978:
Gray, Alan J.; Grosholz, Edwin D.; Hacker, Sally D.; Hughes, A. Randall; Mateos‐Naranjo, Enrique; Mendelssohn, Irving A.; Morris, James T.; Muñoz‐Rodríguez, Adolfo F.; Nieva, Francisco J. J.; Levin, Lisa A.; Li, Bo; Liu, Wenwen; Pennings, Steven C.; Pickart, Andrea; Redondo‐Gómez, Susana; Richardson, David M.; Salmon, Armel; Schwindt, Evangelina; Silliman, Brian R.; Sotka, Erik E.; Stace, Clive; Sytsma, Mark; Temmerman, Stijn; Turner, R. Eugene; Valiela, Ivan; Weinstein, Michael P.; Weis, Judith S. (2019).
57:
44:
555:. It can grow in low marsh (frequently inundated by the tide) as well as high marsh (less frequently inundated), but it is usually restricted to low marsh because it is outcompeted by salt meadow cordgrass in the high marsh. It grows in a wide range of salinities, from about 5 psu to marine (32 psu), and has been described as the "single most important marsh plant species in the estuary" of Chesapeake Bay. It is described as intolerant of shade.
977:
Bortolus, Alejandro; Adam, Paul; Adams, Janine B.; Ainouche, Malika L.; Ayres, Debra; Bertness, Mark D.; Bouma, Tjeerd J.; Bruno, John F.; Caçador, Isabel; Carlton, James T.; Castillo, Jesus M.; Costa, Cesar S. B.; Davy, Anthony J.; Deegan, Linda; Duarte, Bernardo; Figueroa, Enrique; Gerwein, Joel;
760:
was probably an accidental introduction during oyster transplants during the nineteenth century and may have dispersed from there to other parts of the state. At its peak of infestation in 2003, it covered approximately 3,000 hectares (more than 8,500 acres), spread across an area of 8,000 hectares
561:
is noted for its capacity to act as an environmental engineer. It grows out into the water at the seaward edge of a salt marsh, and accumulates sediment and enables other habitat-engineering species, such as mussels, to settle. This accumulation of sediment and other substrate-building species
796:
is well established in San
Francisco Bay, and has had the greatest impact of all the cordgrasses in San Francisco Bay. It was introduced in 1973 by the Army Corps of Engineers in an attempt to reclaim marshland, and was spread and replanted around the bay in further restoration projects. It
744:
is in China, where plants from multiple North
American locations were intentionally planted starting in 1979 with the intention of providing shore protection and sediment capture. The invasion has spread to over 34,000 hectares in ten provinces and Hong Kong.
845:
species, and are producing a hybrid population that, left unchecked, can increase not only in population size but also in its rate of population growth. The hybrids may also be able to fertilize themselves, which the native
521:
as a genus. It grows 1–1.5 m (3 ft 3 in – 4 ft 11 in) tall and has smooth, hollow stems that bear leaves up to 20–60 cm (7.9 in – 1 ft 11.6 in) long and 1.5 cm
547:
on only one side of the stalk. The flowers are a yellowish-green, turning brown by the winter. It has rhizoidal roots, which, when broken off, can result in vegetative asexual growth. The
891:
industry there, but this method did not contain the invasion. Surveys by air, land, and sea are conducted in infested and threatened areas near San
Francisco to determine the spread of
854:
and hybrids in the San
Francisco Bay Area by 96%, from 323 net hectares at its peak to 12 net hectares. Taller than either of the parent species, the hybrid provides good shelter to
622:, either by itself or by hybridizing with native species and interfering with the propagation of the pure native strain. The grass can hinder water circulation and
946:
Peterson, Paul M.; Romaschenko, Konstantin; Arrieta, Yolanda
Herrera; Saarela, Jeffery M. (2014). "A molecular phylogeny and new subgeneric classification of
198:
1892:
850:
species cannot do, thus increasing the spread of the hybrid swarm even further. As of 2014, eradication efforts had reduced the infestation of
194:
562:
gradually builds up the level of the land at the seaward edge, and other, higher-marsh species move onto the new land. As the marsh accretes,
1560:
825:
by itself. The hybrid can physically modify the environment to the detriment of native species, and the hybrid populations have spread into
841:
species little chance to produce unhybridized offspring. The hybrids also produce much larger numbers of fertile seeds than the native
2042:
1266:
Ayres, Debra R.; Garcia-Rossi, Dino; Davis, Heather G.; Strong, Donald R. (1999). "Extent and degree of hybridization between exotic (
190:
1804:
1521:
1418:
1918:
1843:
1406:
1397:
881:, is approved for aquatic use and is used effectively in Washington and California to kill it. In Willapa Bay, leafhopper bugs (
570:
grows in tallest forms at the outermost edge of a given marsh, displaying shorter morphologies up onto the landward side of the
1990:
912:
2157:
2016:
17:
1598:
1923:
1127:
833:, and more remote coastal locations. The hybrids produce enormous amounts of pollen, which swamp the stigmas of the native
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2137:
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1476:
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has since spread throughout northwest Europe, and (following introduction for erosion control) eastern North
America.
