying. The last abdominal segments are not externally visible and form the stinging apparatus in the females and the copulatory apparatus in the males. The males possess one more segment than the females and in
716:: These relatively large and robust hover wasps present a distinctive nest structure with the central part of the nest formed by a comb of a bunch (usually 8-20) of cells. The external walls of the peripheral cells are extended downwards to form a narrow spout at least as long as the cells and acting as an envelope.
562:
remain in the maternal colony and many of them leave. In theory, a female should remain if she has a good chance to inherit the colony; however, if many others are in line for the same nest and offer a better chance of reproductive success, it may be more convenient to try other reproductive strategies.
490:
This is another important difference from the other social wasps where the larvae keep their body distended along the longitudinal axis of the cell and present only their heads at the cellular openings. When the adults of the hover wasps nourish their larvae, they touch with their antennae the sides
486:
The larval development consists of four stages. Immediately after hatching, the larva curls itself around a mass of gelatinous secretion which covers the eggs produced by the Dufour's gland of the parent. In the very first days, the larvae feed mainly on the liquid food regurgitated by the adults on
451:
The metasoma is formed by the abdominal segments minus the first one, which is attached to the last segment of the thorax. The petiole is long as all the other segments together (five in the females and six in the males). This gives these wasps a quite slender silhouette and makes them able to touch
744:
The evolution of the nest architecture in these wasps has been especially determined by the pressure exerted by predators such as ants and tropical hornets. Against the first ones, some species build special sticky, gelatinous structures, called "ant guards", formed with the secretion of the Dufour
569:
Average relatedness coefficient between females found on the same colony have been measured for some species and it is not particularly high. In all the species examined, most of the eggs are produced by only one single mated female. The advantage to be in a group is that helper females have a life
565:
Young females which have emerged in a colony have various behavioural options. In fact, the colonies of hover wasps do not present rigid castes, and individuals are conditioned in their choices only by the contingent situation of the social environment in which they find themselves. Females are all
561:
The development of a society of hover wasps can be extremely long. The egg-laying capacity of one female is quite limited if compared with that of the queen of a colony of other social wasps. The first wasps to emerge from the eggs laid by the foundress are females. Not all the individuals emerged
544:
In some species, the average number of females per colony registered in a population is less than two as the daughters of the foundress female remain with their mother to help her in foraging and breeding the larvae, but left the colony when they are able to found a nest on their own. The number of
406:
The shape of the head, viewed from the front, is subtriangular owing to the very long mandibles. The compound eyes are large, and the clypeus is usually quite pointed. The antennae are generally clavated. The mandibles are much more subtle with respect to those of polistine or vespine wasps: in the
499:
When pupating, the larva spins an incomplete cocoon inside the cell, but the cell itself is closed by the adults with the same kind of material used for the construction of the nest. In some species, however, the opening of the cell is only narrowed and not completely closed. The operculum is then
372:
are sister groups and derive from a common ancestor (with no other living offspring). A more complete analysis, published 2010, from the same author including biomolecular data, confirmed this phylogeny. However, some other investigations (from 2007 and 2018) indicate that instead the
Polistinae,
477:
Egg-laying in hover wasps is peculiar. In all the species observed of at least three genera, it consists of three stages: after initial inspection of a cell, the female bends her abdomen ventrally towards her mouth parts and collects a patch of viscid abdominal substance which is produced in the
623:
The nest is one of the characters which are common to all social insects and represents an important factor for the origin and evolution of their social life. Stenogastrine nest architecture differs from that of other social wasps and has such an incredible variety of shapes, it has in some
397:
species). The colour is usually dark brown with brilliant black shades mixed with yellow, white, or yellowish spots. The wings sometimes have iridescent reflexes. Characteristic is the gastrum, the first segment of which is represented by a long petiole blunted in its posterior part.
703:
construct their nests under roofs of thatched huts and houses in rural areas. Architectural form varies from cells scattered along substrata to more elaborated structures with cells opening in common tubes. This genus also uses mimicry to keep nests well hidden from predators.
745:
gland which are placed as barriers to the nests. Nest camouflage, instead, is the first determinant of the defence against the attacks of hornets. Another defence system used by some species is to form dense clusters of nests in sites seldom practiced by the above predators.
