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chamber, which directs many small swift-moving streams of fuel and oxidizer into one another. Liquid-fueled rocket injector design has been studied at great length and still resists reliable performance prediction. In a hybrid motor, the mixing happens at the melting or evaporating surface of the fuel. The mixing is not a well-controlled process and generally, quite a lot of propellant is left unburned, which limits the efficiency of the motor. The combustion rate of the fuel is largely determined by the oxidizer flux and exposed fuel surface area. This combustion rate is not usually sufficient for high power operations such as boost stages unless the surface area or oxidizer flux is high. Too high of oxidizer flux can lead to flooding and loss of flame holding that locally extinguishes the combustion. Surface area can be increased, typically by longer grains or multiple ports, but this can increase combustion chamber size, reduce grain strength and/or reduce volumetric loading. Additionally, as the burn continues, the hole down the center of the grain (the 'port') widens and the mixture ratio tends to become more oxidizer rich.
1021:(specifically composites with ammonium perchlorate), versus the more benign liquid oxygen or nitrous oxide often used in hybrids. This is only true for specific hybrid systems. There have been hybrids which have used chlorine or fluorine compounds as oxidizers and hazardous materials such as beryllium compounds mixed into the solid fuel grain. Because just one constituent is a fluid, hybrids can be simpler than liquid rockets depending motive force used to transport the fluid into the combustion chamber. Fewer fluids typically mean fewer and smaller piping systems, valves and pumps (if utilized).
150:
959:, its low density is a disadvantage: hydrogen occupies about 7 times more volume per kilogram than dense fuels such as kerosene. The fuel tankage, plumbing, and pump must be correspondingly larger. This increases the vehicle's dry mass, reducing performance. Liquid hydrogen is also relatively expensive to produce and store, and causes difficulties with design, manufacture, and operation of the vehicle. However, liquid hydrogen is extremely well suited to upper stage use where I
429:, a measure of propellant efficiency, than liquid fuel rockets. As a result, the overall performance of solid upper stages is less than liquid stages even though the solid mass ratios are usually in the .91 to .93 range, as good as or better than most liquid propellant upper stages. The high mass ratios possible with these unsegmented solid upper stages is a result of high propellant density and very high strength-to-weight ratio filament-wound motor casings.
53:
890:. This conversion happens in the time it takes for the propellants to flow from the combustion chamber through the engine throat and out the nozzle, usually on the order of one millisecond. Molecules store thermal energy in rotation, vibration, and translation, of which only the latter can easily be used to add energy to the rocket stage. Molecules with fewer atoms (like CO and H
433:
separation. Casting large amounts of propellant requires consistency and repeatability to avoid cracks and voids in the completed motor. The blending and casting take place under computer control in a vacuum, and the propellant blend is spread thin and scanned to assure no large gas bubbles are introduced into the motor.
993:
approximated this by using dense solid rocket boosters for the majority of the thrust during the first 120 seconds. The main engines burned a fuel-rich hydrogen and oxygen mixture, operating continuously throughout the launch but providing the majority of thrust at higher altitudes after SRB burnout.