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1817:
1565:
1879:
1547:
1611:
1995:
2060:
1967:
1402:
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Anttila, C. K.; King, R. A.; Ferris, C.; Ayres, D. R.; Strong, D. R. (2000). "Reciprocal hybrid formation of
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1500:
1905:
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1848:
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2152:
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532: in) wide at their base, which are sharply tapered and bend down at their tips. Like its relative
56:
1317:
Kerr, Drew W.; Hogle, Ingrid B.; Ort, Brian S.; Thornton, Whitney J. (2016). "A review of 15 years of
1038:
761:(20,000 acres). As of 2016, the infestation had been reduced to less than 3 solid hectares (7 acres).
2109:
1982:
1575:
1050:
Lippson, AJ & RL Lippson. 2006. Life in the
Chesapeake Bay, 3rd ed., p.295. Johns Hopkins Press.
1113:, Washington State Department of Agriculture Spartina Eradication Annual Reports. Accessed 7/12/18.
873:
fragments that inevitably break off and get left in the soil are capable of sending up new shoots.
717:
at lower temperatures more productively than other similar plants. It can grow on a wider range of
1959:
1274:) cordgrass (Poaceae) in California, USA determined by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs)".
1172:
Callaway, John C.; Josselyn, Michael N. (1992). "The
Introduction and Spread of Smooth Cordgrass (
1791:
1365:
2047:
1946:
916:
1897:
1778:
1438:
1110:
1936:
513:
and in 2019 an interdisciplinary team of experts coauthored a report published in the journal
585:
498:, is a perennial deciduous grass which is found in intertidal wetlands, especially estuarine
173:
1588:
1871:
1729:
1126:
Ayres, Debra R.; Smith, Debra L.; Zaremba, Katy; Klohr, Shannon; Strong, Donald R. (2004).
883:
533:
1089:
653:
is overgrown, and in turn, food sources shrink for birds who feed on those invertebrates.
8:
2147:
1150:
1072:
Strong, Donald R.; Ayres, Debra R. (2013). "Ecological and
Evolutionary Misadventures of
778:
662:
1685:
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flowers to produce even larger numbers of hybrid offspring, leaving the affected native
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USDA Forest
Service Fire Effects Information System (FEIS) for Spartina alterniflora
709:
has a variety of traits that allow it to outcompete native plants, including a high
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588:, Canada, south to northern Argentina, where it forms a dominant part of brackish
2003:
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619:
94:
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2008:
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Several means of control and eradication have been employed against
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http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/spaalt/all.html
874:
730:
623:
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1747:
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after a taxonomic revision in 2014, but it is still common to see
945:
870:
698:
140:
2021:
1734:
1132:
sp.) in the Tidal Marshes of San Francisco Bay, California, USA"
1358:"This monster plant is trying to take over. What if we let it?"
888:
540:
130:
589:
68:
1265:
1111:
https://agr.wa.gov/plantsinsects/weeds/spartina/default.aspx
548:
544:
803:, and to potentially eliminate it from San Francisco Bay.