364:, described by two Chinese entomologists (Dong and Otsuka), has been more recently included in the subfamily. Carpenter made overviews of the taxonomy and phylogeny of the group which he treated as a subfamily of the family Vespidae, and concluded that the Stenogastrinae,
586:) leave the nests and reach well-defined sites where they patrol localized territories of various kinds. Each territory is formed by a number of perches which can be leaves, sticks, and other prominent things of the landscape, usually in a clearing of the forest.
443:) can hover in the air, remaining almost immobile like small dragonflies. Females are able to fly close to spider webs to steal small prey; the males perform aerial patrolling during particular times of the day, hovering and protecting particular perching sites.
431:) is massive and globular. Legs are short and feeble, while the fore wings are not folded longitudinally as occurs in polistine and vespine wasps. The flight of these wasps is characteristic, and some genera (i.e.
525:
In the hover wasps, in most cases, the nest is founded by a solitary fertilized female (foundress), but in some cases may have more than one foundress. Associative nest foundation is reported for some species of
491:
of the larva which opens itself as a kind of sphincter to receive the cud of food. In the other social wasps, instead, the food is supplied by the adults directly into the mouth of the larva.
299:
treated their systematic position and remarked that these wasps were, in all their characters, entirely intermediate between the two subfamilies of
Eumeninae and Vespinae. In 1927,
415:
697:: This genus includes the most common species of hover wasps; their nests can be found on plants, but are quite commonly associated with human buildings. For instance,
616:
512:
presents an average larval development around 63 days. The well-formed adult is able to emerge from the cell after the break of the operculum without any help.
725:
662:: The nest architecture of this genus presents the largest diversification. Nests can be built entirely with mud or with relevant part of vegetable material.
46:
200:
632:
Interspecific variability in nest architecture is certainly quite high in these wasps, but a considerable variability is also present in some species.
230:
955:
187:
332:
created four new genera including species from the entire area of distribution and described tens of new species. He revised the two Papuan genera
210:
642:
has a bell-shaped architecture, is formed by a low number of cells, and is built with 'soil' containing a few small pieces of vegetable matter.
1267:
33:
464:, the dorsal parts (tergites) of some segments are marked with whitish bands which are quite evident when the abdomen is extended.
288:
259:
296:
590:
males fly in circuits and land on perches where they rub their gastral tergites, probably releasing a marking pheromone. In
602:, instead, hover in flight near the perch, making visible now and then the whitish and shiny bands of their tergal gastra.
279:
owing to the particular hovering flight of some species. Their morphology and biology present interesting peculiarities.
1095:
Hansell, M. "'Nest
Construction in the Subsocial Wasp Parischnogaster mellyi (Saussure) Stenogastrinae (Hymenoptera)'".
652:
are built of fine mud with occasional small pieces of stone and vegetable matter incorporated into the structure. In
895:
545:
adults can vary under the 10 units and rarely goes beyond even counting the individuals of two sexes. On a nest of
1272:
1074:
Hansell, M.H. (1996). "Wasps make nests: nest make conditions". In: S. Turillazzi and M.J. West-Eberhard (eds.),
1170:
1083:
1062:
1041:
836:
Carpenter, J. M. & Kojima, J. (1996). "Checklist of the subfamily
Stenogastrinae (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)".
407:
females they can have three teeth, but in the males of some species, their internal margin is almost straight.
1200:
Turillazzi, S., 1989. The origin and evolution of social life in the
Stenogastrinae (Hymenoptera, Vespidae).
969:
Patrick K Piekarski; James M Carpenter; Alan R Lemmon; Emily
Moriarty Lemmon; Barbara J Sharanowski (2018).
1053:
Field, J. (2008). "The
Ecology and Evolution of Helping in Hover Wasps (Hymenoptera: Stenogastrinae)". In:
100:
968:
705:
300:
246:
1258:
710:
is able to match the outer texture of the nest to its surroundings, by making it rough or smooth.
741:: No information is at present available for the nest architecture of any species of this genus.
77:
38:
817:
Carpenter J.M. (1988). "The phylogenetic system of the
Stenogastrinae (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)".
1220:
699:
87:
719:
610:
549:
were once found 32 individuals. The maximum number of cells ever counted was 110 in a nest of
971:"Phylogenomic Evidence Overturns Current Conceptions of Social Evolution in Wasps (Vespidae)"
949:
687:
532:
329:
192:
1285:
865:"Simultaneous Analysis and the Origin of Eusociality in the Vespidae (Insecta: Hymenoptera)"
656:, the nests are actually quite small with an average of three cells and a maximum of eight.
