989:
2868:
transportation functions played by water. In addition, to this clear scientific interest in water solubility and solvent effects; accurate predictions of solubility are important industrially. The ability to accurately predict a molecule's solubility represents potentially large financial savings in many chemical product development processes, such as pharmaceuticals. In the pharmaceutical industry, solubility predictions form part of the early stage lead optimisation process of drug candidates. Solubility remains a concern all the way to formulation. A number of methods have been applied to such predictions including
33:
2914:, to create parametric equations and QSPR models and combinations of the two. The use of these cycles enables the calculation of the solvation free energy indirectly via either gas (in the sublimation cycle) or a melt (fusion cycle). This is helpful as calculating the free energy of solvation directly is extremely difficult. The free energy of solvation can be converted to a solubility value using various formulae, the most general case being shown below, where the numerator is the free energy of solvation,
1710:
41:
2895:
2903:
2254:) and silica may be separated by dissolving the salt in water, and filtering off the undissolved silica. The synthesis of chemical compounds, by the milligram in a laboratory, or by the ton in industry, both make use of the relative solubilities of the desired product, as well as unreacted starting materials, byproducts, and side products to achieve separation.
792:. For highly defective crystals, solubility may increase with the increasing degree of disorder. Both of these effects occur because of the dependence of solubility constant on the Gibbs energy of the crystal. The last two effects, although often difficult to measure, are of practical importance. For example, they provide the driving force for
2799:, whereby the composition of the solute in solution does not match that of the solid. This solubilization is accompanied by alteration of the "primary solid" and possibly formation of a secondary solid phase. However, in general, some primary solid also remains and a complex solubility equilibrium establishes. For example, dissolution of
2876:. These models provide efficient predictions of solubility and represent the current standard. The draw back such models is that they can lack physical insight. A method founded in physical theory, capable of achieving similar levels of accuracy at an sensible cost, would be a powerful tool scientifically and industrially.
778:
746:
For a solid that dissolves in a redox reaction, solubility is expected to depend on the potential (within the range of potentials under which the solid remains the thermodynamically stable phase). For example, solubility of gold in high-temperature water is observed to be almost an order of magnitude
365:
Conversion between these various ways of measuring solubility may not be trivial, since it may require knowing the density of the solution — which is often not measured, and cannot be predicted. While the total mass is conserved by dissolution, the final volume may be different from both the volume
356:
For solutions of liquids or gases in liquids, the quantities of both substances may be given volume rather than mass or mole amount; such as litre of solute per litre of solvent, or litre of solute per litre of solution. The value may be given as a percentage, and the abbreviation "v/v" for "volume
638:
are said to be "soluble in hydrochloric acid", although in fact the aqueous acid irreversibly degrades the solid to give soluble products. Most ionic solids dissociate when dissolved in polar solvents. In those cases where the solute is not recovered upon evaporation of the solvent, the process is
385:
with the molecules or ions of the solute. In those cases, the sum of the moles of molecules of solute and solvent is not really the total moles of independent particles solution. To sidestep that problem, the solubility per mole of solution is usually computed and quoted as if the solute does not
2301:
For example, relatively low solubility compounds are found to be soluble in more extreme environments, resulting in geochemical and geological effects of the activity of hydrothermal fluids in the Earth's crust. These are often the source of high quality economic mineral deposits and precious or
2126:
is equal to the solubility of the substance. When the dissolution rate of a pure substance is normalized to the surface area of the solid (which usually changes with time during the dissolution process), then it is expressed in kg/ms and referred to as "intrinsic dissolution rate". The intrinsic
2238:
Solubility is often said to be one of the "characteristic properties of a substance", which means that solubility is commonly used to describe the substance, to indicate a substance's polarity, to help to distinguish it from other substances, and as a guide to applications of the substance. For
877:
solutes exhibit more complex behavior with temperature. As the temperature is raised, gases usually become less soluble in water (exothermic dissolution reaction related to their hydration) (to a minimum, which is below 120 °C for most permanent gases), but more soluble in organic solvents
2297:
In flowing systems, differences in solubility often determine the dissolution-precipitation driven transport of species. This happens when different parts of the system experience different conditions. Even slightly different conditions can result in significant effects, given sufficient time.
2778:
during synthesis. Each combination produces a different solubility of Sn in ZnSb. Hence solubility studies in compounds, concluded upon the first instance of observing secondary phases separating out might underestimate solubility. While the maximum number of phases separating out at once in
2755:. In the solid's crystalline structure, the 'solute' element can either take the place of the matrix within the lattice (a substitutional position; for example, chromium in iron) or take a place in a space between the lattice points (an interstitial position; for example, carbon in iron).
2867:
Solubility is a property of interest in many aspects of science, including but not limited to: environmental predictions, biochemistry, pharmacy, drug-design, agrochemical design, and protein ligand binding. Aqueous solubility is of fundamental interest owing to the vital biological and
117:, while the solvent is usually solid or liquid. Both may be pure substances, or may themselves be solutions. Gases are always miscible in all proportions, except in very extreme situations, and a solid or liquid can be "dissolved" in a gas only by passing into the gaseous state first.
2761:
In solid compounds (as opposed to elements), the solubility of a solute element can also depend on the phases separating out in equilibrium. For example, amount of Sn soluble in the ZnSb phase can depend significantly on whether the phases separating out in equilibrium are
623:). A stable state of the solubility equilibrium occurs when the rates of dissolution and re-joining are equal, meaning the relative amounts of dissolved and non-dissolved materials are equal. If the solvent is removed, all of the substance that had dissolved is recovered.
2787:(mostly interstitial or substitutional point defects) involved in the solid-solution can be chemically intuited beforehand, then using some simple thermodynamic guidelines can considerably reduce the number of samples required to establish maximum solubility.
2783:, for chemical compounds there is no limit on the number of such phase separating combinations itself. Hence, establishing the "maximum solubility" in solid compounds experimentally can be difficult, requiring equilibration of many samples. If the dominant
1799:
Dissolution is not an instantaneous process. The rate of solubilization (in kg/s) is related to the solubility product and the surface area of the material. The speed at which a solid dissolves may depend on its crystallinity or lack thereof in the case of
2134:
Dissolution rates vary by orders of magnitude between different systems. Typically, very low dissolution rates parallel low solubilities, and substances with high solubilities exhibit high dissolution rates, as suggested by the Noyes-Whitney equation.
297:
of solvent (g/kg). The number may be expressed as a percentage in this case, and the abbreviation "w/w" may be used to indicate "weight per weight". (The values in g/L and g/kg are similar for water, but that may not be the case for other solvents.)
1146:
1910:
1580:, the solubility of the gas does not depend on the bubble radius in any other way than through the effect of the radius on pressure (i.e. the solubility of gas in the liquid in contact with small bubbles is increased due to pressure increase by Δ
602:
The thresholds to describe something as insoluble, or similar terms, may depend on the application. For example, one source states that substances are described as "insoluble" when their solubility is less than 0.1 g per 100 mL of solvent.
2281:, will preferentially dissolve in the organic layer. The other reaction products, including the magnesium bromide, will remain in the aqueous layer, clearly showing that separation based on solubility is achieved. This process, known as
252:
The solubility of a specific solute in a specific solvent is generally expressed as the concentration of a saturated solution of the two. Any of the several ways of expressing concentration of solutions can be used, such as the
3905:
Wood, Maxwell; Toriyama, Michael; Dugar, Shristi; Male, James; Anand, Shashwat; Stevanović, Vladan; Snyder, Jeff (2020). "Phase
Boundary Mapping of Tin-Doped ZnSb Reveals Thermodynamic Route to High Thermoelectric Efficiency".
2234:
Solubility is of fundamental importance in a large number of scientific disciplines and practical applications, ranging from ore processing and nuclear reprocessing to the use of medicines, and the transport of pollutants.
3208:
3112:
3009:
2171:
can affect the numerical value of solubility constant. While the solubility constant is not as simple as solubility, the value of this constant is generally independent of the presence of other species in the solvent.
2710:
or water, since the polarity of these solvents is too high. Sugar will not dissolve in gasoline, since sugar is too polar in comparison with gasoline. A mixture of gasoline and sugar can therefore be separated by
2302:
semi-precious gems. In the same way, compounds with low solubility will dissolve over extended time (geological time), resulting in significant effects such as extensive cave systems or
Karstic land surfaces.
953:. Portlandite solubility increases at low temperature. This temperature dependence is sometimes referred to as "retrograde" or "inverse" solubility. Occasionally, a more complex pattern is observed, as with
182:, which is how fast a solid solute dissolves in a liquid solvent. This property depends on many other variables, such as the physical form of the two substances and the manner and intensity of mixing.
3862:
El-Mansy, Mohamed & Yahia, Ibrahim S. & Alfaify, Sa. (2015). Conformational and
Vibrational Properties of Indigo Dye: DFT Approach. Organo Opto-Electronics An International Journal. 3. 1-9.
4246:
Palmer, D. S.; McDonagh, J. L.; Mitchell, J. B. O.; van Mourik, T.; Fedorov, M. V. (2012). "First-Principles
Calculation of the Intrinsic Aqueous Solubility of Crystalline Druglike Molecules".
