Species translocation

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similar organizations. The purpose of reintroduction is to create a free-ranging, viable, and reproductively sustainable population which will help restore its environment. Multiple challenges have arisen with reintroductions, mainly concerning genetics and life history traits. Research assessing these concerns of reintroduction tend to primarily focus on genetics. The concern involving genetics revolves around reintroduced individuals not having locally selected traits, which the extinct population most likely had. In regards to life history traits, most reintroduced species are endangered, and knowledge about the life history traits of endangered species tends to be limited. Knowing when the species is sexually mature, how many offspring they will have, their average lifespan, and more, are vital to the success of these programs. Oftentimes the effectiveness of reintroductions are also questioned due to the lack of these considerations and neglected post release monitoring.

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role and re-establish the ecosystem function. These typically range from a related sub-species to another species within the same genus. An example of such is the ecological services herbivores provide. Besides consuming plants, herbivores also spread seeds and provide disturbances for new plants to grow as seen with the Galápagos Giant Tortoises on Pinta Island. If a primary herbivore is lost, the ecosystem would greatly suffer as the consumed plants would take over due to being unregulated. The process of ecological replacement is used as a form of conservation to maintain healthy ecosystems, but unintended ecological replacement can also occur through invasive species. If an invasive organism is introduced to an area which contains a closely related species, the invasive organism can ecologically take over the role of the native species.

22: 156:. Unfortunately, reinforcement also comes with a range of detrimental effects, which have been found through research in recent years. Some concerns specifically involve behavior and morphology changes in the population. Behavioral changes include reduced anti-predator responses, high aggression in resource competition, reduced breeding success, and difficulty finding successful habitat during dispersal. Morphological changes include altered dental health plus digestion struggle due to non-captive diets, and decreased defenses against predators. Along with these changes, the spread of disease poses additional problems. As captive individuals start breeding with wild individuals, genes which are unable to resist wild diseases might spread through the population, leading to large mortality when diseases arise. 233:. When species are purposely introduced into an area, there can be a multitude of motivations behind them. A common purpose is for pest control in human areas and as a way to protect crops. Another common introduction of species is through the pet trade. As anything from reptiles, mammals, birds, and amphibians are owned as pets, many species have been introduced after escaping or being released by owners. Other reasons include economic gain from having a natural resource grown or cultivated in a new area, or for decorative displays. Unintentional introductions can also occur though a variety of different means, but many result from global shipping routes. Aquatic species are a common example as they are commonly transported with ship ballast water and from recreational boat hull fouling communities. 242: 187:. One of the main aspects lost within those populations is genetic diversity as selective pressures are no longer present. This form of translocation can move organisms to areas close to their native range or move them far distances to areas separated by non-habitats. There are many examples of assisted colonization proving to be successful, but there are voices challenging the effectiveness of this process, highlighting potential unintended consequences. The introduction of these species can alter ecosystem process, ecological interactions between organisms, decrease 152:

to maintain genetic diversity. Before enacting reinforcement of a population, the root cause of the population decline should be addressed, allowing for the effort to not go to waste. Further notable considerations include assessing the capacity of the environment to sustain the desired population, and assuring translocated individuals have a diverse genetic makeup and are from a similar climatic or ecological area. Benefits of reinforcement include an increase in genetic diversity, increased populations sizes, and the reduction of

468:) are a species of fox that only live on the Channel Islands off the cost of Southern California, with a subspecies occupying each island. As of the 1990s populations were stable on all islands until a surprise drop in survival rates cause by invasive predators and canine distemper. Captive breeding programs were started to help increase their numbers while efforts began to protect the remaining individuals from the current threats. In 2001 pups from captive breeding program began to be translocated back into the wild. 214:

range from herbivores consuming plants in urban landscapes and agriculture, to carnivores hunting pets, livestock, or attacking humans. Previous methods of controlling such conflicts was through lethal control of the nuisance animals, but practices have been shifting to translocations. Many problems have arrived with such translocations as there is a lack of scientific security as these translocations do not occur for conservation goals, but for human needs instead.

778:) are an aggressive species of honey eaters who commonly don't allow other species to their areas. As a result, the increase in their populations have excluded other species of honey eater and insectivores birds. This has caused eucalyptus diebacks from insects, as there are no birds to eat them. In response, translocations of Noisy Miners has been implemented to disperse their population and allow for other bird species to move in who will regulate insect numbers. 4256: 321: 663: 4277: 625:) suffered major population declines after expansion of human activities like habitat destruction, unregulated hunting, and more. By the start of the 20th century they were extinct in the wild with few remaining in captivity. Thanks to intensive conservations efforts they are being reintroduced back into their native ranges in the wild, including countries like the Czech Republic. 444:) were native to the eastern United States in Kentucky, Tennessee, and western North Carolina. Their extirpation from these areas came in 1885 after overharvesting and habitat loss. Interest arose to bring back this extinct population, and in the early 2000s successful translocations occurred from Elk Island National Park to establish a population in Tennessee and North Carolina. 89:). Translocation as a tool is used to reduce the risk of a catastrophe to a species with a single population, to improve genetic heterogeneity of separated populations of a species, to aid the natural recovery of a species or re-establish a species where barriers might prevent it from doing so naturally. It is also used to move ecological features out of the way of development. 488:) conservation efforts have created many different strategies to increase their population numbers. One method includes the translocation of their nests to safer parts of a beach or to hatcheries. This process allows for survival rates of nests to increase due to predators, poachers, floods, and beach erosion no longer effecting the survival of the hatchlings. 380:) populations originally sat around 60 million individuals until humans brought their numbers to 835 individuals in 1889. This decline led to increased conservation efforts, including translocation of captive bred individuals. These bison were translocated to Oklahoma, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Montana which have led to healthy and growing populations today. 615:) populations dwindled after intense overhunting, leaving 5 small populations remaining around Europe. This has led to the implementation of translocation projects around Europe to establish these beavers to their native ranges. Specifically in the Netherlands, where the last native beaver died in 1826, beavers have been reintroduced. 536:) historically covered a vast range of the Dakota's, Montana, Nebraska, Kansas, New Mexico, Texas, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and more. Swift fox populations greatly declined due to hunting, rodent control programs, and more. Reintroductions began in 1983 in Canada and efforts have spread to restore them to their original native states. 478:) was listed as endangered in 1970 and ongoing conservation efforts have been increasing their numbers since. Methods include the translocation of nets to captive hatcheries, and movement of nests to protected areas on beaches. Other individuals who are rescued for various reasons are rehabilitated and translocated to new areas. 789:) has been translocated more than any other marsupial through conservation efforts to save its species. This has occurred across 61 sites in Australia with more than 3,400 individuals. Woylies have had abundant success as a result of their translocations, and have been considered a template for other marsupial translocations. 740:), like many other large carnivores, come into conflict with growing human areas. In Russian Far East, Amur tigers have been traditionally killed to prevent such attacks. A solution to help maintain tiger numbers and reduce conflict has been translocation of tigers to areas where conflict with humans won't be as common. 573:) are still threatened with extinction, but in 1964 they were almost there with fewer than 400 individuals in the wild. Native to the Atlantic Forest, Rio de Janeiro State, and Brazil, conservation programs began in 1981 to reintroduce and translocate individuals from isolated groups to increase population numbers. 430:) populations declined to around 22 individuals by 1982. Thanks to conservation efforts, all remaining condors were captured and taken into captivity for breeding. Following this effort in 1992, individuals began to be re-released into the areas their species use to roam leading to increased population numbers. 605:) is a rare species of bird whose range in England was restricted to South Devon. The capturing of around 80 free-living chicks occurred each year, allowing for a captive rearing program to increase their survival success. Then the individuals would be reintroduced back into the wild in Cornwall England. 199:

Ecological Replacement is the process of deliberately releasing organisms beyond their native habitat, to fulfil an ecological function which has been vacated in an environment. If a species integral to an ecosystem has been lost due to extinction, a related species will be placed to fulfil the same

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organism beyond its native habitat in order to prevent the extinction of its species. This process of creating “insurance populations” is primarily used when the species faces current or future threats and prevention of them or protection from them is not deemed feasible. One of the primary goals of

526:, allowing for recovery of the species to begin. Through captive breeding programs with zoological associations, reintroductions began in September 1987 in North Carolina. Through rigorous efforts successful reproduction and colonization were recorded in North Carolina for the first time in decades. 269:

Species translocation can vary greatly across taxa. For instance, bird and mammal translocations have a high success rate, while amphibian and reptile translocations have a low success rate. Successful translocations are characterized by moving a large number of individuals, using a wild population

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Reinforcement is the deliberate introduction and integration of an organism into an area where its species is already established. This mode of translocation is implemented in populations whose numbers have dropped below critical levels, become dangerously inbred, or who need artificial immigration

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Two overarching goals of translocation are population restoration and conservation introduction. Population restoration includes reinforcing existing populations and reintroducing populations to areas where they have disappeared. Conservation introduction involves assisted colonization of organisms

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Introductions involve the purposeful or accidental translocation of species beyond their native range. After an introduction occurs, the animal is considered a non-native species in that area. If this new species does not harm its new environment, it will remain a non-native species, but once the

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Nuisance Removals involve the translocation of individuals deemed as nuisance after coming into conflict with humans in a particular area. As the human population continues to grow and development expands into previous wild areas, human-animal conflicts will continue to increase. These conflicts

681:) have increasingly became a pest due to increased human-elephant conflict as humans move further into their habitat. One solution to the problem is translocating elephants as a way to reduce conflict without decreasing their vulnerable numbers. In 2005, 150 elephants were translocated in Kenya. 556:) populations suffered from habitat loss and overharvesting in the 1800s and 1900s. To restore populations turkeys were translocated from remaining populations to former areas. In the 1950s only around 200,000 individuals were in the southern United States, but by 1999 there were over 2 million. 164:

Reintroduction is the intentional process of reinstating an organism into an ecosystem previously occupied by that species. Individuals who are reintroduced can be caught from the wild and translocated to the new area or can come from captive breeding programs in zoos, wildlife sanctuaries, and

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Often, when conducting translocation programs, differences in specific habitat types between the source and release sites are not evaluated as long as the release site contains suitable habitat for the species. Translocations could be especially damaging to endangered species citing the failed

546:) have been translocated for conservation purposes, but have also been translocated as a method of removal from metropolitan environment's. This is mainly fueled by a negative public perception of killing deer, but doubles as a way to increase their numbers in areas where they are decreasing. 302:

in the Southern Rocky Mountains. For species that have declined over large areas and long periods of time translocations are of little use. Maintaining a large and widely dispersed population of amphibians and other species is the most important aspect of maintaining regional diversity and

768:) are a common species of snake that Australians have removed from their land due to their venomous threat. One method of removal involves translocation areas outside of residential zones. This occurs with hundreds of snakes each year around the greater Melbourne, Victoria area. 512:) populations declined in the United States and Canada due to habitat destruction, overexploitation, and pollution. In 1989 the North Carolina River Otter Restoration Project translocated 333 individuals from stable populations to 11 areas in the western portion of the state. 420:) last known wild population in Wyoming became nearly extinct in the mid-1980's. 18 individuals were removed and have been captive bred since 1991 for reintroduction. After rigorous efforts over the years, new populations have been re-established in South Dakota. 2055:

Draper Munt, David; Marques, Isabel; Iriondo, José M. (1 February 2016). "Acquiring baseline information for successful plant translocations when there is no time to lose: the case of the neglected Critically Endangered Narcissus cavanillesii (Amaryllidaceae)".