1125:
909:
780:
410:
275:
are a subfamily of social wasps included in the family
Vespidae. They are sometimes called
769:"The phylogenetic relationships and natural classification of the Vespoidea (Hymenoptera)"
8:
1159:"A new genus of hover wasps from Southeast Asia (Hymenoptera: Vespidae; Stenogastrinae)"
1129:
913:
896:
Hines, H. M., Hunt, J. H., O'Connor, T. K., Gillespie, J. J. and Cameron, S. A. (2007).
784:
427:
The mesosoma (composed of three thoracic segments plus the first abdominal segment, the
1182:
995:
970:
932:
897:
845:
796:
792:
95:
1308:
1280:
1193:
Kojima, J. (1990). Immatures of hover wasps (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Stenogastrinae).
1158:
1079:
1058:
1037:
1000:
937:
1186:
800:
310:
1174:
1166:
1133:
990:
982:
927:
917:
876:
788:
1138:
1057:. Korb, J. and Heinze, J. (eds.) Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 85-108
316:
240:
1243:
220:
1302:
594:
species, males remain motionless on perches, raising their wings and gaster.
986:
922:
1114:"Social biology of Parischnogaster striatula (Hymenoptera: Stenogastrinae)"
1004:
941:
881:
864:
1252:
254:
152:
849:
681:
578:
The males belonging to species of at least four of the oriental genera (
898:"Multigene phylogeny reveals eusociality evolved twice in vespid wasps"
365:
670:
belong to the first group. The vegetable material nest group includes
1178:
428:
378:
374:
132:
112:
1214:
1237:
1113:
768:
369:
287:
The first reports on stenogastrine wasps can be found in a book of
162:
1036:
K. G. Ross and R. W. Matthews (eds.), pp. 74–98. Comstock, Ithaca
381:
all are closer related to each others than to the Stenogastrinae.
553:, while other species can occasionally reach a hundred of cells.
467:
24:
142:
122:
1156:
1171:
10.1206/0003-0082(2000)291<0001:ANGOHW>2.0.CO;2
356:, which has been then synonymised by Carpenter (1982) with
352:, still wait for revision. He also created one more genus,
835:
389:
The length of the body varies between 10 (some species of
672:
L. nitidipennis, L. vechti, L. abstrusa, L. topographica,
515:
664:
L. flavolineata, L. pardii, L. campanulae, L. varipicta,
384:
344:while the largest genera of the Oriental region,
1300:
1032:Turillazzi, S. (1991). "The Stenogastrinae". In
862:
1078:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 272–289
812:
810:
762:
760:
758:
556:
307:for some species living in the Oriental region.
1022:. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 89–127.
816:
766:
580:Liostenogaster, Eustenogaster, Parischnogaster
1026:
838:Journal of the New York Entomological Society
819:Journal of the New York Entomological Society
468:Morphology and anatomy of the immature stages
1157:Carpenter, J. M. & Starr, C. K. (2000).
1076:Natural History and Evolution of Paper-Wasps
954:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
829:
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76:
1137:
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609:
504:and a maximum of 105 days on average in
409:
309:
49:of all important aspects of the article.
1068:
1301:
1017:
856:
516:Colonial cycle and social organization
282:
45:Please consider expanding the lead to
1219:
1218:
291:(1831) with the first known species,
1211:Springer-Verlag, Berling Heidelberg.
1047:
889:
385:Morphology and anatomy of the adults
18:
13:
1150:
793:10.1111/j.1365-3113.1982.tb00124.x
520:
14:
1320:
863:Pickett KM, Carpenter JM (2010).
472:
539:
297:Henri Louis Frédéric de Saussure
99:
23:
1105:
1089:
975:Molecular Biology and Evolution
37:may be too short to adequately
1195:Japanese Journal of Entomology
1011:
47:provide an accessible overview
1:
748:
301:Anton von Schulthess-Rechberg
1139:10.1080/03946975.2013.808005
557:Colonial population dynamics
7:
1209:The Biology of Hover Wasps.
1112:Baracchi, D. (2013-08-07).