293:
of solvent (g/L). The quantity of solvent can instead be expressed in mass, as grams of solute per 100 grams of solvent (g/(100 g), often written as g/100 g), or as grams of solute per
2841:
In this case, the solubility of albite is expected to depend on the solid-to-solvent ratio. This kind of solubility is of great importance in geology, where it results in formation of
1614:
buffer. The decrease of solubility of carbon dioxide in seawater when temperature increases is also an important retroaction factor (positive feedback) exacerbating past and future
2774:+Sn(L)). Besides these, the ZnSb compound with Sn as a solute can separate out into other combinations of phases after the solubility limit is reached depending on the initial
1025:
1825:
1468:
124:
and the presence of other dissolved substances) as well as on temperature and pressure. The dependency can often be explained in terms of interactions between the particles (
1500:
1812:. In some cases, solubility equilibria can take a long time to establish (hours, days, months, or many years; depending on the nature of the solute and other factors).
1352:
1292:
784:
Solubility (metastable, at concentrations approaching saturation) also depends on the physical size of the crystal or droplet of solute (or, strictly speaking, on the
2124:
2085:
2056:
1196:
2795:
Many substances dissolve congruently (i.e. the composition of the solid and the dissolved solute stoichiometrically match). However, some substances may dissolve
2027:
2002:
1980:
1958:
1936:
1560:
1540:
1392:
1372:
1316:
1256:
1236:
1216:
1169:
4837:
3531:
4183:
Abramov, Y. A. (2015). "Major Source of Error in QSPR Prediction of
Intrinsic Thermodynamic Solubility of Drugs: Solid vs Nonsolid State Contributions?".
2751:
that give the limits of solute addition. That is, the lines show the maximum amount of a component that can be added to another component and still be in
937:), whose solubility at 70 °C is about half of its value at 25 °C. The dissolution of calcium hydroxide in water is also an exothermic process (Δ
2481:
2910:
These cycles have been used for attempts at first principles predictions (solving using the fundamental physical equations) using physically motivated
3356:
3120:
3024:
3499:
I. Lee and J. Lee (2012): "Measurement of mixing ratio and volume change of ethanol-water binary mixtures using suspended microchannel resonators".
2163:. It describes the balance between dissolved ions from the salt and undissolved salt. The solubility constant is also "applicable" (i.e. useful) to
2936:
2869:
1015:
For condensed phases (solids and liquids), the pressure dependence of solubility is typically weak and usually neglected in practice. Assuming an
2848:
In principle, both congruent and incongruent dissolution can lead to the formation of secondary solid phases in equilibrium. So, in the field of
1003:, used for purification of solids, depends on a solute's different solubilities in hot and cold solvent. A few exceptions exist, such as certain
2373:
However, there is a limit to how much salt can be dissolved in a given volume of water. This concentration is the solubility and related to the
1634:
at the Earth surface, temperature starts to increase. When a deglaciation period is initiated, the progressive warming of the oceans releases CO
3466:
Claudius
Kormann, Detlef W. Bahnemann, and Michael R. Hoffmann (1988): "Preparation and characterization of quantum-size titanium dioxide".
3018:. The original formula is given first, followed by a revised formula which takes a different assumption of complete miscibility in octanol.
3014:
Well known fitted equations for solubility prediction are the general solubility equations. These equations stem from the work of
Yalkowsky
2192:
are empirical methods for the prediction of solubility. It is also possible to predict solubility from other physical constants such as the
832: < 0) character of the dissolution reaction, the solubility of a given compound may increase or decrease with temperature. The
4539:
4402:
Ran, Y.; N. Jain; S.H. Yalkowsky (2001). "Prediction of
Aqueous Solubility of Organic Compounds by the General Solubility Equation (GSE)".
2891:(solid to a molten phase) and the free energy of mixing (molten to solution). These two process are represented in the following diagrams.
386:
dissociate or form complexes—that is, by pretending that the mole amount of solution is the sum of the mole amounts of the two substances.
301:
Alternatively, the solubility of a solute can be expressed in moles instead of mass. For example, if the quantity of solvent is given in
720:
change that accompanies the solvation. Factors such as temperature and pressure will alter this balance, thus changing the solubility.
406:
in water. A number of other descriptive terms are also used to qualify the extent of solubility for a given application. For example,
2758:
In microelectronic fabrication, solid solubility refers to the maximum concentration of impurities one can place into the substrate.
851:
change. For most solids and liquids, their solubility increases with temperature because their dissolution reaction is endothermic (Δ
1783:
Chemists often exploit differences in solubilities to separate and purify compounds from reaction mixtures, using the technique of
2887:(solid to gas without going through a liquid state) and the free energy of solvating a gaseous molecule (gas to solution), or the
2219:
solvent (water). The logarithm of these two values enables compounds to be ranked in terms of hydrophilicity (or hydrophobicity).
1678:. This view is simplistic, but it is a useful rule of thumb. The overall solvation capacity of a solvent depends primarily on its
731:) in liquids. Solubility will also depend on the excess or deficiency of a common ion in the solution, a phenomenon known as the
611:
Solubility occurs under dynamic equilibrium, which means that solubility results from the simultaneous and opposing processes of
244:
of very fine solid particles in a liquid. The quantitative solubility of such substances is generally not well-defined, however.
3228:
3685:
Salvatore
Filippone, Frank Heimanna and André Rassat (2002). "A highly water-soluble 2+1 b-cyclodextrin–fullerene conjugate".
1420:
is used to quantify the solubility of gases in solvents. The solubility of a gas in a solvent is directly proportional to the
859:), the solubility of ionic solutes tends to decrease due to the change of properties and structure of liquid water; the lower
4042:
3889:
3794:
3597:
3572:
2456:= 36 and is, therefore, more soluble. The following table gives an overview of solubility rules for various ionic compounds.
988:
4493:
4476:
4306:"Uniting Cheminformatics and Chemical Theory To Predict the Intrinsic Aqueous Solubility of Crystalline Druglike Molecules"
3520:"Pharmacopeia of the United States of America, 32nd revision, and the National Formulary, 27th edition", 2009, pp.1 to 12.
2200:
4355:"Deep Architectures and Deep Learning in Chemoinformatics: The Prediction of Aqueous Solubility for Drug-Like Molecules"
4913:
4584:
4059:
2181:
1729:
solvent (with some separation of positive (δ+) and negative (δ-) charges in the covalent molecule) such as
789:
178:; even though one might say, informally, that one "dissolved" the other. The solubility is also not the same as the
4532:
1805:
1615:
698:
639:
referred to as solvolysis. The thermodynamic concept of solubility does not apply straightforwardly to solvolysis.
2706:
because both petroleum jelly and gasoline are non-polar hydrocarbons. It will not, on the other hand, dissolve in
4145:
Cramer, C. J.; Truhlar, D. G. (1999). "Implicit
Solvation Models: Equilibria, Structure, Spectra, and Dynamics".
3539:
2189:
151:
Under certain conditions, the concentration of the solute can exceed its usual solubility limit. The result is a
4437:
Yalkowsky, S.H.; Valvani, S.C. (1980). "Solubility and partitioning I: solubility of nonelectrolytes in water".
2243:
is described as "insoluble in water, alcohol, or ether but soluble in chloroform, nitrobenzene, or concentrated
1630:, when the astronomical parameters of the Earth orbit and its rotation axis progressively change and modify the
94:
solution, one in which no more solute can be dissolved. At this point, the two substances are said to be at the
4674:
3240:
2884:
98:. For some solutes and solvents, there may be no such limit, in which case the two substances are said to be "
1570:
1000:
4060:"A Review of Methods for the Calculation of Solution Free Energies and the Modelling of Systems in Solution"
723:
Solubility may also strongly depend on the presence of other species dissolved in the solvent, for example,
4903:
4898:
4827:
3998:
Anand, Shashwat; Wolverton, Chris; Snyder, Jeff (2022). "Thermodynamic Guidelines for Maximum Solubility".
2282:
2185:
804:
The solubility of a given solute in a given solvent is function of temperature. Depending on the change in
3237: – Linear relationship between the temperatures at which two solutions exert the same vapour pressure
1409:(which decreases its solubility with decreasing pressure) can result in decreased productivity with time.
1141:{\displaystyle \left({\frac {\partial \ln N_{i}}{\partial P}}\right)_{T}=-{\frac {V_{i,aq}-V_{i,cr}}{RT}}}
317:
The solubility of a substance in a liquid may also be expressed as the quantity of solute per quantity of
185:
The concept and measure of solubility are extremely important in many sciences besides chemistry, such as
4757:
4525:
3826:"A century of dissolution research: From Noyes and Whitney to the Biopharmaceutics Classification System"
1905:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} m}{\mathrm {d} t}}=A{\frac {D}{d}}(C_{\mathrm {s} }-C_{\mathrm {b} })}
946:
2324:) dissolve in water, which arises because of the attraction between positive and negative charges (see:
4812:
3658:
2128:
1816:
1589:
898:
747:
higher (i.e. about ten times higher) when the redox potential is controlled using a highly oxidizing Fe
1434:
4704:
2164:
1757:
1638:
into the atmosphere because of its lower solubility in warmer sea water. In turn, higher levels of CO
616:
337:
24:
4689:
4624:
3249:
1784:
966:
378:
1401:
The pressure dependence of solubility does occasionally have practical significance. For example,
4644:
3309:
3282:
3222:
2784:
2328:). For example, the salt's positive ions (e.g. Ag) attract the partially negative oxygen atom in
2262:
1808:. Many practical systems illustrate this effect, for example in designing methods for controlled
1745:
1595:
Henry's law is valid for gases that do not undergo change of chemical speciation on dissolution.