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410:) have been translocated to the Interior Highlands in Arkansas where they were previously found. Across 11 years 254 individuals were taken from Minnesota and released. Now in Oklahoma, Missouri, and Arkansas there are greater than 2,500 individuals as of 1994. 400:) populations dropped by more than 95% due to unregulated harvest, habitat loss, habitat alteration, disease, and more. An area of specific success is in Arizona with reintroductions taking off in 1979 increasing their population from 1,400 to 3,200 in 1994. 751:) was killed around 1972 after being a staple creature in the Arab world for hundreds of years. With few remaining in captivity an intensive program dubbed 'Operation Oryx' began with captive breeding and reintroduction of the species in Oman in 1982. 390:) have been a part of a multitude of translocation programs. One program involved capturing a total of 218 nestlings between 1981 and 1987 from southeast Alaska and releasing them in New York, Indiana Tennessee, Missouri, and North Carolina. 252:

Between 1973 and 1989 an estimated 515 translocations occurred per year in the United States, Canada, New Zealand and Australia. The majority were conducted in the United States. Birds were the most frequently translocated, followed by

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Caillouet Jr, Charles & Putman, Nathan & Shaver, Donna & Valverde, Roldán & Seney, Erin & Lohmann, Kenneth & Mansfield, Katherine & Gallaway, Benny & Flanagan, Joseph & Godfrey, Matthew. (2016).

2846:"Biosecurity for Translocations: Cirl Bunting (Emberiza cirlus), Fisher's Estuarine Moth (Gortyna borelii lunata), Short-Haired Bumblebee (Bombus subterraneus) and Pool Frog (Pelophylax lessonae) Translocations as Case Studies" 643:) have reduced their numbers over the years. Only around 3% of its former range is still occupied with around 5000 individuals in total. Thanks to conservations efforts, populations have been established in Estonia and Germany. 723:) live in populations on private and public reserves, which are prone to local extinctions. Efforts to translocate individuals have been enacted to increase their wild populations in areas like the Okavango Delta in Botswana. 2783:

Moraes, Andreia Magro; Ruiz-Miranda, Carlos R.; Ribeiro, Milton Cezar; Grativol, Adriana D.; da S. Carvalho, Carolina; Dietz, James M.; Kierulff, Maria Cecília M.; Freitas, Lucas A.; Galetti, Pedro M. (25 March 2017).

653:) populations declined after massive habitat loss and resource depletion in the United Kingdom. Around 100 queens were captured each year from the wild from 2012–2015 to be translocated to a designated release sight. 2358:

Muller, Lisa I.; Murrow, Jennifer L.; Lupardus, Jason L.; Clark, Joseph D.; Yarkovich, Joseph G.; Stiver, William H.; Delozier, E. Kim; Slabach, Brittany L.; Cox, John. J.; Miller, Bradley F. (7 March 2018).

584:) was a species of Galápagos tortoises that previously occupied Pinta Island in Ecuador. After going extinct, its ecological role was left vacant. This lead conservationists to ecologically replace them with 121:, critically endangered species that are already experiencing (or soon expected to experience) climate change beyond their levels of tolerance. Two examples of critically endangered relict species for which 2010:

Muths, E., T. L. Johnson, and P. S. Corn. 2001. Experimental repatriation of boreal toad (Bufo boreas) eggs, metamorphs, and adults in Rocky Mountain National Park. Southwestern Naturalist 46: 106–113.

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Pilliod, David S.; Rohde, Ashley T.; Charnley, Susan; Davee, Rachael R.; Dunham, Jason B.; Gosnell, Hannah; Grant, Gordon E.; Hausner, Mark B.; Huntington, Justin L.; Nash, Caroline (1 January 2018).

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Hervey, Samuel D.; Rutledge, Linda Y.; Patterson, Brent R.; Romanski, Mark C.; Vucetich, John A.; Belant, Jerrold L.; Beyer, Dean E.; Moore, Seth A.; Brzeski, Kristin E. (1 December 2021).

2474:"A Call for Evaluation of the Contribution Made by Rescue, Resuscitation, Rehabilitation, and Release Translocations to Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) Population Recovery" 261:

species, then non-game species. Of the 261 translocations in the United States reported wild species were most frequently translocated, and the greatest number occurred in the Southeast.

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and intensive trapping for fur in the 19th century. Translocation of this species has been used as a method to restore their populations and the stream environments that they engineer.

454:) had a population established on Isle Royale National Park in Lake Superior, which dropped to two individuals in 2017. This has led to an unmitigated growth in its moose population ( 1267: 458:) and a call for translocation to restart the Isle Royale wolf population. Individuals were taken from the Great Lakes region in places like Minnesota, Ontario, and Michigan. 1927:

Dodd, C. Kenneth; Seigel, Richard (1991). "Relocation, Repatriation, and Translocation of Amphibians and Reptiles : Are They Conservation Strategies That Work ?".

635:) is one of the most endangered mammal species, as its population drastically falls. Threats like habitat loss/fragmentation, overhunting, and the spread of the invasive 270:

as the source of the translocated individuals, and removing the problems which caused their decline within the area they are being translocated. The translocation of 254

1212: 1173: 47:, its objective is to improve the conservation status of the translocated organism or to restore the function and processes of the ecosystem the organism is entering. 85:

Translocation may be expensive and is often subject to public scrutiny, particularly when the species involved is charismatic or perceived as dangerous (for example

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by increasing the range of a species, augmenting the numbers in a critical population, or establishing new populations. Translocation may also improve the level of

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Bakker, Victoria J.; Smith, Donald R.; Copeland, Holly; Brandt, Joseph; Wolstenholme, Rachel; Burnett, Joe; Kirkland, Steve; Finkelstein, Myra E. (1 March 2017).

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to the Ozark Mountains in Arkansas resulted in more than 2,500 individuals 11 years later and has been seen as one of the most successful translocations in order

588:. Initially, 39 nonreproductive adults were introduced in May 2010 to see how two major phenotypes (domed and saddleback) would adapt to the new environment. 307:

during the construction of the largest European dam (Alqueva dam) is considered one of the best known examples of a successful translocation in plants.