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in about 1870 and came into contact with the local native
976:
830:
792:) have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay region.
887:) were employed to kill the plants, which threaten the
1423:
1218:
1125:
927:. Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team
1316:
1078:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
1414:
Noxious Weed IVM Guide- Smooth Cordgrass (Spartina)
1062:USDA NRCS PLANTS profile for Spartina alterniflora
610:
869:. Hand pulling is ineffective because even small
797:demonstrated an ability to outcompete the native
2124:
1171:
607:) have only been found on this species to date.
1060:http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=spal
1419:Invasive Plant Council – Spartina alterniflora
858:, an occasional roadblock to its eradication.
634:and altering the environment; as a result of
566:moves still further out to form a new edge.
1128:"Spread of Exotic Cordgrasses and Hybrids (
1071:
970:
1321:management in the San Francisco Estuary".
911:
42:
1015:
1005:
950:(Poaceae: Chloridoideae: Sporobolinae)".
821:that may be an even greater threat than
1407:United States Department of Agriculture
1398:Germplasm Resources Information Network
1121:
1119:
630:can crowd out native species, reducing
580:is native to the Atlantic coast of the
14:
2125:
984:: Interdisciplinary perspective shows
809:has also been found to hybridize with
626:or block boating channels. Meadows of
1437:
1436:
1355:
1090:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135803
925:The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov)
713:tolerance and the ability to perform
1983:70b86d7a-dc78-4467-94c8-04d101115753
1576:780bed0a-62a6-4846-8d24-6ed560e3f7f8
1116:
551:are an important food resource for
24:
1612:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:77144694-1
1151:10.1023/B:BINV.0000022140.07404.b7
25:
2179:
1384:
2061:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:422425-1
1288:10.1046/j.1365-294x.1999.00679.x
1237:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00935.x
740:The world's largest invasion of
721:than other species of the genus
55:
1424:San Francisco Estuary Invasive
1368:from the original on 2021-12-21
1349:
1310:
1259:
1212:
1176:) in South San Francisco Bay".
1165:
611:Problems as an invasive species
1104:
1065:
1053:
1044:
1032:
939:
905:
502:. It has been reclassified as
455:Britton, Sterns & Poggenb.
13:
1:
1403:Agricultural Research Service
898:
693:), first found when American
2158:Grasses of the United States
733:for longer periods of time.
7:
697:was introduced to southern
656:One example of an invasive
480:, or synonymously known as
407:(Muhl. ex Elliott) St.-Yves
395:(Muhl. ex Elliott) St.-Yves
10:
2184:
988:as a distinct solid genus"
271:(Muhl. ex Elliott) Fernald
2143:Flora of Southern America
2138:Flora of Northern America
1658:
1445:
1335:10.1007/s10530-016-1178-2
768:, four species of exotic
212:
205:
179:
172:
52:Scientific classification
50:
41:
34:
1477:Sporobolus alterniflorus
1447:Sporobolus alterniflorus
1393:Sporobolus alterniflorus
1356:Verge (August 7, 2018).
863:Sporobolus alterniflorus
815:Sporobolus alterniflorus
807:Sporobolus alterniflorus
794:Sporobolus alterniflorus
758:Sporobolus alterniflorus
742:Sporobolus alterniflorus
658:Sporobolus alterniflorus
616:Sporobolus alterniflorus
477:Sporobolus alterniflorus
460:Trachynotia alterniflora
243:(Muhl. ex Elliott) Nutt.
183:Sporobolus alterniflorus
36:Sporobolus alterniflorus
27:Species of aquatic plant
1223:in San Francisco Bay".