1476:
942:
833:
229:. Most chemical reactions of scientific, industrial, or practical interest only happen after the
4220:
Computing the Aqueous solubility of Organic Drug-Like Molecules and Understanding Hydrophobicity
2883:. The two common thermodynamic cycles used involve either the calculation of the free energy of
4742:
4737:
4594:
3303:
2796:
2152:
2151:
are used to describe saturated solutions of ionic compounds of relatively low solubility (see
1395:
740:
341:
95:
86:
The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is generally measured as the
3881:
3562:
2879:
Methods founded in physical theory tend to use thermodynamic cycles, a concept from classical
2250:
Solubility of a substance is useful when separating mixtures. For example, a mixture of salt (
1321:
1261:
4842:
4822:
4110:
Tomasi, J.; Mennucci, B.; Cammi, R. (2005). "Quantum Mechanical Continuum Solvation Models".
3786:
3780:
2005:
1670:". This statement indicates that a solute will dissolve best in a solvent that has a similar
788:
or molar surface area of the solute). For quantification, see the equation in the article on
785:
265:
of the solute for a specific mass, volume, or mole amount of the solvent or of the solution.
3225: – Difference in properties of one mole of substance in a mixture vs. an ideal solution
1706:
is insoluble in water, fairly soluble in methanol, and highly soluble in non-polar benzene.
4556:
4548:
4074:
3954:
3745:
3264:
2853:
2775:
2669:
2336:. Likewise, the salt's negative ions (e.g. Cl) attract the partially positive hydrogens in
2240:
2223:
2156:
2102:
2063:
2034:
2029:= thickness of the boundary layer of the solvent at the surface of the dissolving substance
1295:
1174:
856:
837:
713:
424:
of solute: (The solubilities of the examples are approximate, for water at 20–25 °C.)
382:
72:
32:
3234:
1733:, as thus the sea is salty as it accumulates dissolved salts since early geological ages.
51:
solution. The solution was initially prepared at 20 °C and then stored for 2 days at 4 °C.
8:
4669:
4639:
3663:
2286:
2148:
922:
860:
817:
724:
569:
45:
4078:
3958:
3749:
3659:"What substances, such as cerium sulfate, have a lower solubility when they are heated?"
3312: – Relation between temperature and the equilibrium constant of a chemical reaction
2222:
The energy change associated with dissolving is usually given per mole of solute as the
120:
The solubility mainly depends on the composition of solute and solvent (including their
91:
4908:
4379:
4354:
4330:
4305:
4281:
4015:
3975:
3942:
3923:
3761:
3449:
3231: – System to differentiate drugs on the basis of their solubility and permeability
2888:
2716:
2374:
2193:
2160:
2012:
1987:
1965:
1943:
1921:
1788:
1753:
1671:
1545:
1525:
1402:
1377:
1357:
1301:
1241:
1221:
1201:
1154:
825:
407:
64:
4304:
McDonagh, J. L.; Nath, N.; De Ferrari, L.; van Mourik, T.; Mitchell, J. B. O. (2014).
4196:
4058:
Skyner, R.; McDonagh, J. L.; Groom, C. R.; van Mourik, T.; Mitchell, J. B. O. (2015).
3943:"Solubility design leading to high figure of merit in low-cost Ce-CoSb3 skutterudites"
2159:. Since it is a product of ion concentrations in equilibrium, it is also known as the
642:
When a solute dissolves, it may form several species in the solution. For example, an
4847:
4806:
4709:
4498:
4454:
4419:
4384:
4335:
4273:
4245:
4200:
4162:
4127:
4092:
4038:
4019:
3980:
3927:
3885:
3874:
3845:
3790:
3703:
3593:
3568:
3453:
3441:
3306: – Thermodynamic equilibrium between a solid and a solution of the same compound
2849:
2591:
2349:
2345:
2278:
1737:
1726:
1679:
1675:
1643:
1627:
1507:
996:
978:
930:
855: > 0). In liquid water at high temperatures, (e.g. that approaching the
732:
702:
394:
The extent of solubility ranges widely, from infinitely soluble (without limit, i.e.
175:
171:
167:
4285:
3765:
3684:
3366:
4782:
4777:
4609:
4569:
4488:
4446:
4411:
4374:
4366:
4325:
4317:
4263:
4255:
4223:
4192:
4154:
4119:
4082:
4007:
3970:
3962:
3915:
3837:
3753:
3695:
3504:
3471:
3433:
3408:
3370:
3361:
3294:
2842:
2315:
2311:
1631:
1596:
1421:
882:
793:
771:
706:
498:
403:
374:
179:
48:
4011:
3841:
4767:
4752:
4684:
4649:
4634:
4629:
4614:
4579:
3288:
2699:
2270:
2251:
1722:
1623:
1425:
1406:
914:
906:
550:
479:
152:
4477:"Estimation of the aqueous solubility I: application to organic nonelectrolytes"
3508:
1982:= surface area of the interface between the dissolving substance and the solvent
4817:
4772:
4762:
4679:
4574:
4564:
3258:
3203:{\displaystyle \log _{10}(S)=0.5-\log _{10}(P)-0.01({\text{melting point}}-25)}
3107:{\displaystyle \log _{10}(S)=0.8-\log _{10}(P)-0.01({\text{melting point}}-25)}
2911:
2880:
2752:
2740:
2167:, the reverse of the dissolving reaction. As with other equilibrium constants,
1718:
1603:
1417:
1016:
954:
894:
736:
686:
588:
517:
137:
83:
is the opposite property, the inability of the solute to form such a solution.
20:
1709:
285:
of solvent (g/(100 mL), often written as g/100 ml), or as grams of solute per
4892:
4862:
4699:
4659:
4604:
3687:
3445:
3365:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
3004:{\displaystyle \log S(V_{m})={\frac {\Delta G_{\text{solvation}}}{-2.303RT}}}
2856:
2748:
2707:
2274:
2244:
2096:
1809:
1699:
1577:
1563:
864:
333:
156:
87:
4303:
3374:
739:
of solutions. The last two effects can be quantified using the equation for
325:, it may be expressed as moles of solute per litre of solution (mol/L), the
40:
4719:
4714:
4502:
4450:
4423:
4388:
4339:
4277:
4204:
4166:
4131:
4096:
3984:
3919:
3849:
3707:
3437:
2919:
2665:
2608:
2548:
2519:
2491:
2470:
2258:
1761:
1004:
763:
712:
The solubility of one substance in another is determined by the balance of
198:
4458:
3487:
1515:
777:
340:
at equilibrium (mass of solute per mass of solute plus solvent). Both are
19:
This article is about a chemical property. For the algebraic concept, see
4872:
4787:
2894:
2873:
2434:
2168:
1703:
1511:
934:
909:
in water) exhibit solubility that is fairly independent of temperature (Δ
345:
282:
262:
210:
202:
99:
4035:
Geochemical processes, weathering and groundwater recharge in catchments
3475:
321:, rather than of solvent. For example, following the common practice in
4867:
4857:
4852:
4268:
4087:
3966:
3757:
3424:
Tomlinson, Charles (1868-01-01). "On Supersaturated Saline Solutions".
3285: – Process of incorporating the solubilizate into or onto micelles
3273:
2780:
2736:
2728:
2712:
2216:
2208:
1683:
1619:
974:
962:
631:
166:
The concept of solubility does not apply when there is an irreversible
160:
4415:
4370:
4321:
4259:
4227:
4158:
4123:
3647:(27th ed.). Cleveland, Ohio: Chemical Rubber Publishing Co. 1943.
3412:
2698:, is the usual guide to solubility with organic systems. For example,
4877:
4832:
4747:
4517:
3699:
2651:
2623:
2600:
2544:
2487:
2325:
2212:
2204:
2092:
1801:
1611:
970:
690:
612:
381:
in non-trivial ways when dissolved; conversely, the solvent may form
322:
302:
286:
56:
3403:
J. de Swaan Arons and G. A. M. Diepen (1966): "Gas—Gas Equilibria".
2902:
2207:(Log P), is a measure of differential solubility of a compound in a
1690:
is very soluble in highly polar water, less soluble in fairly polar
4694:
4494:
10.1002/1520-6017(200102)90:2<234::aid-jps14>3.0.co;2-v
3825:
3213:
These equations are founded on the principles of the fusion cycle.