946:
Additionally, mixture ratios can be dynamic during launch. This can be exploited with designs that adjust the oxidizer to fuel ratio (along with overall thrust) throughout a flight to maximize overall system performance. For instance, during lift-off thrust is more valuable than specific impulse, and
1020:
usually has a solid fuel and a liquid or NEMA oxidizer. The fluid oxidizer can make it possible to throttle and restart the motor just like a liquid-fueled rocket. Hybrid rockets can also be environmentally safer than solid rockets since some high-performance solid-phase oxidizers contain chlorine
432:
A drawback to solid rockets is that they cannot be throttled in real time, although a programmed thrust schedule can be created by adjusting the interior propellant geometry. Solid rockets can be vented to extinguish combustion or reverse thrust as a means of controlling range or accommodating stage
1164:
to add energy to the propellant. Some designs separate the nuclear fuel and working fluid, minimizing the potential for radioactive contamination, but nuclear fuel loss was a persistent problem during real-world testing programs. Solar thermal rockets use concentrated sunlight to heat a propellant,
436:
Solid fuel rockets are intolerant to cracks and voids and require post-processing such as X-ray scans to identify faults. The combustion process is dependent on the surface area of the fuel. Voids and cracks represent local increases in burning surface area, increasing the local temperature, which
1024:
Hybrid motors suffer two major drawbacks. The first, shared with solid rocket motors, is that the casing around the fuel grain must be built to withstand full combustion pressure and often extreme temperatures as well. However, modern composite structures handle this problem well, and when used
484:
of APCP solid propellants is relatively small. The military, however, uses a wide variety of different types of solid propellants, some of which exceed the performance of APCP. A comparison of the highest specific impulses achieved with the various solid and liquid propellant combinations used in
381:
Further complicating categorization, there are many propellants that contain elements of double-base and composite propellants, which often contain some amount of energetic additives homogeneously mixed into the binder. In the case of gunpowder (a pressed composite without a polymeric binder) the
337:
Rocket stages that fly through the atmosphere usually use lower performing, high molecular mass, high-density propellants due to the smaller and lighter tankage required. Upper stages, which mostly or only operate in the vacuum of space, tend to use the high energy, high performance, low density
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The primary remaining difficulty with hybrids is with mixing the propellants during the combustion process. In solid propellants, the oxidizer and fuel are mixed in a factory in carefully controlled conditions. Liquid propellants are generally mixed by the injector at the top of the combustion
1036:
There has been much less development of hybrid motors than solid and liquid motors. For military use, ease of handling and maintenance have driven the use of solid rockets. For orbital work, liquid fuels are more efficient than hybrids and most development has concentrated there. There has
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for a given amount of heat input, resulting in more translation energy being available to be converted to kinetic energy. The resulting improvement in nozzle efficiency is large enough that real rocket engines improve their actual exhaust velocity by running rich mixtures with somewhat lower
377:
Single-, double-, or triple-bases (depending on the number of primary ingredients) are homogeneous mixtures of one to three primary ingredients. These primary ingredients must include fuel and oxidizer and often also include binders and plasticizers. All components are macroscopically
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than solid rockets and are capable of being throttled, shut down, and restarted. Only the combustion chamber of a liquid-fueled rocket needs to withstand high combustion pressures and temperatures. Cooling can be done regeneratively with the liquid propellant. On vehicles employing
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jets, compressed gases such as nitrogen have been employed. Energy is stored in the pressure of the inert gas. However, due to the low density of all practical gases and high mass of the pressure vessel required to contain it, compressed gases see little current use.
401:
Solid propellant rockets are much easier to store and handle than liquid propellant rockets. High propellant density makes for compact size as well. These features plus simplicity and low cost make solid propellant rockets ideal for military and space applications.
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where their long-term storability, simplicity of use, and ability to provide the tiny impulses needed outweighs their lower specific impulse as compared to bipropellants. Hydrogen peroxide is also used to drive the turbopumps on the first stage of the Soyuz launch
305:
In the case of solid rocket motors, the fuel and oxidizer are combined when the motor is cast. Propellant combustion occurs inside the motor casing, which must contain the pressures developed. Solid rockets typically have higher thrust, less
378:
indistinguishable and often blended as liquids and cured in a single batch. Ingredients can often have multiple roles. For example, RDX is both a fuel and oxidizer while nitrocellulose is a fuel, oxidizer, and structural polymer.
866:
The theoretical exhaust velocity of a given propellant chemistry is proportional to the energy released per unit of propellant mass (specific energy). In chemical rockets, unburned fuel or oxidizer represents the loss of
278:
is converted into a huge volume of gas at high temperature and pressure. This exhaust stream is ejected from the engine nozzle at high velocity, creating an opposing force that propels the rocket forward in accordance with
520:). All solid-fueled ICBMs on both sides had three initial solid stages, and those with multiple independently targeted warheads had a precision maneuverable bus used to fine tune the trajectory of the re-entry vehicles.
914:
The effect of exhaust molecular weight on nozzle efficiency is most important for nozzles operating near sea level. High expansion rockets operating in a vacuum see a much smaller effect, and so are run less rich.
934:
Another reason for running rich is that off-stoichiometric mixtures burn cooler than stoichiometric mixtures, which makes engine cooling easier. Because fuel-rich combustion products are less chemically reactive
646:
Liquid-fueled rockets require potentially troublesome valves, seals, and turbopumps, which increase the cost of the launch vehicle. Turbopumps are particularly troublesome due to high performance requirements.