865:where it has become a
813:, producing offspring
248:Rottboellia paniculata
1660:Spartina alterniflora
1268:Spartina alterniflora
1174:Spartina alterniflora
919:Spartina alterniflora
511:Spartina alterniflora
483:Spartina alterniflora
304:Spartina dissitiflora
296:Spartina brasiliensis
276:Spartina alterniflora
264:Spartina alterniflora
256:Spartina alterniflora
165:S. alterniflorus
18:Spartina alterniflora
1323:Biological Invasions
1139:Biological Invasions
884:Prokelisia marginata
534:saltmeadow cordgrass
496:salt-water cordgrass
312:Spartina fasciculata
224:Dactylis fasciculata
663:Sporobolus anglicus
660:hybrid is that of
649:disappear as their
492:saltmarsh cordgrass
725:, and can survive
359:(Loisel.) St.-Yves
344:Spartina laevigata
288:Spartina bahiensis
2163:Grasses of Canada
2153:Salt marsh plants
2120:
2119:
1584:Open Tree of Life
1439:Taxon identifiers
1276:Molecular Ecology
1225:Molecular Ecology
674:derived from the
473:
472:
424:Spartina maritima
412:Spartina maritima
400:Spartina maritima
388:Spartina maritima
376:Spartina maritima
364:Spartina maritima
352:Spartina maritima
232:Dactylis maritima
16:(Redirected from
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1329:(8): 2247–2266.
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1007:10.1002/ecy.2863
974:
968:
967:
958:(6): 1212–1243.
943:
937:
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934:
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852:S. alterniflorus
823:S. alterniflorus
774:S. alterniflorus
695:S. alterniflorus
687:S. alterniflorus
640:
636:S. alterniflorus
628:S. alterniflorus
578:S. alterniflorus
568:S. alterniflorus
564:S. alterniflorus
559:S. alterniflorus
531:
530:
526:
488:smooth cordgrass
464:
456:
448:Spartina stricta
444:
443:(Loisel.) A.Gray
436:Spartina stricta
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419:(Merr.) St.-Yves
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371:(Raddi) St.-Yves
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332:Spartina glabra
327:(Loisel.) Merr.
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283:(Merr.) Fernald
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2097:wfo-0000900677
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1270:) and native (
1258:
1231:(6): 765–770.
1211:
1184:(2): 218–226.
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1145:(2): 221–231.
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1084:(1): 389–410.
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1000:(11): e02863.
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856:Ridgway's rail
715:photosynthesis
620:invasive plant
618:can become an
612:
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539:, it produces
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463:(Loisel.) DC.
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779:S. densiflora
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732:
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670:is a fertile
669:
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645:that live in
644:
643:invertebrates
637:
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605:Poanes aaroni
602:
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592:saltmarshes.
591:
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507:alterniflorus
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174:Binomial name
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82:Tracheophytes
80:
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53:
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763:
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741:
739:
734:
722:
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703:S. maritimus
702:
694:
691:S. maritimus
690:
686:
682:
678:
667:
661:
657:
655:
635:
632:biodiversity
627:
615:
614:
604:
597:caterpillars
594:
586:Newfoundland
577:
576:
571:
567:
563:
558:
557:
536:
518:
514:
510:
503:
500:salt marshes
495:
491:
487:
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481:
476:
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459:
451:
447:
440:alterniflora
439:
435:
427:
423:
415:
411:
403:
399:
391:
387:
379:
375:
368:brasiliensis
367:
363:
356:alterniflora
355:
351:
347:Bosc ex Link
343:
335:
331:
324:alterniflora
323:
319:
311:
303:
295:
287:
279:
275:
267:
263:
255:
247:
239:
231:
223:
195:P.M.Peterson
182:
180:
164:
163:
151:
114:
101:
88:
75:
35:
29:
1955:NatureServe
1857:iNaturalist
1535:iNaturalist
1471:Wikispecies
1372:24 December
1017:10272/16953
931:24 November
790:S. anglicus
750:Willapa Bay
735:S. anglicus
668:S. anglicus
517:supporting
121:Commelinids
95:Angiosperms
2148:Halophytes
2127:Categories
2035:kew-443751
2030:Plant List
1706:Calflora:
1553:77144694-1
1272:S. foliosa
948:Sporobolus
913:USDA, NRCS
899:References
893:Sporobolus
848:Sporobolus
843:Sporobolus
839:Sporobolus
835:S. foliosa
819:S. foliosa
811:S. foliosa
800:S. foliosa
770:Sporobolus
766:California
754:Washington
731:salt water
727:inundation
723:Sporobolus
707:S. anglica
683:townsendii
572:Sporobolus
553:snow geese
505:Sporobolus
152:Sporobolus
1831:GrassBase
1797:250033755
1784:250033755
1625:100408186
1462:Q50346687
1178:Estuaries
895:species.