2804:
2703:
2673:
2627:
2612:
2567:
2552:
2523:
2495:
2474:
1804:
solids and the surface area (crystallite size) and the presence of
1691:
1655:
1607:
881:
The chart shows solubility curves for some typical solid inorganic
848:
805:
395:
389:
336:(moles of solute per total moles of solute plus solvent) or by the
326:
306:
294:
274:
218:
214:
206:
141:
129:
2184:
is a theoretical model describing the solubility of polymers. The
4797:
4599:
4589:
3243: – chemistry rule concerning co-precipitation and adsorption
2872:(QSAR), quantitative structure–property relationships (QSPR) and
2661:
2655:
2635:
2571:
2559:
2534:
2515:
2510:
2344:. Note: the oxygen atom is partially negative because it is more
2266:
1787:. This applies in vast areas of chemistry from drug synthesis to
1764:) depends on temperature and is given by the relationship: Δ
1695:
958:
886:
717:
694:
643:
399:
241:
240:
The term "soluble" is sometimes used for materials that can form
230:
226:
222:
194:
190:
186:
145:
76:
3941:
Tang, Yinglu; Hanus, Riley; Chen, Sin-wen; Snyder, Jeff (2015).
3297: – Capacity of a substance to dissolve in a homogeneous way
2087:= mass concentration of the substance in the bulk of the solvent
1646:
and carbon dioxide acts as an amplifier of the general warming.
1610:
is also affected by temperature, pH of the solution, and by the
332:
In more specialized contexts the solubility may be given by the
3785:(2nd ed.). Lexington, Massachusetts: D. C, Heath. p.
3631:
The ASME Handbook on Water Technology for Thermal Power Systems
2927:
2852:, the solubility for both cases is described more generally on
2800:
2744:
2647:
2639:
2619:
2587:
2579:
2575:
2538:
2502:
1424:
of that gas above the solvent. This relationship is similar to
918:
890:
878:(endothermic dissolution reaction related to their solvation).
767:
728:
620:
258:
110:
68:
3291: – Law of thermodynamics for vapour pressure of a mixture
4619:
4057:
2898:
Thermodynamic cycle for calculating solvation via sublimation
2732:
2604:
2321:
2269:. Benzoic acid is more soluble in an organic solvent such as
1730:
1663:
1503:
901:, and show a large increase in solubility with temperature (Δ
635:
290:
289:
of solvent (g/dL); or, less commonly, as grams of solute per
234:
106:
3633:. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. p. 442.
3490:". Online page at Abler Help Center. Accessed on 2021-11-26.
4109:
2643:
2583:
1687:
1569:
The solubility of gases is sometimes also quantified using
999:
nearly always increases with temperature. The technique of
697:
in water are expected to differ, even though they are both
630:
is also used in some fields where the solute is altered by
370:
278:
254:
125:
3261: – Gas law regarding proportionality of dissolved gas
2747:
or solubility line (or curve) is the line (or lines) on a
1694:, and practically insoluble in non-polar solvents such as
925:, become less soluble in water as temperature increases (Δ
4032:
3426:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
2422:= , in the absence of other silver or chloride salts, so
2384:. This equilibrium constant depends on the type of salt (
2305:
874:
159:
and will rapidly exclude the excess solute if a suitable
133:
114:
4401:
3736:
G.W. Greenwood (1969). "The Solubility of Gas Bubbles".
2906:
Thermodynamic cycle for calculating solvation via fusion
2399:
that will dissolve in 1 liter of pure water as follows:
2392:, for example), temperature, and the common ion effect.
1502:
is a temperature-dependent constant (for example, 769.2
16:
Capacity of a substance to dissolve in a homogeneous way
3393:(1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford Publishing. p. 108.
3299:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
3254:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
2409:= × / M (definition of solubility product; M = mol/L)
796:(the crystal size spontaneously increasing with time).
121:
2445:
is poorly soluble in water. For instance, table salt (
1815:
The rate of dissolution can be often expressed by the
3904:
3823:
3778:
3564:
Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Genesis of Gold Deposits
3123:
3027:
2939:
2105:
2066:
2037:
2015:
1990:
1968:
1946:
1924:
1828:
1548:
1528:
1479:
1437:
1380:
1360:
1324:
1304:
1264:
1244:
1224:
1204:
1177:
1157:
1028:
4838:
List of boiling and freezing information of solvents
3997:
3278:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
3269:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
3245:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
2433:
The result: 1 liter of water can dissolve 1.34 × 10
2058:= mass concentration of the substance on the surface
735:. To a lesser extent, solubility will depend on the
170:
between the two substances, such as the reaction of
4352:
4211:
3940:
3651:
2155:). The solubility constant is a special case of an
867:
and in a change of hydration energy affecting the Δ
3873:
3824:Dokoumetzidis, Aristides; Macheras, Panos (2006).
3202:
3106:
3003:
2685:
2289:. Recycling is used to ensure maximum extraction.
2118:
2079:
2050:
2021:
1996:
1974:
1952:
1930:
1904:
1554:
1534:
1494:
1462:
1386:
1366:
1346:
1310:
1286:
1250:
1230:
1210:
1190:
1163:
1140:
360:
344:numbers between 0 and 1 which may be expressed as
4299:
4297:
4295:
2277:, and when shaken with this organic solvent in a
1618:as observed in ice cores from the Vostok site in
1599:shows a case when this assumption does not hold.
949:, lowe temperatures favorsf dissolution of Ca(OH)
417:of solvent required to dissolve one unit of mass
410:gives the following terms, according to the mass
357:per volume" may be used to indicate this choice.
4890:
4436:
4178:
4176:
2441:at room temperature. Compared with other salts,
2418:= 1.8 × 10 (from a table of solubility products)
1819:or the Nernst and Brunner equation of the form:
390:Qualifiers used to describe extent of solubility
4241:
4239:
4237:
3588:Hefter, G. T.; Tomkins, R. P. T., eds. (2003).
3388:
1566:of the dissolved gas in the liquid (in mol/L).
680:
366:of the solvent and the sum of the two volumes.
247:
4292:
4037:. Rotterdam: Taylor & Francis. p. 6.
3871:
3735:
3590:The Experimental Determination of Solubilities
3333:as its solvation power according to Reichardt.
929: < 0). This is also the case for
4533:
4474:
4173:
4144:
3782:Macroscale and Microscale Organic Experiments
3587:
3560:
3529:
2870:quantitative structure–activity relationships
351:
4404:Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling
4359:Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling
4353:Lusci, A.; Pollastri, G.; Baldi, P. (2013).
4310:Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling
4234:
4138:
4103:
4051:
2779:equilibrium can be determined by the Gibb's
2257:Another example of this is the synthesis of
1725:(common salt) is easily soluble in a highly
402:in water, to essentially insoluble, such as
213:, and even in non-technical activities like
4346:
3720:
1374:-th component in the dissolving solid, and
885:in liquid water (temperature is in degrees
646:solution of cobalt(II) chloride can afford
312:
233:have been dissolved in a suitable solvent.
4540:
4526:
4248:Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation
4033:O.M. Saether; P. de Caritat, eds. (1997).
3567:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 135–136.
3384:
3382:
2790:
2292:
1721:(with positive and negative ions) such as
268:
102:in all proportions" (or just "miscible").
4492:
4470:
4468:
4378:
4329:
4267:
4086:
3974:
3538:. University of Wisconsin. Archived from
3530:Rogers, Elizabeth; Stovall, Iris (2000).
3423:
3252: – Aspect of computational chemistry
2138:
1456:
4217:
3628:
3480:
3397:
2901:
2893:
2862:
2727:This term is often used in the field of
1708:
847:) to temperature change and to reaction
716:between the solvent and solute, and the
237:is by far the most common such solvent.
39:
31:
4182:
3611:
3609:
3532:"Fundamentals of Chemistry: Solubility"
3470:,volume 92, issue 18, pages 5196–5201.
3460:
3379:
3352:
3350:
1713:Dissolution of sodium chloride in water
1019:, the dependence can be quantified as:
941: < 0). As dictated by the
905: > 0). Some solutes (e.g.
4891:
4547:
4465:
3581:
3493:
3229:Biopharmaceutics Classification System
2306:Solubility of ionic compounds in water
1794:
1542:is the partial pressure (in atm), and
1412:
893:minus 273.15). Many salts behave like
4521:
3813:(7th ed.). Merck & Co. 1960.
2143:
969:at 32 °C to form a more soluble
634:. For example, many metals and their
4222:(Thesis). University of St Andrews.
3606:
3347:
2348:than hydrogen, and vice versa (see:
4395:
3619:, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, 1999.
2690:The principle outlined above under
2201:octanol-water partition coefficient
2127:dissolution rate is defined by the
1717:In even more simple terms a simple
1658:used for predicting solubility is "
1354:is the partial molar volume of the
685:Solubility is defined for specific
582:Practically insoluble or insoluble
36:Example of a dissolved solid (left)
13:
4481:Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
4475:Jain, N.; Yalkowsky, S.H. (2001).
4439:Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
3723:Mechanochemistry of Solid Surfaces
3389:Clugston, M.; Fleming, R. (2000).
3362:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
2971:
1893:
1878:
1843:
1833:
1486:
1450:
1058:
1037:
987:
776:
14:
4925:
4513:
4197:10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.5b00119
3880:. John Wiley & Sons. p.
3725:. World Scientific Publishing Co.
3645:Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
3615:John W. Hill, Ralph H. Petrucci,
3407:, volume 44, issue 6, page 2322.