1055:Ecology of Social Evolution
1034:The Social biology of wasps
547:Liostenogaster topographica
506:Liostenogaster flavolineata
446:
422:
10:
1325:
1020:The Biology of Hover Wasps
902:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
1227:
1163:American Museum Novitates
628:Interspecific variability
574:Male behaviour and mating
510:Eustenogaster calyptodoma
416:Eustenogaster calyptodoma
183:
178:
96:Scientific classification
94:
84:
75:
70:
685:Clusters of colonies of
481:
1207:Turillazzi, S. (2012).
923:10.1073/pnas.0610140104
767:Carpenter J.M. (1982).
605:
494:
401:
393:) and 25 mm (some
340:and the oriental genus
293:Stenogaster fulgipennis
729:
700:Parischnogaster mellyi
691:
620:
617:Eustenogaster fraterna
502:Parischnogaster mellyi
419:
325:
303:created the new genus
88:Parischnogaster mellyi
1018:Turillazzi, Stefano.
987:10.1093/molbev/msy124
882:10.3897/asp.68.e31707
773:Systematic Entomology
722:
688:Liostenogaster vechti
684:
613:
533:Liostenogaster vechti
413:
330:Jacobus van der Vecht
313:
205:Dong and Otsuka, 1997
869:Arthro System Phylog
726:Eustenogaster micans
1130:2013TrZoo..26..105B
914:2007PNAS..104.3295H
785:1982SysEn...7...11C
360:. A seventh genus,
328:Dutch entomologist
289:Guérin de Méneville
283:Systematic position
730:
692:
621:
420:
326:
320:(belonging to the
16:Subfamily of wasps
1296:
1295:
1281:Open Tree of Life
1221:Taxon identifiers
739:Cochlischnogaster
362:Cochlischnogaster
269:
268:
263:
250:
236:
226:
216:
206:
201:Cochlischnogaster
196:
64:
63:
1316:
1289:
1288:
1276:
1275:
1263:
1262:
1261:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1216:
1215:
1202:J. Insect Behav.
1190:
1144:
1143:
1141:
1118:Tropical Zoology
1109:
1103:
1097:Insectes Sociaux
1093:
1087:
1072:
1066:
1051:
1045:
1030:
1024:
1023:
1015:
1009:
1008:
998:
981:(9): 2097–2109.
966:
960:
959:
953:
945:
935:
925:
908:(9): 3295–3299.
893:
887:
886:
884:
860:
854:
853:
833:
827:
826:
814:
805:
804:
764:
462:Cochlishnogaster
258:
244:
234:
224:
214:
204:
191:
104:
103:
80:
68:
67:
59:
56:
50:
27:
19:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1318:
1317:
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1314:
1313:
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1297:
1292:
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1257:
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1242:
1241:
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1223:
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1151:Further reading
1148:
1147:
1110:
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1090:
1073:
1069:
1052:
1048:
1031:
1027:
1016:
1012:
967:
963:
947:
946:
894:
890:
861:
857:
834:
830:
815:
808:
765:
756:
751:
733:Metischnogaster
695:Parischnogaster
648:: The nests of
630:
608:
600:Metischnogaster
596:Parischnogaster
588:L. flavolineata
584:Metischnogaster
576:
559:
551:L. flavolineata
542:
528:Parischnogaster
523:
521:Nest foundation
518:
497:
484:
475:
470:
458:Metischnogaster
454:Parischnogaster
449:
437:Metischnogaster
433:Parischnogaster
425:
404:
391:Parischnogaster
387:
358:Parischnogaster
354:Holischnogaster
342:Metischnogaster
317:Parischnogaster
305:Parischnogaster
285:
241:Parischnogaster
231:Metischnogaster
98:
71:Stenogastrinae
60:
54:
51:
44:
32:This article's
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1322:
1312:
1311:
1294:
1293:
1291:
1290:
1277:
1264:
1259:Stenogastrinae
1249:
1233:
1231:
1229:Stenogastrinae
1225:
1224:
1213:
1212:
1205:
1198:
1191:
1165:(3291): 1–12.
1152:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1124:(3): 105–119.
1104:
1088:
1067:
1046:
1025:
1010:
961:
888:
855:
844:(1/2): 21–36.