2473: 3431: 3111:"Effects of age and sex on site fidelity, movement ranges and home ranges of white and black rhinoceros translocated to the Okavango Delta, Botswana" 3046:"Assessing translocation outcome: Comparing behavioral and physiological aspects of translocated and resident African elephants (Loxodonta africana)" 3679: 4298: 3674: 2987:"Fifty Years of Research on European Mink Mustela lutreola L., 1761 Genetics: Where Are We Now in Studies on One of the Most Endangered Mammals?" 3317:

Griffith, Brad; Scott, Michael; Carpenter, James; Reed, Christine (1989). "Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy".

3083: 55: 522:), like many other species of wolves has suffered over the years from intense hunting from humans. In 1973 the United States listed it on the 2672:"Effect of Coyotes and Release Site Selection on Survival and Movement of Translocated Swift Foxes in the Badlands Ecosystem of South Dakota" 1046:"Species distribution models with field validation, a key approach for successful selection of receptor sites in conservation translocations" 4076: 3908: 1207: 4126: 2786:"Temporal genetic dynamics of reintroduced and translocated populations of the endangered golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia)" 335: 4244: 966:

Griffith, B.; Scott, J. M.; Carpenter, J. W.; Reed, C. (1989). "Translocation as a Species Conservation Tool: Status and Strategy".

4178: 2305:"Effects of Lead Exposure, Flock Behavior, and Management Actions on the Survival of California Condors (Gymnogyps californianus)" 1857:

Griffith, B.; Scott, J.M.; Carpenter, J.W.; Reed, C. (1989). "Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy".

4106: 70:, but despite their popularity, translocations are a high‐cost endeavor with a history of failures. It may decrease the risk of 3367:

Our Living Resources: A Report to the Nation on the Distribution, Abundance, and Health of U.S. Plants, Animals, and Ecosystems

1818:"Recreational boating: a large unregulated vector transporting marine invasive species: Transport of NIS by recreational boats" 3246:"An experimental study of the translocation of noisy miners Manorina melanocephala and difficulties associated with dispersal" 21: 3424: 2654: 1311:

Champagnon, Jocelyn; Elmberg, Johan; Guillemain, Matthieu; Gauthier-Clerc, Michel; Lebreton, Jean-Dominique (1 August 2012).

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Griffith, B.; Scott, J.M.; Carpenter, J.W.; Reed, C. (1993). "Animal translocations and potential disease transmission".

2730:"Effects of resource dispersion and site familiarity on movements of translocated wild turkeys on fragmented landscapes" 2632: 4161: 3898: 1297:

The IUCN position statement on translocation of living organisms : introductions, re-introductions and re-stocking

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in entirely new areas, and ecological replacement of organisms to new areas to fulfill a vacant role in the ecosystem.

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translocation should only be attempted when a suitable unoccupied habitat exists. Among plants, the translocation of

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Pfannerstill, Vera; Signer, Johannes; Fitt, Michael; Burger, Kyle; Balkenhol, Niko; Bennitt, Emily (12 April 2022).

1225: 58:) catalogs translocation projects and creates extensive guidelines for their design and execution around the globe. 4141: 3667: 3417: 1268:"Why climate change is forcing conservationists to be more ambitious: by moving threatened species to pastures new" 4216: 4008: 3947: 3501: 3207:"The effects of translocation on the spatial ecology of tiger snakes (Notechis scutatus) in a suburban landscape" 834: 229:

introduced species begins to enact damage on the natural functions of the ecosystem, it becomes classified as an

1558:"Equivalency of Galápagos Giant Tortoises Used as Ecological Replacement Species to Restore Ecosystem Functions" 4332: 4327: 3925: 3607: 3491: 3451: 523: 2264:"Movements and survival of black-footed ferrets associated with an experimental translocation in South Dakota" 2148:"THE CAPTURE OF ALASKAN BALD EAGLES FOR TRANSLOCATION TO OTHER STATES AND RELATED PRODUCTIVITY STUDIES - 1987" 1467:"The effects of group versus intensive housing on the retention of genetic diversity in insurance populations" 4259: 3998: 3833: 3657: 3637: 2938:

Vadlejch, Jaroslav; Kyriánová, Iveta A.; Rylková, Kateřina; Zikmund, Miloslav; Langrová, Iva (1 April 2017).

2940:"Health risks associated with wild animal translocation: a case of the European bison and an alien parasite" 1296: 4221: 3964: 3759: 3754: 3632: 34: 3158:"Ten years of Arabian oryx conservation breeding in Saudi Arabia – achievements and regional perspectives" 102:

is one such case, threatened by rabbits, dieback and degraded habitat. The rarest marsupial in the world,

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Trenham, Peter C.; Marsh, David M. (2002). "Amphibian Translocation Programs: Reply to Seigel and Dodd".

1226:"Translocation of species, climate change, and the end of trying to recreate past ecological communities" 952:

Rout, T. M., C. E. Hauser and H. P. Possingham. Optimal translocation strategies for threatened species.

471: 1210:(Report). Threatened Species Strategy – Year 3 Priority Species Scorecard (2018). Australian Government. 106:, has been successfully translocated to remote islands in Western Australia as "insurance populations". 4081: 3689: 3481: 505: 3245: 3045: 2729: 1727:

Vitousek, Peter M.; D'Antonio, Carla M.; Loope, Lloyd L.; Rejmánek, Marcel; Westbrooks, Randy (1997).

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Fisher, J; Lindenmayer, D.B. (2000). "An assessment of the published results of animal relocations".

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Translocation is a traditional, if rarely used, conservation tool. However, in this century of rapid

3087: 4287: 4249: 4166: 4136: 4116: 3724: 3642: 3627: 3617: 3592: 3587: 799: 3385:"Translocation of bats as a conservation strategy : previous attempts and potential problems" 2168:

Kamler, Jan F.; Lee, Raymond M.; deVos, James C.; Ballard, Warren B.; Whitlaw, Heather A. (2002).