3267: – method of carpet cleaning
2722:
2175:
836:relates the change of solubility
766:than with a moderately oxidizing
689:. For example, the solubility of
606:
2395:One can calculate the amount of
2190:Hildebrand solubility parameters
1463:{\displaystyle p=k_{\rm {H}}\,c}
1258:refers to constant temperature,
913: ≈ 0). A few, such as
277:often express the solubility as
136:) of the two substances, and of
4430:
4026:
3991:
3934:
3898:
3876:Chemistry, Concept and Problems
3872:C. Houk; R. Post, eds. (1997).
3865:
3856:
3817:
3803:
3772:
3729:
3714:
3678:
3637:
3622:
3554:
3323:
2735:element will dissolve into the
2731:to refer to the extent that an
2686:Solubility of organic compounds
2285:, is an important technique in
2229:
1642:in the atmosphere increase the
1318:-th component in the solution,
1218:-th component in the solution,
985:) in the dissolution reaction.
812:) of the dissolution reaction,
677:, each of which interconverts.
369:Moreover, many solids (such as
361:Conversion of solubility values
44:Formation of crystals in a 4.2
3779:Kenneth J. Williamson (1994).
3523:
3514:
3417:
3197:
3183:
3174:
3168:
3143:
3137:
3101:
3087:
3078:
3072:
3047:
3041:
2962:
2949:
2570:(chlorates and perchlorates),
1899:
1869:
1698:. In contrast, a non-polar or
1674:to itself, based on favorable
799:
1:
4012:10.1021/acs.chemmater.1c03715
3842:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2006.07.011
3468:Journal of Physical Chemistry
3340:
2691:
2182:Flory–Huggins solution theory
1736:The solubility is favored by
1682:. For example, a very polar (
1571:Bunsen solubility coefficient
957:, where the less soluble deca
871:of the dissolution reaction.
4828:Inorganic nonaqueous solvent
3738:Journal of Materials Science
2186:Hansen solubility parameters
1938:= mass of dissolved material
1198:is the mole fraction of the
681:Factors affecting solubility
248:Quantification of solubility
75:with another substance, the
7:
3509:10.1109/ICSENS.2012.6411272
3405:Journal of Chemical Physics
3216:
2803:may result in formation of
2739:without forming a separate
2203:, usually expressed as its
2091:For dissolution limited by
1668:Similia similibus solventur
1649:
1495:{\displaystyle k_{\rm {H}}}
1405:of oil fields and wells by
1238:is the pressure, the index
1010:
977:) with a smaller change in
10:
4930:
4813:Acid dissociation constant
3503:, volume 2012, pages 1-3.
3276: – chemical substance
2309:
2129:United States Pharmacopeia
1780:means greater solubility.
899:disodium hydrogen arsenate
352:Liquid and gaseous solutes
309:of the solution (mol/kg).
18:
4914:Underwater diving physics
4796:
4728:
4658:
4555:
3908:Advanced Energy Materials
1576:In the presence of small
1171:iterates the components,
25:solution (disambiguation)
4218:McDonagh, J. L. (2015).
3329:The solvent polarity is
3316:
3250:Flexible SPC water model
2283:liquid–liquid extraction
1785:liquid-liquid extraction
1662:" also expressed in the
1347:{\displaystyle V_{i,cr}}
1287:{\displaystyle V_{i,aq}}
967:water of crystallization
947:Le Chatelier's principle
615:and phase joining (e.g.
313:Per quantity of solution
273:In particular, chemical
4778:Solubility table (data)
4645:Apparent molar property
4185:Molecular Pharmaceutics
3536:Department of Chemistry
3375:10.1351/goldbook.S05740
3283:Micellar solubilization
3223:Apparent molar property
2791:Incongruent dissolution
2785:crystallographic defect
2293:Differential solubility
2263:phenylmagnesium bromide
2099:if mixing is present),
1746:enthalpy of dissolution
1428:and can be written as:
269:Per quantity of solvent
153:supersaturated solution
4743:Total dissolved solids
4738:Solubility equilibrium
4663:and related quantities
4451:10.1002/jps.2600690814
4000:Chemistry of Materials
3920:10.1002/aenm.202100181
3629:P. Cohen, ed. (1989).
3561:I.Y. Nekrasov (1996).
3438:10.1098/rstl.1868.0028
3304:Solubility equilibrium
3241:Fajans–Paneth–Hahn Law
3204:
3108:
3005:
2926:is the temperature in
2907:
2899:
2320:Some ionic compounds (
2153:solubility equilibrium
2139:Theories of solubility
2120:
2081:
2052:
2023:
1998:
1976:
1954:
1932:
1906:
1817:Noyes–Whitney equation
1714:
1626:scale, because of the
1590:Young–Laplace equation
1556:
1536:
1522:) in water at 298 K),
1496:
1464:
1396:universal gas constant
1388:
1368:
1348:
1312:
1288:
1252:
1232:
1212:
1192:
1165:
1142:
992:
824: > 0) or
790:solubility equilibrium
781:
741:solubility equilibrium
563:Very slightly soluble
383:coordination complexes
96:solubility equilibrium
52:
37:
23:. For other uses, see
4843:Partition coefficient
4823:Polar aprotic solvent
3947:Nature Communications
3205:
3109:
3006:
2905:
2897:
2889:free energy of fusion
2863:Solubility prediction
2558:compounds (excluding
2537:(ethanoates) (except
2121:
2119:{\displaystyle C_{s}}
2082:
2080:{\displaystyle C_{b}}
2053:
2051:{\displaystyle C_{s}}
2024:
2006:diffusion coefficient
1999:
1977:
1955:
1933:
1907:
1712:
1557:
1537:
1497:
1465:
1403:precipitation fouling
1389:
1369:
1349:
1313:
1289:
1253:
1233:
1213:
1193:
1191:{\displaystyle N_{i}}
1166:
1143:
991:
786:specific surface area
780:
714:intermolecular forces
242:colloidal suspensions
43:
35:
4758:Enthalpy of solution
4685:Volume concentration
4680:Number concentration
3721:E.M. Gutman (1994).
3310:van 't Hoff equation
3265:Hot water extraction
3121:
3025:
2937:
2854:chemical composition
2776:chemical composition
2449:) has a much higher
2224:enthalpy of solution
2157:equilibrium constant
2149:Solubility constants
2103:
2064:
2035:
2013:
1988:
1966:
1944:
1922:
1826:
1546:
1526:
1477:
1435:
1378:
1358:
1322:
1302:
1296:partial molar volume
1262:
1242:
1222:
1202:
1175:
1155:
1026:
943:van 't Hoff equation
857:critical temperature
838:equilibrium constant
834:van 't Hoff equation
105:The solute can be a
63:is the ability of a
4904:Physical properties
4899:Chemical properties
4670:Molar concentration
4640:Dilution (equation)
4079:2015PCCP...17.6174S
4067:Phys Chem Chem Phys
3959:2015NatCo...6.7584T
3750:1969JMatS...4..320G
3664:Scientific American
3592:. Wiley-Blackwell.
3488:W/W (Weight/Weight)
3476:10.1021/j100329a027
2696:like dissolves like
2287:synthetic chemistry
1795:Rate of dissolution
1660:like dissolves like
1413:Solubility of gases
923:cerium(III) sulfate
861:dielectric constant
570:dicalcium phosphate
305:, the value is the
90:of the solute in a
4710:Isotopic abundance
4675:Mass concentration
4549:Chemical solutions
4088:10.1039/C5CP00288E
3967:10.1038/ncomms8584
3758:10.1007/BF00550401
3391:Advanced Chemistry
3200:
3104:
3001:
2908:
2900:
2770:+Sn(L)) or (ZnSnSb
2480:compounds (except
2375:solubility product
2194:enthalpy of fusion
2161:solubility product
2144:Solubility product
2116:
2077:
2048:
2019:
1994:
1972:
1950:
1928:
1902:
1789:spent nuclear fuel
1754:hydrophobic effect
1715:
1672:chemical structure
1628:Milankovich cycles
1552:
1532:
1492:
1460:
1384:
1364:
1344:
1308:
1284:
1248:
1228:
1208:
1188:
1161:
1138:
995:The solubility of
993:
863:results in a less
782:
705:and have the same
530:Sparingly soluble
408:U.S. Pharmacopoeia
281:of solute per 100
53:
38:
4886:
4885:
4416:10.1021/ci010287z
4371:10.1021/ci400187y
4322:10.1021/ci4005805
4260:10.1021/ct300345m
4159:10.1021/cr960149m
4124:10.1021/cr9904009
4044:978-90-5410-641-8
3891:978-0-471-12120-6
3796:978-0-669-19429-6
3694:(14): 1508–1509.