926:
rockets are run very rich (O/F mass ratio of 4 rather than stoichiometric 8) because hydrogen is so light that the energy release per unit mass of propellant drops very slowly with extra hydrogen. In fact,
970:, but can more easily develop high takeoff thrusts due to the reduced volume of engine components. This means that vehicles with dense-fueled booster stages reach orbit earlier, minimizing losses due to
1072:
The
Rochester Institute of Technology was building an HTPB hybrid rocket to launch small payloads into space and to several near-Earth objects. Its first launch was in the Summer of 2007.
480:(polybutadiene rubber fuel). The mixture is formed as a thickened liquid and then cast into the correct shape and cured into a firm but flexible load-bearing solid. Historically, the
1086:. SpaceDev partially based its motors on experimental data collected from the testing of AMROC's (American Rocket Company) motors at NASA's Stennis Space Center's E1 test stand.
695:, among others. This combination is widely regarded as the most practical for boosters that lift off at ground level and therefore must operate at full atmospheric pressure.
613:, tend to be extremely toxic and highly reactive, while cryogenic propellants by definition must be stored at low temperature and can also have reactivity/toxicity issues.
559:, the propellant tanks are at a lower pressure than the combustion chamber, decreasing tank mass. For these reasons, most orbital launch vehicles use liquid propellants.
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careful adjustment of the O/F ratio may allow higher thrust levels. Once the rocket is away from the launchpad, the engine O/F ratio can be tuned for higher efficiency.
382:
fuel is charcoal, the oxidizer is potassium nitrate, and sulphur serves as a reaction catalyst while also being consumed to form a variety of reaction products such as
1432:
Jones, C., Masse, D., Glass, C., Wilhite, A., and Walker, M. (2010), "PHARO: Propellant harvesting of atmospheric resources in orbit," IEEE Aerospace
Conference.
1576:. 36th AIAA / ASME / SAE / ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit, Huntsville, Alabama, 16–19 July 2000. AlAA 2000-3856.
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of around 600–900 seconds, or in some cases water that is exhausted as steam for a specific impulse of about 190 seconds. Nuclear thermal rockets use the heat of
621:/LOX mix, have never been flown due to instability, toxicity, and explosivity. Several other unstable, energetic, and toxic oxidizers have been proposed: liquid
334:, the total energy delivered to the rocket vehicle per unit of propellant mass consumed. Mass ratio can also be affected by the choice of a given propellant.
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rockets are generally limited in how rich they run by the performance penalty of the mass of the extra hydrogen tankage instead of the underlying chemistry.
562:
The primary specific impulse advantage of liquid propellants is due to the availability of high-performance oxidizers. Several practical liquid oxidizers (
939:) than oxidizer-rich combustion products, a vast majority of rocket engines are designed to run fuel-rich. At least one exception exists: the Russian
830:, making for attractively simple ignition sequences. The major inconvenience is that these propellants are highly toxic and require careful handling.
798:. Used in military, orbital, and deep space rockets because both liquids are storable for long periods at reasonable temperatures and pressures. N
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and a solid rubber propellant (HTPB), relatively small percentage of fuel is needed anyway, so the combustion chamber is not especially large.
1013:
Hybrid propellants: a storable oxidizer used with a solid fuel, which retains most virtues of both liquids (high ISP) and solids (simplicity).
228:
because of the lack of air pressure on the outside of the engine. In space it is also possible to fit a longer nozzle without suffering from
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increases the local rate of combustion. This positive feedback loop can easily lead to catastrophic failure of the case or nozzle.
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Their simplicity also makes solid rockets a good choice whenever large amounts of thrust are needed and the cost is an issue. The
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of 3.4 to 4) because the energy release per unit mass drops off quickly as the mixture ratio deviates from stoichiometric. LOX/LH
17:
117:
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uses mainly dense fuel while at low altitude and switches across to hydrogen at higher altitude. Studies in the 1960s proposed
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Solid propellants come in two main types. "Composites" are composed mostly of a mixture of granules of solid oxidizer, such as
1393:
Atomic
Adventures: Secret Islands, Forgotten N-Rays, and Isotopic Murder - A Journey Through The Wild World of Nuclear Science
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use inert propellants of low molecular weight that are chemically compatible with the heating mechanism at high temperatures.