4091: 3993: 3940: 3699: 3622: 1976:; Clark, Joseph (1994). "Black bears in Arkansas: classification of a successful translocation". 1655:"Translocation of problem Amur tigers Panthera tigris altaica to alleviate tiger-human conflicts" 1465:

Gooley, Rebecca M.; Hogg, Carolyn J.; Belov, Katherine; Grueber, Catherine E. (1 February 2018).

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is the human action of moving an organism from one area and releasing it in another. In terms of

1557: 1412:"High-performance teams in wildlife conservation: A species reintroduction and recovery example" 4294: 4156: 4151: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4051: 4033: 4018: 3872: 3531: 2901:"Development and viability of a translocated beaver Castor fiber population in The Netherlands" 646: 343: 183:

such populations is to hold onto aspects of the populations that would be lost if captured for

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Ostrowski, Stéphane; Bedin, Eric; Lenain, Daniel M.; Abuzinada, Abdulaziz H. (24 April 2009).

241: 4111: 4096: 3917: 3838: 3810: 3805: 3764: 3734: 3729: 3694: 3612: 3496: 3486: 2646: 2446: 684: 666: 577: 491: 481: 44: 2636: 1313:"Conspecifics can be aliens too: A review of effects of restocking practices in vertebrates" 585: 4206: 4196: 4003: 3800: 3749: 3739: 3704: 3602: 3597: 3561: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3461: 3440: 3328: 2564: 1866: 1556:

Hunter, Elizabeth A.; Gibbs, James P.; Cayot, Linda J.; Tapia, Washington (26 March 2013).

1423: 1324: 1187:. Kensington, WA: Department of Environment and Conservation, Western Australian Government 975: 862: 850: 705: 126: 103: 67: 2400:"A first genetic assessment of the newly introduced Isle Royale gray wolves (Canis lupus)" 2262:

Biggins, Dean E.; Godbey, Jerry L.; Horton, Brent M.; Livier, Travis M. (16 August 2011).

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Global conservation translocation perspectives (2021): Case studies from around the globe

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North American river otter (Lutra canadensis) translocation in North Carolina 1989-1996.

2568: 2553:"Survey of Beaver-related Restoration Practices in Rangeland Streams of the Western USA" 1870: 1612: 1427: 1328: 979: 866: 3969: 3843: 3774: 3566: 3352: 3284: 3187: 3138: 3021: 2986: 2967: 2881: 2823: 2765: 2728:

Marable, M. Kyle; Belant, Jerrold L.; Godwin, David; Wang, Guiming (1 September 2012).

2710: 2596: 2533: 2525: 2427: 2340: 2285: 2244: 2197: 2128: 2081: 2037: 1993: 1890: 1839: 1748: 1684: 1593: 1447: 1121: 999: 914:"Conservation translocations: a review of common difficulties and promising directions" 894: 223: 179: 122: 114: 3261: 3174: 3157: 2900: 1959: 1364: 4226: 3935: 3893: 3779: 3662: 3344: 3319: 3265: 3226: 3179: 3142: 3130: 3065: 3026: 3008: 2971: 2959: 2920: 2916: 2873: 2865: 2815: 2769: 2757: 2749: 2702: 2650: 2588: 2580: 2517: 2452: 2431: 2419: 2380: 2332: 2324: 2236: 2189: 2120: 2073: 2033: 1973: 1882: 1834: 1817: 1740: 1676: 1632: 1628: 1585: 1577: 1535: 1527: 1488: 1451: 1439: 1392: 1384: 1380: 1340: 1248: 1171: 1157: 1140: 1113: 1077: 991: 935: 886: 878: 539: 423: 130: 93: 3356: 3191: 2827: 2600: 2537: 2289: 2085: 2041: 1894: 1843: 1688: 1613:"Ecological replacement of native red squirrels by invasive greys driven by disease" 1597: 1125: 1017:

Bath, AJ (1989). "The public and wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone National Park".

1003: 953: 898: 3957: 3652: 3476: 3396: 3336: 3296: 3257: 3218: 3169: 3122: 3057: 3016: 2998: 2951: 2912: 2885: 2857: 2805: 2797: 2741: 2642: 2572: 2507: 2499: 2411: 2372: 2344: 2316: 2275: 2228: 2181: 2112: 2065: 2029: 1985: 1955: 1874: 1829: 1666: 1624: 1569: 1519: 1478: 1431: 1376: 1332: 1240: 1152: 1105: 1067: 1057: 1026: 983: 925: 870: 699: 674: 230: 184: 30: 1816:

Clarke Murray, Cathryn; Pakhomov, Evgeny A.; Therriault, Thomas W. (7 June 2011).

1766: 3684: 3340: 3061: 2745: 2147: 1878: 987: 874: 608: 191:, cause hybridization, and in some cases even cause other species to go extinct. 1062: 1045: 3714: 2785: 2415: 1523: 1244: 1206:

National Environmental Science Program Threatened Species Research Hub (2019).

733: 618: 373: 110: 3300: 3285:"Genetic outcomes from the translocations of the critically endangered woylie" 2955: 2861: 2801: 2576: 2320: 2069: 1671: 1654: 1483: 1466: 1336: 1109: 1030: 4321: 4211: 4201: 3974: 3865: 3853: 3848: 3269: 3230: 3183: 3134: 3069: 3012: 2963: 2924: 2869: 2819: 2753: 2706: 2691:"Post-Translocation Survival and Movements of Metropolitan White-Tailed Deer" 2584: 2521: 2423: 2399: 2384: 2328: 2240: 2193: 2124: 2077: 1744: 1680: 1636: 1581: 1531: 1492: 1443: 1388: 1344: 1117: 1081: 939: 882: 636: 628: 393: 66:

Translocation can be an effective management strategy and important topic in

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Proceedings of the combined meeting held at Chester Zoo, UK, May 21–24, 1998

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Decline and Recovery of the Island Fox: A Case Study for Population Recovery

2304: 2280: 2263: 3888: 3363: 3348: 3030: 2877: 2761: 2592: 2336: 1886: 1729:"Introduced Species: A Significant Component of Human-Caused Global Change" 1589: 1539: 1396: 1252: 995: 890: 744: 598: 188: 153: 75: 3409: 3206: 3003: 2671: 1290: 1288: 1310: 1072: 771: 761: 716: 549: 447: 298: 2810: 2360: 2217:"Black Bears in Arkansas: Characteristics of a Successful Translocation" 2170:"Survival and Cougar Predation of Translocated Bighorn Sheep in Arizona" 1767:"Learn - Invasive & Non-Native Species (U.S. National Park Service)" 1752: 1728: 849:

Griffith, B.; Scott, J. M.; Carpenter, J. W.; Reed, C. (4 August 1989).