3617:General Chemistry
3599:978-0-471-49708-0
3574:978-90-5410-723-1
3413:10.1063/1.1727043
3189:
3093:
2999:
2981:
2850:Materials Science
2843:metamorphic rocks
2824:O ⇌ Na + Al(OH)
2702:will dissolve in
2683:
2682:
2482:lithium phosphate
2429:= 1.34 × 10 mol/L
2350:chemical polarity
2279:separatory funnel
2022:{\displaystyle d}
1997:{\displaystyle D}
1975:{\displaystyle A}
1953:{\displaystyle t}
1931:{\displaystyle m}
1867:
1851:
1744:) and depends on
1738:entropy of mixing
1686:) solute such as
1676:entropy of mixing
1644:greenhouse effect
1555:{\displaystyle c}
1535:{\displaystyle p}
1387:{\displaystyle R}
1367:{\displaystyle i}
1311:{\displaystyle i}
1251:{\displaystyle T}
1231:{\displaystyle P}
1211:{\displaystyle i}
1164:{\displaystyle i}
1136:
1065:
1001:recrystallization
997:organic compounds
979:Gibbs free energy
931:calcium hydroxide
794:precipitate aging
733:common-ion effect
703:calcium carbonate
600:
599:
544:Slightly soluble
176:hydrochloric acid
172:calcium hydroxide
168:chemical reaction
140:concepts such as
4921:
4783:Solubility chart
4610:Phase separation
4570:Aqueous solution
4542:
4535:
4528:
4519:
4518:
4507:
4506:
4496:
4472:
4463:
4462:
4434:
4428:
4427:
4410:(5): 1208–1217.
4399:
4393:
4392:
4382:
4365:(7): 1563–1575.
4350:
4344:
4343:
4333:
4301:
4290:
4289:
4271:
4254:(9): 3322–3337.
4243:
4232:
4231:
4215:
4209:
4208:
4191:(6): 2126–2141.
4180:
4171:
4170:
4153:(8): 2161–2200.
4147:Chemical Reviews
4142:
4136:
4135:
4118:(8): 2999–3093.
4112:Chemical Reviews
4107:
4101:
4100:
4090:
4064:
4055:
4049:
4048:
4030:
4024:
4023:
4006:(4): 1638–1648.
3995:
3989:
3988:
3978:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3879:
3869:
3863:
3860:
3854:
3853:
3821:
3815:
3814:
3807:
3801:
3800:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3700:10.1039/b202410a
3682:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3671:
3655:
3649:
3648:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3626:
3620:
3613:
3604:
3603:
3585:
3579:
3578:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3542:on 13 April 2015
3527:
3521:
3518:
3512:
3497:
3491:
3484:
3478:
3464:
3458:
3457:
3421:
3415:
3401:
3395:
3394:
3386:
3377:
3354:
3334:
3327:
3300:
3295:Rate of solution
3279:
3270:
3255:
3246:
3209:
3207:
3206:
3201:
3190:
3187:
3164:
3163:
3133:
3132:
3113:
3111:
3110:
3105:
3094:
3091:
3068:
3067:
3037:
3036:
3010:
3008:
3007:
3002:
3000:
2998:
2984:
2983:
2982:
2979:
2969:
2961:
2960:
2836:
2459:
2458:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2398:
2391:
2387:
2369:
2343:
2335:
2316:Solubility table
2312:Solubility chart
2125:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2115:
2114:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2078:
2076:
2075:
2057:
2055:
2054:
2049:
2047:
2046:
2028:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1995:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1951:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1911:
1909:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1868:
1860:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1840:
1836:
1830:
1776:. Smaller Δ
1760:of dissolution (
1632:solar irradiance
1584: = 2γ/
1561:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1541:
1539:
1538:
1533:
1501:
1499:
1498:
1493:
1491:
1490:
1489:
1469:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1422:partial pressure
1393:
1391:
1390:
1385:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1365:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1343:
1342:
1317:
1315:
1314:
1309:
1293:
1291:
1290:
1285:
1283:
1282:
1257:
1255:
1254:
1249:
1237:
1235:
1234:
1229:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1186:
1170:
1168:
1167:
1162:
1151:where the index
1147:
1145:
1144:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1104:
1103:
1084:
1076:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1064:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1035:
707:chemical formula
676:
499:calcium chloride
427:
426:
404:titanium dioxide
201:, as well as in
180:rate of solution
49:ammonium sulfate
4929:
4928:
4924:
4923:
4922:
4920:
4919:
4918:
4889:
4888:
4887:
4882:
4792:
4753:Solvation shell
4724:
4662:
4654:
4650:Miscibility gap
4635:Serial dilution
4630:Supersaturation
4580:Buffer solution
4551:
4546:
4516:
4511:
4510:
4473:
4466:
4435:
4431:
4400:
4396:
4351:
4347:
4302:
4293:
4244:
4235:
4216:
4212:
4181:
4174:
4143:
4139:
4108:
4104:
4062:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4031:
4027:
3996:
3992:
3939:
3935:
3903:
3899:
3892:
3870:
3866:
3861:
3857:
3822:
3818:
3809:
3808:
3804:
3797:
3777:
3773:
3734:
3730:
3719:
3715:
3683:
3679:
3669:
3667:
3657:
3656:
3652:
3643:
3642:
3638:
3627:
3623:
3614:
3607:
3600:
3586:
3582:
3575:
3559:
3555:
3545:
3543:
3528:
3524:
3519:
3515:
3498:
3494:
3486:Abler (2021): "
3485:
3481:
3465:
3461:
3422:
3418:
3402:
3398:
3387:
3380:
3355:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3337:
3328:
3324:
3319:
3298:
3277:
3268:
3253:
3244:
3219:
3186:
3159:
3155:
3128:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3118:
3090:
3063:
3059:
3032:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3022:
2985:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2968:
2956:
2952:
2938:
2935:
2934:
2865:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2793:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2725:
2700:petroleum jelly
2688:
2677:
2616:
2595:
2556:
2527:
2499:
2478:
2455:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2417:
2408:
2396:
2389:
2385:
2383:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2346:electronegative
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2318:
2310:Main articles:
2308:
2295:
2271:dichloromethane
2252:sodium chloride
2232:
2178:
2146:
2141:
2110:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2071:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2042:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2014:
2011:
2010:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1945:
1942:
1941:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1877:
1876:
1872:
1859:
1842:
1841:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1797:
1723:sodium chloride
1702:solute such as
1652:
1641:
1637:
1624:geological time
1616:climate changes
1547:
1544:
1543:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1521:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1415:
1407:calcium sulfate
1379:
1376:
1375:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1329:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1319:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1269:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1243:
1240:
1239:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1203:
1200:
1199:
1182:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1172:
1156:
1153:
1152:
1128:
1112:
1108:
1090:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1071:
1057:
1050:
1046:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1013:
952:
915:calcium sulfate
907:sodium chloride
846:
802:
762:
758:
754:
750:
725:complex-forming
683:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
609:
566:1000 to 10,000
551:calcium sulfate
492:Freely soluble
480:calcium nitrate
468:
461:
446:
439:
423:
416:
392:
363:
354:
329:of the latter.
315:
271:
263:amount in moles
250:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4927:
4917:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4901:
4884:
4883:
4881:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4818:Protic solvent
4815:
4810:
4802:
4800:
4794:
4793:
4791:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4763:Lattice energy
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4734:
4732:
4726:
4725:
4723:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4666:
4664:
4656:
4655:
4653:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4615:Eutectic point
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4575:Solid solution
4572:
4567:
4565:Ideal solution
4561:
4559:
4553:
4552:
4545:
4544:
4537:
4530:
4522:
4515:
4514:External links
4512:
4509:
4508:
4487:(2): 234–252.
4464:
4445:(8): 912–922.
4429:
4394:
4345:
4316:(3): 844–856.
4291:
4233:
4210:
4172:
4137:
4102:
4073:(9): 6174–91.
4050:
4043:
4025:
3990:
3953:(7584): 7584.
3933:
3897:
3890:
3864:
3855:
3816:
3802:
3795:
3771:
3744:(4): 320–322.
3728:
3713:
3677:
3650:
3636:
3621:
3605:
3598:
3580:
3573:
3553:
3522:
3513:
3492:
3479:
3459:
3416:
3396:
3378:
3345:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3321:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3313:
3307:
3301:
3292:
3286:
3280:
3271:
3262:
3256:
3247:
3238:
3235:Dühring's rule
3232:
3226:
3218:
3215:
3211:
3210:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3131:
3127:
3115:
3114:
3103:
3100:
3097:
3089:
3086:
3083:
3080:
3077:
3074:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3046:
3043:
3040:
3035:
3031:
3012:
3011:
2997:
2994:
2991:
2988:
2977:
2973:
2967:
2964:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2948:
2945:
2942:
2912:solvent models
2881:thermodynamics
2864:
2861:
2857:phase diagrams
2839:
2838:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2792:
2789:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2753:solid solution
2724:
2723:Solid solution
2721:
2687:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2675:
2659:
2632:
2631:
2614:
2598:
2593:
2564:
2563:
2554:
2542:
2531:
2530:
2525:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2497:
2485:
2476:
2467:
2466:
2463:
2453:
2431:
2430:
2427:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2406:
2381:
2371:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2339:
2331:
2307:
2304:
2294:
2291:
2231:
2228:
2177:
2176:Other theories
2174:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2113:
2109:
2089:
2088:
2074:
2070:
2059:
2045:
2041:
2030:
2018:
2008:
1993:
1983:
1971:
1961:
1949:
1939:
1927:
1913:
1912:
1901:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1863:
1858:
1855:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1835:
1796:
1793:
1791:reprocessing.