828:
806:
753:
752:
750:
747:
660:Liostenogaster
650:A. iridipennis
646:Anischnogaster
638:: The nest of
629:
626:
607:
604:
575:
572:
558:
555:
541:
538:
522:
519:
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514:
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474:
473:Egg deposition
471:
469:
466:
448:
445:
424:
421:
403:
400:
386:
383:
346:Liostenogaster
334:Anischnogaster
284:
281:
273:Stenogastrinae
267:
266:
265:
264:
251:
237:
227:
221:Liostenogaster
217:
207:
197:
188:Anischnogaster
181:
180:
176:
175:
173:Stenogastrinae
170:
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165:
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156:
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150:
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140:
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82:
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73:
72:
62:
61:
41:the key points
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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1199:
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1172:
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1160:
1155:
1154:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1108:
1102:(2): 208–216.
1101:
1098:
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1077:
1071:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1050:
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976:
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939:
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786:
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761:
759:
754:
746:
742:
740:
736:
734:
728:
727:
721:
717:
715:
714:Eustenogaster
711:
709:
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647:
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641:
637:
633:
625:
619:
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612:
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593:
592:Eustenogaster
589:
585:
581:
571:
567:
563:
554:
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540:Colonial size
537:
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513:
511:
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441:Eustenogaster
438:
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395:Eustenogaster
392:
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58:
48:
42:
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35:
30:
26:
21:
20:
1228:
1208:
1201:
1197:58: 506–522.
1194:
1162:
1121:
1117:
1107:
1099:
1096:
1091:
1075:
1070:
1054:
1049:
1033:
1028:
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1013:
978:
974:
964:
950:cite journal
905:
901:
891:
872:
868:
858:
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837:
831:
822:
818:
779:(1): 11–38.
776:
772:
743:
738:
737:
732:
731:
724:
713:
712:
707:P. striatula
706:
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531:
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394:
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361:
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349:
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338:Stenogaster
337:
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327:
321:
315:
314:A colony of
304:
292:
286:
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186:
172:
86:
65:
55:October 2014
52:
36:
34:lead section
1253:Wikispecies
1204:2: 649–661.
654:A. laticeps
640:S. concinna
636:Stenogaster
277:hover wasps
255:Stenogaster
235:Vecht, 1977
225:Vecht, 1969
215:Vecht, 1969
169:Subfamily:
153:Hymenoptera
1084:0198549474
1063:3642095070
1042:0801499062
825:: 140–175.
749:References
676:L. filicis
373:Vespinae,
366:Polistinae
247:Schulthess
133:Arthropoda
85:female of
1179:2246/2986
429:propodeum
379:Eumeninae
375:Masarinae
322:jacobsoni
119:Kingdom:
113:Eukaryota
39:summarize
1309:Vespidae
1303:Category
1244:Q2379872
1238:Wikidata
1187:84066981
1005:29924339
942:17360641
875:: 3–33.
850:25010198
801:83502785
723:Nest of
668:L. tutua
614:Nest of
447:Metasoma
423:Mesosoma
370:Vespinae
163:Vespidae
159:Family:
129:Phylum:
123:Animalia
109:Domain:
1126:Bibcode
996:6107056
933:1805554
910:Bibcode
781:Bibcode
530:and in
179:Genera
149:Order:
143:Insecta
139:Class:
1286:727301
1185:
1082:
1061:
1040:
1003:
993:
940:
930:
848:
799:
582:, and
460:, and
377:, and
368:, and
324:group)
262:, 1831
260:Guérin
249:, 1914
195:, 1972
1273:76996
1183:S2CID
846:JSTOR
797:S2CID
482:Larva
193:Vecht
1268:NCBI
1080:ISBN
1059:ISBN
1038:ISBN
1001:PMID
956:link
938:PMID
674:and
666:and
606:Nest
598:and
495:Pupa
439:and
402:Head
348:and
336:and
271:The
245:von
1175:hdl
1167:doi
1134:doi
991:PMC
983:doi
928:PMC
918:doi
906:104
877:doi
842:104
789:doi
1305::
1283::
1270::
1255::
1240::
1181:.
1173:.
1161:.
1132:.
1122:26
1120:.
1116:.
1100:28
999:.
989:.
979:35
977:.
973:.
952:}}
948:{{
936:.
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873:68
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840:.
823:96
821:.
809:^
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757:^
678:.
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435:,
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958:)
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920::
912::
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791::
783::
777:7
57:)
53:(
43:.
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