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Pacioni, Carlo; Wayne, Adrian F.; Spencer, Peter B. S. (1 June 2013).

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2844:

Vaughan-Higgins, R. J.; Masters, N.; Sainsbury, A. W. (1 March 2017).

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of Australia and a subcanopy conifer tree in the United States called

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Coonan, Timothy J.; Schwemm, Catherin A.; Garcelon, David K. (2010).

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Anne Cochrane; Andrew Crawford; Amanda Shade; Bryan Shearer (2008).

822:

Guidelines for reintroductions and other conservation translocations

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Draper, David; Marques, Isabel; Iriondo, José María (1 July 2019).

851:"Translocation as a Species Conservation Tool: Status and Strategy" 1726: 3364:

National Biological Service, United States. (11 September 1995).

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IUCN Commission on Environmental Policy, Law and Administration.

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Several critically endangered plant species in the southwestern

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Assisted colonization is the process of deliberately releasing

3155: 2631:

Philips, Michael K.; Henry, V. Gary; Kelly, Brian T. (2003).

2488:"Success of Delayed Translocation of Loggerhead Turtle Nests" 1508:"Assisted colonization is not a viable conservation strategy" 1141:"Assisted colonization under the U.S. Endangered Species Act" 26: 3108: 911: 912:

Berger-Tal, O.; Blumstein, D. T.; Swaisgood, R. R. (2020).

96:

have either been considered for translocation or trialled.

3316: 1907: 1856: 1365:"Reintroduction: challenges and lessons for basic ecology" 965: 848: 2621:. European Association of Zoo-and Wildlife Veterinarians. 2550: 2357: 2302: 2261: 2054: 1094: 433: 3383:

Ruffell, Jay; Guilbert, Joshua; Parsons, Stuart (2009).

3086:. National Zoo - Smithsonian Institution. Archived from 3043: 1363:

Sarrazin, Frangois; Barbault, Robert (1 November 1996).

54:

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (

2839: 2837: 2727: 2485: 2476:. Herpetological Conservation and Biology. 11. 486-496. 2361:"Genetic structure in Elk persists after translocation" 2155:

Fish and Wildlife Enhancement Raptor Management Studies

1653:

Goodrich, John M.; Miquelle, Dale G. (4 October 2005).

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to it so that it can be listed with similar articles.

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Ricciardi, Anthony; Simberloff, Daniel (1 May 2009).

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Clarke, Michael F.; Schedvin, Natasha (1 May 1997).