220:). A rocket can be thought of as being accelerated by the pressure of the combusting gases against the combustion chamber and
89:
374:, aluminium, beryllium). Plasticizers, stabilizers, and/or burn rate modifiers (iron oxide, copper oxide) can also be added.
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1057:(HTPB) with an oxidizer of gaseous oxygen, and in 2003 launched a larger version which burned HTPB with nitrous oxide.
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ionize a neutral gas and create thrust by accelerating the ions (or the plasma) by electric and/or magnetic fields.
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310:, shorter burn times, and a higher mass than liquid rockets, and additionally cannot be stopped once lit.
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1610:
1533:"An Attitude Control System for a Low-Cost Earth Observation Satellite with Orbit Maintenance Capability"
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can match the performance of NTO/UDMH storable liquid propellants, but cannot be throttled or restarted.
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1078:, the first private crewed spacecraft, was powered by a hybrid rocket burning HTPB with nitrous oxide:
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The main difficulties with liquid propellants are also with the oxidizers. Storable oxidizers, such as
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875:. However, most rockets run fuel-rich mixtures, which result in lower theoretical exhaust velocities.
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Some rocket designs impart energy to their propellants with external energy sources. For example,
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in a polymer binding agent, with flakes or powders of energetic fuel compounds (examples:
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use a compressed gas, typically air, to force the water reaction mass out of the rocket.
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has launched hybrid rockets through an undergraduate student group since 2009 using HTPB.
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791:
719:
497:
330:. Exhaust velocity is dependent on the propellant and engine used and closely related to
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launched a student-designed rocket called Unity IV in 1995 which burned the solid fuel
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1037:
recently been an increase in hybrid motor development for nonmilitary suborbital work:
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610:
267:
266:
liquid rockets, a mixture of reducing fuel and oxidizing oxidizer is introduced into a
445:
Solid rocket propellant was first developed during the 13th century under the
Chinese
251:(fuel) must be present in the mixture. Decomposition, such as that of highly unstable
224:, not by "pushing" against the air behind or below it. Rocket engines perform best in
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The main types of liquid propellants are storable propellants, which tend to be
500:(MX). In the 1980s and 1990s, the USSR/Russia also deployed solid-fueled ICBMs (
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327:
244:
236:
229:
189:
188:. The energy required can either come from the propellants themselves, as with a
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LOX/hydrocarbon rockets are run slightly rich (O/F mass ratio of 3 rather than
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In the 1970s and 1980s, the U.S. switched entirely to solid-fueled ICBMs: the
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Chemical rockets can be grouped by phase. Solid rockets use propellant in the
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that a rocket stage can impart on its payload is primarily a function of its
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to overcome the pressure. As combustion takes place, the liquid propellant
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Dense propellant launch vehicles have a higher takeoff mass due to lower I
180:. This reaction mass is ejected at the highest achievable velocity from a
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30:"Rocket fuel" redirects here. For the advertising company "FUEL", see
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Several universities have recently experimented with hybrid rockets.
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During the 1950s and 60s, researchers in the United States developed
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of the propellants by their exhaust velocity relative to the rocket (
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617:(LOX) is the only flown cryogenic oxidizer. Others such as FLOX, a
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proposals, the propellant would be plasma debris from a series of
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and its exhaust velocity. This relationship is described by the
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is at a premium and thrust to weight ratios are less relevant.
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O). Consequently, smaller molecules store less vibrational and
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819:
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185:
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use a combination of solid and liquid or gaseous propellants.
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used in most solid rockets when paired with suitable fuels.
574:) are available which have better specific impulse than the
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Some gases, notably oxygen and nitrogen, may be able to be
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205:
1501:
Ignition! An
Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants
371:
367:
943:
preburner, which burns LOX and RP-1 at a ratio of 2.72.
464:(APCP). This mixture is typically 69-70% finely ground
1362:
Powered Flight: The
Engineering of Aerospace Propulsion
882:
exhaust species. The nozzle of the rocket converts the
157:
during liftoff. The rocket is entirely fuelled with
27:
Chemical or mixture used as fuel for a rocket engine
485:current launch vehicles is given in the article on
77:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1301:
235:Most chemical propellants release energy through
1602:
413:use solid-fueled rockets in their boost stages (
389:The newest nitramine solid propellants based on
1156:typically propose to use liquid hydrogen for a
1082:. The hybrid rocket engine was manufactured by
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1457:
1455:
523:
212:produced can be calculated by multiplying the
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345:
1567:G.R. Schmidt; J.A. Bunornetti; P.J. Morton.