879:herbicide
785:S. patens
719:sediments
672:polyploid
647:mud flats
537:S. patens
159:Species:
65:Kingdom:
2168:Wetlands
2133:Spartina
2081:VASCAN:
2074:25512520
2069:Tropicos
1960:2.150874
1937:13491788
1898:11354406
1885:422425-1
1836:imp09533
1675:Q2697224
1669:Wikidata
1632:VASCAN:
1620:Tropicos
1456:Wikidata
1426:Spartina
1366:Archived
1343:14283700
1319:Spartina
1304:43049200
1296:10447858
1253:32865913
1245:10849292
1221:Spartina
1206:86778195
1159:24732543
1130:Spartina
1098:85651095
1074:Spartina
1026:31398280
986:Spartina
982:Spartina
915:(n.d.).
875:Imazapyr
641:growth,
624:drainage
582:Americas
519:Spartina
452:maritima
431:St.-Yves
426:subvar.
414:subvar.
383:St.-Yves
378:subvar.
315:P.Beauv.
207:Synonyms
137:Family:
108:Monocots
1810:5290035
1735:1114691
1527:9394776
1501:1114990
1428:Project
1362:YouTube
1198:1352695
993:Ecology
871:rhizome
756:state,
699:England
651:habitat
590:coastal
541:flowers
527:⁄
515:Ecology
402:subsp.
259:Loisel.
199:Saarela
191:Loisel.
147:Genus:
141:Poaceae
127:Order:
69:Plantae
2110:234072
2043:PLANTS
2022:234072
2009:122545
1980:NZOR:
1911:107740
1849:103562
1771:spaalt
1768:FEIS:
1761:192746
1699:482992
1683:AoFP:
1589:600996
1573:NZOR:
1540:772903
1341:
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1251:
1243:
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1196:
1157:
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1024:
889:oyster
827:creeks
788:, and
711:saline
676:hybrid
639:'s
574:belt.
486:, the
416:pilosa
404:glabra
392:glabra
380:fallax
336:pilosa
307:Steud.
291:Steud.
280:pilosa
268:glabra
235:Walter
197:&
131:Poales
2105:WoRMS
1991:NZPCN
1944:NAS:
1924:41267
1893:IRMNG
1869:IPA:
1862:79163
1756:EUNIS
1748:SPTAL
1722:4YF3V
1635:30317
1596:PFI:
1566:29706
1514:6ZD2Y
1485:APA:
1339:S2CID
1300:S2CID
1249:S2CID
1202:S2CID
1194:JSTOR
1155:S2CID
1135:(PDF)
1094:S2CID
952:Taxon
877:, an
584:from
549:roots
545:seeds
494:, or
450:var.
438:var.
428:radii
390:var.
366:var.
354:var.
339:Merr.
334:var.
322:var.
299:Raddi
278:var.
266:var.
115:Clade
102:Clade
89:Clade
76:Clade
2084:7960
2056:POWO
2048:SPAL
2017:OBIS
1996:2809
1947:1125
1932:IUCN
1919:ITIS
1880:IPNI
1872:6470
1844:GRIN
1818:GISD
1805:GBIF
1743:EPPO
1709:7699
1694:BOLD
1686:3818
1607:POWO
1599:9916
1561:NCBI
1548:IPNI
1522:GBIF
1496:BOLD
1488:5043
1374:2020
1292:PMID
1241:PMID
1022:PMID
933:2015
867:pest
831:bays
595:The
543:and
227:Lam.
216:List
2092:WFO
1968:NBN
1906:ISC
1823:792
1792:FoC
1779:FNA
1730:EoL
1717:CoL
1643:WFO
1509:CoL
1395:".
1331:doi
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