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Accessed on 11 May 2007. 560: 367: 319: 217: 146: 4217:NatureServe conservation status 3502:Conservation-induced extinction 3276: 3237: 3198: 3149: 3102: 3076: 3037: 2978: 2931: 2892: 2776: 2721: 2682: 2663: 2624: 2607: 2544: 2479: 2465: 2438: 2391: 2351: 2296: 2255: 2208: 2161: 2139: 2092: 2048: 2013: 2004: 1966: 1939: 1920: 1901: 1850: 1809: 1784: 1759: 1720: 1604: 1499: 1458: 1403: 1317:Journal for Nature Conservation 1304: 1233:Trends in Ecology and Evolution 1217: 1132: 1050:Global Ecology and Conservation 3608:Conservation management system 3492:Conservation-dependent species 3452:Index of conservation articles 2451:. Cambridge University Press. 1733:New Zealand Journal of Ecology 1088: 1037: 1010: 946: 905: 842: 828: 689:Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa 498:) populations declined due to 1: 3834:Assisted natural regeneration 3638:Ecoregion conservation status 3262:10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00075-4 1960:10.1016/s0006-3207(00)00048-3 1301:PDF). IUCN, 04 September 1987 1019:Society and Natural Resources 793: 440:), specifically eastern elk ( 247:(Source:Griffith et al. 1993) 4222:Special Area of Conservation 3760:Landscape-scale conservation 3755:High conservation value area 3633:Community-based conservation 3341:10.1126/science.245.4917.477 3062:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.01.027 2917:10.1016/0006-3207(95)00063-1 2746:10.1016/j.beproc.2012.06.006 1879:10.1126/science.245.4917.477 1381:10.1016/0169-5347(96)20092-8 1224:Thomas, Chris D (May 2011). 1178:) Interim Recovery Plan 224" 988:10.1126/science.245.4917.477 875:10.1126/science.245.4917.477 755: 702:by hunting and habitat loss. 442:Cervus canadensis canadensis 35:Fort Peck Indian Reservation 7: 4240:List of conservation issues 3648:Evidence-based conservation 3542:Mutualisms and conservation 3389:Endangered Species Research 1822:Diversity and Distributions 1063:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00653 310: 61: 10: 4349: 3690:Roadless area conservation 3482:Compassionate conservation 3115:African Journal of Ecology 2416:10.1007/s10592-021-01373-y 2099:Kleiman, Devra G. (1989). 1524:10.1016/j.tree.2008.12.006 1245:10.1016/j.tree.2011.02.006 698:, where giraffes had been 506:North American river otter 221: 4235: 4189: 4044: 3881: 3824: 3793: 3713: 3580: 3460: 3447: 2956:10.1007/s10530-016-1306-z 2862:10.1007/s10393-016-1150-8 2802:10.1007/s10592-017-0948-4 2695:Wildlife Society Bulletin 2577:10.1007/s00267-017-0957-6 2321:10.1007/s10393-015-1096-2 2070:10.1007/s11258-015-0524-2 1672:10.1017/S0030605305001146 1484:10.1186/s40850-017-0026-x 1337:10.1016/j.jnc.2012.02.002 1110:10.1007/s11258-015-0524-2 1031:10.1080/08941928909380693 657: 592: 586:Galápagos Giant Tortoises 284:Yellowstone National Park 236: 204:Non-conservation oriented 169:Conservation introduction 4077:Central African Republic 3725:Conservation designation 3643:Environmental protection 3628:Conspicuous conservation 3618:Conservation photography 3593:Conservation development 3588:Conservation agriculture 2557:Environmental Management 1707:"Wildlife Translocation" 1416:Environmental Management 472:Kemp's ridley sea turtle 388:Haliaeetus leucocephalus 136: 3816:Human–wildlife conflict 3700:Site-based conservation 3623:Conservation psychology 3441:Conservation of species 3301:10.1093/czoolo/59.3.294 3250:Biological Conservation 3050:Biological Conservation 2905:Biological Conservation 2613:Spelman, L. H. (1998). 2281:10.1644/10-MAMM-S-152.1 1948:Biological Conservation 738:Panthera tigris altaica 727: 715:) and Southern-Central 669:translocated to Senegal 428:Gymnogyps californianus 348:less pertinent examples 280:gray wolf translocation 3873:Species reintroduction 3532:Latent extinction risk 776:Manorina melanocephala 721:Diceros bicornis minor 685:South African giraffes 670: 647:Short-haired bumblebee 582:Chelonoidis abingdonii 571:Leontopithecus rosalia 544:Odocoileus virginianus 524:Endangered Species Act 305:Narcissus cavanillesii 293:Bufo hemiophys baxteri 249: 195:Ecological replacement 142:Population restoration 127:western swamp tortoise 37: 4333:Animal reintroduction 4328:Wildlife conservation 4245:List of organisations 3899:Hawaiian honeycreeper 3839:Ecosystem restoration 3811:Habitat fragmentation 3806:Fortress conservation 3765:Marine protected area 3735:Conservation easement 3730:Conservation district 3695:Roadside conservation 3613:Conservation movement 3557:Species translocation 3497:Conservation genetics 3487:Conservation behavior 3004:10.3390/genes11111332 2790:Conservation Genetics 2734:Behavioural Processes 2404:Conservation Genetics 1174:"Corrigin Grevillea ( 787:Bettongia penicillata 694:were translocated to 667:South African giraffe 665: 578:Pinta Island tortoise 492:North American beaver 482:Loggerhead sea turtle 244: 174:Assisted colonization 45:wildlife conservation 24: 4207:Planetary boundaries 4197:Conservation officer 3801:Conservation refugee 3750:Habitat conservation 3740:Conservation reserve 3705:Wetland conservation 3603:Conservation grazing 3598:Conservation finance 3562:Conservation welfare 3527:In-situ conservation 3522:Extinction threshold 3517:Ex-situ conservation 2944:Biological Invasions 2268:Journal of Mammalogy 2221:Journal of Mammalogy 2022:Conservation Biology 1978:Journal of Mammalogy 1562:Conservation Biology 1145:Conservation Letters 706:Southern white rhino 567:Golden lion tamarins 68:conservation biology 3547:Nature conservation 3537:Marine conservation 3507:Conservation status 3333:1989Sci...245..477G 2569:2018EnMan..61...58P 1871:1989Sci...245..477G 1428:1989EnMan..13..663C 1329:2012JNatC..20..231C 1176:Grevillea scapigera 980:1989Sci...245..477G 918:Animal Conservation 867:1989Sci...245..477G 710:Ceratotherium simum 651:Bombus subterraneus 554:Meleagris gallapovo 500:habitat destruction 476:Lepidochelys kempii 414:Black-footed ferret 344:improve the article 265:Success and failure 99:Grevillea scapigera 87:wolf reintroduction 3844:Island restoration 3775:Open space reserve 3567:Threatened species 2377:10.1002/jwmg.21482 1792:"Invasive Species" 1574:10.1111/cobi.12038 1436:10.1007/BF01868305 679:Loxodonta africana 671: 466:Urocyon littoralis 250: 224:Introduced species 123:assisted migration 115:assisted migration 38: 33:being released in 4316: 4315: 4299:adding categories 4268: 4267: 4227:Soil conservation 3780:Wildlife corridor 3663:Forest protection 3658:Forest management 3327:(4917): 477–480. 