1530:
1507:(Rutgers University Press, 1972), Chapter 12
878:However, fuel-rich mixtures also have lower
472:(a fuel), held together in a base of 11-14%
290:, liquid fuel rockets use propellant in the
1570:Nuclear Pulse Propulsion – Orion and Beyond
1452:
259:rockets, can also be the source of energy.
1277:Space Race: The Mission, the Men, the Moon
1179:For low performance applications, such as
650:
761:
468:(an oxidizer), combined with 16-20% fine
462:ammonium perchlorate composite propellant
294:, gas fuel rockets use propellant in the
137:Learn how and when to remove this message
1531:Steyn, Willem H; Hashida, Yoshi (1999).
1426:
1390:
1357:
1335:The Rise and Fall of American Technology
512:), but retains two liquid-fueled ICBMs (
148:
1274:
955:Although liquid hydrogen gives a high I
898:than molecules with more atoms (like CO
894:) have fewer available vibrational and
14:
1603:
1090:
192:, or from an external source, as with
1299:
1165:rather than using a nuclear reactor.
1002:
950:
667:). Used for the first stages of the
1332:
1105:
714:rocket, most stages of the European
75:adding citations to reliable sources
46:
989:vehicles using this technique. The
204:Rockets create thrust by expelling
24:
1417:The Evolution of ROCKET TECHNOLOGY
1134:
826:upper stages. This combination is
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550:Liquid-fueled rockets have higher
25:
1642:
1584:
1230:Timeline of hydrogen technologies
1187:
1168:
1098:was used as the oxidizer for the
886:of the propellants into directed
478:Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene
208:rear-ward, at high velocity. The
1055:hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene
911:theoretical exhaust velocities.
861:
420:
313:
51:
38:. For the song by Kasabian, see
1560:
1524:
1510:
1494:
1473:
1117:
1102:'s orbital maneuvering system.
806:/UDMH is the main fuel for the
597:at substantially reduced cost.
545:
62:needs additional citations for
36:Mirtazapine § Interactions
1435:
1419:, 3rd Ed., 2012, payloadz.com
1409:
1384:
1351:
1326:
1293:
1268:
1076:Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne
449:. The Song Chinese first used
425:Solid fuel rockets have lower
13:
1:
1595:Rocket & Space Technology
1279:. Enslow Pub Inc. p. 7.
1261:
396:
7:
1468:Rocket and Space Technology
1423:pp. 109-112 and pp. 114-119
1358:Greatrix, David R. (2012).
1213:
974:and reducing the effective
524:Liquid chemical propellants
474:polybutadiene acrylonitrile
199:
10:
1647:
1544:Small Satellite Conference
1537:Small Satellite Conference
1443:"Toxic Propellant Hazards"
1191:
1172:
1138:
1121:
1006:
998:Other chemical propellants
527:
440:
346:Solid chemical propellants
34:For the drug regimen, see
29:
1061:researches nitrous-oxide/
869:chemical potential energy
659:(LOX) and highly refined
455:military siege of Kaifeng
1518:"Rocket Project at UCLA"
1391:Mahaffey, James (2017).
1204:nuclear pulse propulsion
1194:Nuclear pulse propulsion
1043:Brigham Young University
1018:hybrid-propellant rocket
589:, and transferred up to
530:Liquid-propellant rocket
41:The Alchemist's Euphoria
1304:Balderdash & Piffle
1154:nuclear thermal rockets
848:are primarily used for
651:Current cryogenic types
409:and many other orbital
281:Newton's laws of motion
18:Solid rocket propellant
1466:, Robert A. Braeunig,
1337:. Algora. p. 95.
1333:Gref, Lynn G. (2010).
1308:. BBC Books. pp.
762:Current storable types
722:core and upper stages.
540:hypergolic propellants
318:In space, the maximum
166:
165:cryogenic propellants.
1366:. Springer. pp.
1275:McGowen, Tom (2008).