1719:ionic compound
1651:
1648:
1639:
1635:
1606:solubility in
1604:carbon dioxide
1551:
1531:
1519:
1488:
1483:
1471:
1470:
1459:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1440:
1414:
1411:
1383:
1363:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1307:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1268:
1247:
1227:
1207:
1185:
1181:
1160:
1149:
1148:
1134:
1131:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1063:
1060:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1033:
1017:ideal solution
1012:
1009:
955:sodium sulfate
950:
895:barium nitrate
844:
801:
798:
760:
756:
752:
748:
737:ionic strength
682:
679:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
656:], [CoCl(H
653:
649:
608:
607:Molecular view
605:
598:
597:
594:
591:
589:barium sulfate
586:
583:
579:
578:
575:
572:
567:
564:
560:
559:
556:
553:
548:
545:
541:
540:
538:
536:
534:
531:
527:
526:
523:
520:
518:sodium oxalate
515:
512:
508:
507:
504:
501:
496:
493:
489:
488:
485:
482:
477:
474:
470:
469:
466:
459:
454:
451:
448:
444:
437:
431:
421:
414:
391:
388:
362:
359:
353:
350:
314:
311:
270:
267:
249:
246:
163:site appears.
21:solvable group
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4926:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4896:
4894:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4808:
4804:
4803:
4801:
4799:
4795:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4731:
4727:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4705:Mass fraction
4703:
4701:
4700:Mole fraction
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4667:
4665:
4661:
4660:Concentration
4657:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4605:Phase diagram
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4585:Flory–Huggins
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4562:
4560:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4543:
4538:
4536:
4531:
4529:
4524:
4523:
4520:
4504:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4471:
4469:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4433:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4398:
4390:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4349:
4341:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4300:
4298:
4296:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4242:
4240:
4238:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4214:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4179:
4177:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4141:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4106:
4098:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4061:
4054:
4046:
4040:
4036:
4029:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3994:
3986:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3937:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3901:
3893:
3887:
3883:
3878:
3877:
3868:
3859:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3836:(1–2): 1–11.
3835:
3831:
3830:Int. J. Pharm
3827:
3820:
3812:
3806:
3798:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3783:
3775:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3732:
3724:
3717:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3688:Chem. Commun.
3681:
3666:
3665:
3660:
3654:
3646:
3640:
3632:
3625:
3618:
3612:
3610:
3601:
3595:
3591:
3584:
3576:
3570:
3566:
3565:
3557:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3526:
3517:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3496:
3489:
3483:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3463:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3420:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3400:
3392:
3385:
3383:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3351:
3346:
3332:
3326:
3322:
3311:
3308:
3305:
3302:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3275:
3272:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3251:
3248:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3221:
3220:
3214:
3194:
3191:
3188:melting point
3180:
3177:
3171:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3149:
3146:
3140:
3134:
3129:
3125:
3117:
3116:
3098:
3095:
3092:melting point
3084:
3081:
3075:
3069:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3053:
3050:
3044:
3038:
3033:
3029:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3017:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2975:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2946:
2943:
2940:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2904:
2896:
2892:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2877:
2875:
2871:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2851:
2846:
2844:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2797:incongruently
2788:
2786:
2782:
2777:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2750:
2749:phase diagram
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2709:
2708:ethyl alcohol
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2678:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2596:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2550:
2546:
2543:
2540:
2536:
2533:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2479:
2472:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2457:
2452:
2436:
2428:
2425:
2424:
2423:
2414:
2411:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2393:
2380:
2376:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2347:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2313:
2303:
2299:
2290:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2275:diethyl ether
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2255:
2253:
2248:
2246:
2245:sulfuric acid
2242:
2236:
2227:
2225:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2173:
2170:
2166:
2165:precipitation
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2136:
2132:
2130:
2111:
2107:
2098:
2097:mass transfer
2094:
2072:
2068:
2060:
2043:
2039:
2031:
2016:
2009:
2007:
1991:
1984:
1969:
1962:
1947:
1940:
1925:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1888:
1884:
1873:
1864:
1861:
1856:
1853:
1847:
1837:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1813:
1811:
1810:drug delivery
1807:
1803:
1792:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1711:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1666:language as "
1665:
1661:
1657:
1647:
1645:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1598:
1597:Sieverts' law
1593:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1564:concentration
1549:
1529:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1481:
1457:
1445:
1441:
1438:
1431:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1397:
1381:
1361:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1305:
1297:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1266:
1245:
1225:
1205:
1183:
1179:
1158:
1132:
1129:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1087:
1080:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1061:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1040:
1031:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1018:
1008:
1006:
1005:cyclodextrins
1002:
998:
990:
986:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
879:
876:
872:
870:
866:
865:polar solvent
862:
858:
854:
850:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
797:
795:
791:
787:
779:
775:
773:
769:
765:
744:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
721:
719:
715:
710:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
678:
645:
640:
637:
633:
629:
624:
622:
618:
617:precipitation
614:
604:
595:
592:
590:
587:
584:
581:
580:
576:
573:
571:
568:
565:
562:
561:
557:
554:
552:
549:
546:
543:
542:
539:
537:
535:
532:
529:
528:
524:
521:
519:
516:
513:
510:
509:
505:
502:
500:
497:
494:
491:
490:
486:
483:
481:
478:
475:
473:Very soluble
472:
471:
465:
458:
455:
452:
449:
443:
436:
432:
429:
428:
425:
420:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
387:
384:
380:
376:
372:
367:
358:
349:
347:
343:
342:dimensionless
339:
338:mass fraction
335:
334:mole fraction
330:
328:
324:
320:
310:
308:
304:
299:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
266:
264:
260:
256:
245:
243:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
183:
181:
177:
173:
169:
164:
162:
158:
154:
149:
147:
143:
139:
138:thermodynamic
135:
131:
127:
123:
118:
116:
112:
108:
103:
101:
97:
93:
89:
88:concentration
84:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
50:
47:
42:
34:
30:
26:
22:
4768:Raoult's law
4729:
4720:Ternary plot
4715:Mixing ratio
4484:
4480:
4442:
4438:
4432:
4407:
4403:
4397:
4362:
4358:
4348:
4313:
4309:
4251:
4247:
4219:
4213:
4188:
4184:
4150:
4146:
4140:
4115:
4111:
4105:
4070:
4066:
4053:
4034:
4028:
4003:
3999:
3993:
3950:
3946:
3936:
3911:
3907:
3900:
3875:
3867:
3858:
3833:
3829:
3819:
3810:
3805:
3781:
3774:
3741:
3737:
3731:
3722:
3716:
3691:
3686:
3680:
3668:. Retrieved
3662:
3653:
3644:
3639:
3630:
3624:
3616:
3589:
3583:
3563:
3556:
3544:. Retrieved
3540:the original
3535:
3525:
3516:
3500:
3495:
3482:
3467:
3462:
3429:
3425:
3419:
3404:
3399:
3390:
3360:
3330:
3325:
3289:Raoult's law
3212:
3015:
3013:
2923:
2920:gas constant
2915:
2909:
2878:
2866:
2847:
2840:
2820:(s) + H + 7H
2794:
2760:
2757:
2726:
2719:with water.
2695:
2689:
2450:
2432:
2426:= 1.8 × 10 M
2421:
2412:
2403:
2394:
2378:
2372:
2319:
2300:
2296:
2259:benzoic acid
2256:
2249:
2237:
2233:
2230:Applications
2221:
2198:
2179:
2147:
2133:
2090:
1914:
1814:
1806:polymorphism
1798:
1782:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1762:Gibbs energy
1749:
1741:
1735:
1716:
1667:
1659:
1653:
1601:
1594:
1585:
1581:
1575:
1568:
1472:
1426:Raoult's law
1416:
1400:
1150:
1014:
994:
982:
938:
926:
910:
902:
880:
873:
868:
852:
841:
829:
821:
813:
809:
803:
783:
764:redox buffer
745:
722:
711:
684:
641:
627:
625:
610:
601:
547:100 to 1000
463:
456:
441:
434:
418:
411:
393:
368:
364:
355:
331:
318:
316:
300:
272:
251:
239:
199:oceanography
184:
165:
150:
119:
104:
85:
81:Insolubility
80:
71:, to form a
60:
54:
29:
4873:Lyonium ion
4788:Miscibility
4773:Henry's law
4269:10023/25470
3811:Merck Index
3432:: 659–673.