3211:Wildlife Research 3127:10.1111/aje.13011 3090:on 5 October 2012 2656:978-0-226-51697-4 1865:(4917): 477–480. 974:(4917): 477–480. 931:10.1111/acv.12534 861:(4917): 477–480. 766:Notechis scutatus 675:African elephants 540:White-tailed deer 510:Lontra canadensis 496:Castor canadensis 424:California condor 365: 364: 104:Gilbert's potoroo 94:Western Australia 4340: 4311: 4308: 4302: 4279: 4271: 4258: 4257: 4142:Papua New Guinea 4034:Cryopreservation 3999:Gray nurse shark 3653:Flagship species 3477:Captive breeding 3434: 3427: 3420: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3404: 3402:10.3354/esr00195 3379: 3377: 3375: 3360: 3305: 3304: 3280: 3274: 3273: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3202: 3196: 3195: 3177: 3153: 3147: 3146: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3080: 3074: 3073: 3056:(5): 1116–1124. 3041: 3035: 3034: 3024: 3006: 2982: 2976: 2975: 2950:(4): 1121–1125. 2935: 2929: 2928: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2841: 2832: 2831: 2813: 2780: 2774: 2773: 2725: 2719: 2718: 2686: 2680: 2679: 2667: 2661: 2660: 2628: 2622: 2611: 2605: 2604: 2548: 2542: 2541: 2515: 2504:10.2193/2006-512 2498:(7): 2290–2296. 2483: 2477: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2442: 2436: 2435: 2395: 2389: 2388: 2371:(6): 1124–1134. 2355: 2349: 2348: 2300: 2294: 2293: 2283: 2259: 2253: 2252: 2212: 2206: 2205: 2180:(4): 1267–1272. 2165: 2159: 2158: 2152: 2143: 2137: 2136: 2096: 2090: 2089: 2052: 2046: 2045: 2017: 2011: 2008: 2002: 2001: 1970: 1964: 1963: 1943: 1937: 1936: 1924: 1918: 1917: 1905: 1899: 1898: 1854: 1848: 1847: 1837: 1828:(6): 1161–1172. 1813: 1807: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1788: 1782: 1781: 1779: 1777: 1763: 1757: 1756: 1724: 1718: 1717: 1711: 1702: 1693: 1692: 1674: 1650: 1641: 1640: 1608: 1602: 1601: 1553: 1544: 1543: 1503: 1497: 1496: 1486: 1462: 1456: 1455: 1407: 1401: 1400: 1360: 1349: 1348: 1308: 1302: 1292: 1283: 1282: 1280: 1278: 1272:The Conversation 1263: 1257: 1256: 1230: 1221: 1215: 1211: 1203: 1197: 1196: 1194: 1192: 1182: 1169: 1163: 1162: 1160: 1136: 1130: 1129: 1092: 1086: 1085: 1075: 1065: 1041: 1035: 1034: 1014: 1008: 1007: 963: 957: 950: 944: 943: 933: 909: 903: 902: 846: 840: 832: 826: 818: 633:Mustela lutreola 438:Cervus canadensi 418:Mustela nigripes 408:Ursus americanus 360: 357: 351: 323: 322: 315: 231:invasive species 209:Nuisance removal 185:captive breeding 31:Yellowstone Park 4348: 4347: 4343: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4338: 4337: 4318: 4317: 4312: 4306: 4303: 4292: 4280: 4269: 4264: 4231: 4185: 4040: 3958:Indian elephant 3877: 3820: 3789: 3785:30 by 30 target 3716: 3709: 3685:Riparian buffer 3576: 3463: 3456: 3443: 3438: 3373: 3371: 3313: 3311:Further reading 3308: 3289:Current Zoology 3281: 3277: 3242: 3238: 3223:10.1071/WR04020 3203: 3199: 3154: 3150: 3107: 3103: 3093: 3091: 3082: 3081: 3077: 3042: 3038: 2983: 2979: 2936: 2932: 2897: 2893: 2842: 2835: 2796:(5): 995–1009. 2781: 2777: 2726: 2722: 2687: 2683: 2668: 2664: 2657: 2629: 2625: 2612: 2608: 2549: 2545: 2484: 2480: 2470: 2466: 2459: 2443: 2439: 2396: 2392: 2356: 2352: 2301: 2297: 2260: 2256: 2233:10.2307/1382549 2213: 2209: 2186:10.2307/3802959 2166: 2162: 2150: 2144: 2140: 2117:10.2307/1311025 2097: 2093: 2053: 2049: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2005: 1990:10.2307/1382549 1974:Smith, Kimberly 1971: 1967: 1944: 1940: 1925: 1921: 1906: 1902: 1855: 1851: 1814: 1810: 1800: 1798: 1790: 1789: 1785: 1775: 1773: 1765: 1764: 1760: 1725: 1721: 1709: 1703: 1696: 1651: 1644: 1617:Ecology Letters 1609: 1605: 1554: 1547: 1504: 1500: 1463: 1459: 1408: 1404: 1375:(11): 474–478. 1361: 1352: 1309: 1305: 1293: 1286: 1276: 1274: 1264: 1260: 1228: 1222: 1218: 1204: 1200: 1190: 1188: 1180: 1170: 1166: 1137: 1133: 1093: 1089: 1042: 1038: 1015: 1011: 964: 960: 951: 947: 910: 906: 847: 843: 833: 829: 819: 800: 796: 758: 743:The final wild 734:Siberian tigers 730: 660: 609:Eurasian beaver 603:Emberiza cirlus 595: 563: 486:Caretta caretta 398:Ovis canadensis 370: 361: 355: 352: 341: 324: 320: 313: 296:in Wyoming and 267: 239: 226: 220: 211: 206: 197: 176: 171: 162: 149: 144: 139: 131:Florida torreya 64: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4346: 4336: 4335: 4330: 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3670: 3665: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3577: 3575: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3519: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3474: 3468: 3466: 3458: 3457: 3455: 3454: 3448: 3445: 3444: 3437: 3436: 3429: 3422: 3414: 3408: 3407: 3380: 3361: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3306: 3275: 3256:(2): 161–167. 3236: 3217:(2): 165–171. 3197: 3168:(3): 209–222. 3148: 3121:(3): 344–356. 3101: 3075: 3036: 2977: 2930: 2911:(2): 125–137. 2891: 2833: 2775: 2740:(1): 119–124. 2720: 2701:(4): 434–441. 2681: 2662: 2655: 2623: 2606: 2543: 2478: 2464: 2457: 2437: 2410:(6): 913–926. 2390: 2350: 2295: 2274:(4): 742–750. 2254: 2227:(2): 309–320. 2207: 2160: 2138: 2111:(3): 152–161. 2091: 2064:(2): 193–206. 2047: 2028:(2): 555–556. 2012: 2003: 1984:(2): 309–320. 1965: 1938: 1919: 1900: 1849: 1808: 1783: 1758: 1719: 1694: 1665:(4): 454–457. 1642: 1623:(3): 189–196. 1603: 1568:(4): 701–709. 1545: 1518:(5): 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