1235:Category:Rocket fuels
1150:Solar thermal rockets
1051:Utah State University
987:single-stage-to-orbit
731:liquefied natural gas
415:solid rocket boosters
152:
1300:Games, Alex (2007).
1096:GOX (gaseous oxygen)
983:tripropellant rocket
871:, which reduces the
768:Dinitrogen tetroxide
576:ammonium perchlorate
568:dinitrogen tetroxide
466:ammonium perchlorate
360:ammonium perchlorate
356:ammonium dinitramide
270:, typically using a
239:, more specifically
71:improve this article
1547:Surrey Space Centre
1091:Gaseous propellants
1059:Stanford University
720:Space Launch System
704:Centaur upper stage
498:LG-118A Peacekeeper
453:in 1232 during the
417:) for this reason.
243:. As such, both an
86:"Rocket propellant"
1621:Rocket propellants
1611:Chinese inventions
1591:Rocket Propellants
1481:"Robert Salkeld'S"
1246:Nuclear propulsion
1220:ALICE (propellant)
1208:nuclear explosions
1047:University of Utah
1003:Hybrid propellants
951:Propellant density
812:Long March rockets
755:Rocket Lab Neutron
611:nitrogen tetroxide
487:solid-fuel rockets
320:change in velocity
268:combustion chamber
167:
1626:Rocket propulsion
1464:Rocket Propulsion
1395:. Pegasus Books.
1175:Cold gas thruster
1106:Inert propellants
908:rotational energy
838:hydrogen peroxide
595:propellant depots
572:hydrogen peroxide
384:potassium sulfide
364:potassium nitrate
170:Rocket propellant
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245:oxidizing agent
237:redox chemistry
230:flow separation
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159:liquid hydrogen
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1585:External links
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88: –
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82:Find sources:
76:
72:
66:
65:
60:This article
58:
54:
49:
48:
43:
42:
37:
33:
19:
1631:Rocket fuels
1616:Pyrotechnics
1594:
1569:
1562:
1550:. Retrieved
1536:
1526:
1512:
1500:
1496:
1485:. Retrieved
1483:. Pmview.com
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1467:
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1411:
1392:
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1251:Ion thruster
1239:Comparison:
1225:Trinitramide
1197:
1178:
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1124:Ion thruster
1118:Ion thruster
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1094:
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693:Long March 6
677:Falcon Heavy
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107:
100:
93:
81:
69:Please help
64:verification
61:
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733:). Used on
607:nitric acid
593:for use in
288:solid phase
226:outer space
194:ion engines
184:to produce
1605:Categories
1552:18 October
1487:2014-01-18
1262:References
1202:and other
1122:See also:
828:hypergolic
814:(LM 1-4),
718:, and the
557:turbopumps
546:Advantages
476:(PBAN) or
397:Advantages
324:mass ratio
241:combustion
127:April 2020
97:newspapers
937:corrosive
842:hydrazine
780:hydrazine
743:New Glenn
585:from the
583:collected
536:cryogenic
451:gunpowder
296:gas phase
272:turbopump
255:bonds in
1214:See also
1084:SpaceDev
857:vehicle.
836:such as
810:, older
735:Zhuque-2
725:LOX and
716:Ariane 5
698:LOX and
673:Falcon 9
661:kerosene
619:fluorine
510:RT-2UTTH
253:peroxide
200:Overview
1470:, 2012.
1448:YouTube
976:delta-v
747:Soyuz-7
669:Atlas V
518:UR-100N
441:History
172:is the
111:scholar
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927:LOX/LH
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739:Vulcan
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706:, the
689:Angara
636:, and
570:, and
508:, and
506:RT-2PM
342:fuel.
298:, and
247:and a
222:nozzle
210:thrust
186:thrust
178:rocket
113:
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92:
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1574:(PDF)
1025:with
902:and H
794:, or
712:H-IIA
685:Zenit
681:Soyuz
623:ozone
502:RT-23
482:tally
362:, or
176:of a
118:JSTOR
104:books
1554:2016
1397:ISBN
1372:ISBN
1339:ISBN
1314:ISBN
1281:ISBN
1152:and
1067:UCLA
1049:and
816:PSLV
796:UDMH
691:and
665:RP-1
609:and
538:and
516:and
514:R-36
496:and
276:mass
206:mass
161:and
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