3259:Henry's law
2885:sublimation
2874:data mining
2679:compounds)
2529:compounds)
2505:compounds)
2217:hydrophilic
2209:hydrophobic
2169:temperature
1758:free energy
1704:naphthalene
1684:hydrophilic
1418:Henry's law
935:portlandite
818:endothermic
800:Temperature
613:dissolution
346:percentages
283:millilitres
211:agriculture
203:engineering
155:, which is
4893:Categories
4868:Amphiphile
4863:Lipophilic
4858:Hydrophile
4853:Hydrophobe
4730:Solubility
4625:Saturation
4595:Suspension
4228:10023/6534
3367:Solubility
3341:References
3274:Hydrotrope
2781:phase rule
2737:base metal
2729:metallurgy
2717:extraction
2713:filtration
2601:Hydroxides
2545:Phosphates
2541:compounds)
2488:Carbonates
2465:Insoluble
1752:) and the
1700:lipophilic
1654:A popular
1620:Antarctica
975:thenardite
963:mirabilite
826:exothermic
699:polymorphs
632:solvolysis
628:solubility
533:30 to 100
398:) such as
379:dissociate
161:nucleation
157:metastable
61:solubility
4909:Solutions
4878:Lyate ion
4833:Solvation
4748:Solvation
4690:Normality
4020:246516386
3928:234807088
3454:110079029
3446:0261-0523
3192:−
3178:−
3166:
3153:−
3135:
3096:−
3082:−
3070:
3057:−
3039:
2987:−
2980:solvation
2972:Δ
2944:
2568:Chlorides
2326:solvation
2239:example,
2213:1-octanol
2211:solvent (
2205:logarithm
2093:diffusion
1885:−
1802:amorphous
1772:– TΔ
1622:. At the
1612:carbonate
1106:−
1081:−
1059:∂
1044:
1038:∂
971:anhydrous
961:crystal (
816:, on the
691:aragonite
648:[Co(H
626:The term
593:0.000245
585:≥ 10,000
514:10 to 30
323:titration
303:kilograms
287:decilitre
275:handbooks
130:molecules
92:saturated
65:substance
57:chemistry
4848:Polarity
4807:Category
4695:Molality
4557:Solution
4503:11169540
4424:11604020
4389:23795551
4340:24564264
4286:26334468
4278:26605739
4205:25880026
4167:11849023
4132:16092826
4097:25660403
3985:26189943
3850:16920290
3766:93098036
3708:12189867
3546:22 April
3217:See also
2828:(s) + 3H
2805:gibbsite
2733:alloying
2704:gasoline
2692:polarity
2670:Group II
2664:(except
2662:Sulfides
2638:(except
2636:Sulfates
2607:(except
2578:(except
2572:bromides
2547:(except
2535:Acetates
2518:(except
2516:Sulfites
2511:Nitrates
2490:(except
2462:Soluble
2215:) and a
2188:and the
1768:= Δ
1692:methanol
1680:polarity
1656:aphorism
1650:Polarity
1608:seawater
1516:dioxygen
1011:Pressure
965:) loses
849:enthalpy
806:enthalpy
774:buffer.
727:anions (
511:Soluble
495:1 to 10
450:Example
396:miscible
327:molarity
319:solution
307:molality
295:kilogram
231:reagents
219:cleaning
215:painting
207:medicine
142:enthalpy
100:miscible
73:solution
4798:Solvent
4600:Colloid
4590:Mixture
4459:7400936
4380:3739985
4331:3965570
4075:Bibcode
3976:4518255
3955:Bibcode
3746:Bibcode
3501:SENSORS
3331:defined
2928:kelvins
2918:is the
2694:, that
2666:Group I
2609:Group I
2576:iodides
2549:Group I
2520:Group I
2492:Group I
2471:Group I
2267:dry ice
1915:where:
1748:(Δ
1740:(Δ
1696:benzene
1578:bubbles
1562:is the
1394:is the
1298:of the
1294:is the
973:phase (
959:hydrate
891:kelvins
889:, i.e.
887:Celsius
875:Gaseous
729:ligands
718:entropy
695:calcite
664:], CoCl
644:aqueous
596:409000
433:Range (
400:ethanol
377:) will
227:brewing
223:cooking
195:physics
191:biology
187:geology
146:entropy
113:, or a
77:solvent
4501:
4457:
4422:
4387:
4377:
4338:
4328:
4284:
4276:
4203:
4165:
4130:
4095:
4041:
4018:
3983:
3973:
3926:
3914:(20).
3888:
3848:
3793:
3764:
3706:
3670:28 May
3596:
3571:
3452:
3444:
2812:NaAlSi
2801:albite
2745:solvus
2743:. The
2605:oxides
2503:uranyl
2241:indigo
1960:= time
1756:. The
1588:; see
1473:where
921:) and
919:gypsum
687:phases
636:oxides
621:solids
484:158.7
476:<1
259:volume
225:, and
197:, and
111:liquid
69:solute
67:, the
4620:Alloy
4282:S2CID
4063:(PDF)
4016:S2CID
3924:S2CID
3762:S2CID
3450:S2CID
3357:IUPAC
3317:Notes
3016:et al
2990:2.303
2741:phase
2435:moles
2361:⇌ Ag
2322:salts
2261:from
1731:water
1727:polar
1664:Latin
883:salts
577:5000
574:0.02
555:0.21
506:1.54
487:0.63
453:g/dL
430:Term
375:salts
371:acids
348:(%).
291:litre
279:grams
261:, or
235:Water
174:with
132:, or
126:atoms
107:solid
4499:PMID
4455:PMID
4420:PMID
4385:PMID
4336:PMID
4274:PMID
4201:PMID
4163:PMID
4128:PMID
4093:PMID
4039:ISBN
3981:PMID
3886:ISBN
3846:PMID
3791:ISBN
3704:PMID
3692:2002
3672:2014
3594:ISBN
3569:ISBN
3548:2015
3442:ISSN
3181:0.01
3085:0.01
2922:and
2672:and
2654:and
2626:and
2603:and
2590:and
2574:and
2551:and
2522:and
2501:and
2473:and
2447:NaCl
2443:AgCl
2439:AgCl
2397:AgCl
2390:NaCl
2388:vs.
2386:AgCl
2367:(aq)
2365:+ Cl
2363:(aq)
2357:AgCl
2314:and
2265:and
2199:The
2180:The
2095:(or
1688:urea
1602:The
1514:for
945:and
897:and
814:i.e.
693:and
558:490
522:3.9
373:and
255:mass
144:and
134:ions
109:, a
4489:doi
4447:doi
4412:doi
4375:PMC
4367:doi
4326:PMC
4318:doi
4264:hdl
4256:doi
4224:hdl
4193:doi
4155:doi
4120:doi
4116:105
4083:doi
4008:doi
3971:PMC
3963:doi
3916:doi
3882:121
3838:doi
3834:321
3754:doi
3696:doi
3505:doi
3472:doi
3434:doi
3430:158
3409:doi
3371:doi
3369:".
3157:log
3150:0.5
3126:log
3061:log
3054:0.8
3030:log
2941:log
2832:SiO
2762:(Zn
2715:or
2562:))
2437:of
2359:(s)
2352:).
2273:or
2247:".
1592:).
1512:mol
1508:atm
772:NiO
755:-Fe
701:of
619:of
525:26
503:65
115:gas
55:In
4895::
4497:.
4485:90
4483:.
4479:.
4467:^
4453:.
4443:69
4441:.
4418:.
4408:41
4406:.
4383:.
4373:.
4363:53
4361:.
4357:.
4334:.
4324:.
4314:54
4312:.
4308:.
4294:^
4280:.
4272:.
4262:.
4250:.
4236:^
4199:.
4189:12
4187:.
4175:^
4161:.
4151:99
4149:.
4126:.
4114:.
4091:.
4081:.
4071:17
4069:.
4065:.
4014:.
4004:34
4002:.
3979:.
3969:.
3961:.
3949:.
3945:.
3922:.
3912:11
3910:.
3884:.
3844:.
3832:.
3828:.
3789:.
3787:40
3760:.
3752:.
3740:.
3702:.
3661:.
3608:^
3534:.
3448:.
3440:.
3428:.
3381:^
3359:,
3349:^
3195:25
3161:10
3130:10
3099:25
3065:10
3034:10
2930:.
2859:.
2845:.
2807:.
2766:Sb
2674:NH
2668:,
2656:Ca
2652:Sr
2650:,
2648:Ba
2646:,
2644:Pb
2642:,
2640:Ag
2630:)
2628:Tl
2624:Sr
2622:,
2620:Ba
2618:,
2613:NH
2611:,
2592:Hg
2588:Cu
2586:,
2584:Pb
2582:,
2580:Ag
2560:Li
2553:NH
2539:Ag
2524:NH
2496:NH
2494:,
2475:NH
2454:sp
2416:sp
2407:sp
2382:sp
2377:,
2226:.
2196:.
2131:.
2004:=
1573:.
1518:(O
1398:.
1041:ln
1007:.
981:(Δ
845:sp
828:(Δ
820:(Δ
808:(Δ
768:Ni
743:.
709:.
672:O)
668:(H
660:O)
652:O)
467:su
460:sv
447:)
445:su
438:sv
422:su
415:sv
257:,
221:,
217:,
209:,
205:,
193:,
189:,
148:.
128:,
122:pH
79:.
59:,
4809:)
4805:(
4541:e
4534:t
4527:v
4505:.
4491::
4461:.
4449::
4426:.
4414::
4391:.
4369::
4342:.
4320::
4288:.
4266::
4258::
4252:8
4230:.
4226::
4207:.
4195::
4169:.
4157::
4134:.
4122::
4099:.
4085::
4077::
4047:.
4022:.
4010::
3987:.
3965::
3957::
3951:6
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1510:/
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440:/
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27:.
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