Solar radiation modification

738:' technology, is encouraged by legislation in some areas (notably California). This technique is limited in its ultimate effectiveness by the constrained surface area available for treatment. This technique can give between 0.01 and 0.19 W/m of globally averaged negative forcing, depending on whether cities or all settlements are so treated. This is small relative to the 3.7 W/m of positive forcing from a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Moreover, while in small cases it can be achieved at little or no cost by simply selecting different materials, it can be costly if implemented on a larger scale. A 2009 Royal Society report states that, "the overall cost of a 'white roof method' covering an area of 1% of the land surface (about 10 m) would be about $ 300 billion/yr, making this one of the least effective and most expensive methods considered." However, it can reduce the need for 33: 242: 425: 1316: 226: 1344: 361: 818: 965:

effectiveness, possible impacts on society and the environment, and social dimensions such as public perceptions, political and economic dynamics, and ethical and equity considerations. The program should operate under robust research governance that includes such elements as a research code of conduct, a public registry for research, permitting systems for outdoor experiments, guidance on intellectual property, and inclusive public and stakeholder engagement processes.

8779: 8767: 8803: 8791: 1330: 652:, meaning that they are "not realistic potential contributors to short-term, temporary measures for avoiding dangerous climate change", and may only be competitive with the other geoengineering approaches when viewed from a genuinely long (a century or more) perspective, as the long lifetime of L1-based approaches could make them cheaper than the need to continually renew atmospheric-based measures over that timeframe. 337:, or vulnerability, then SRM could reduce these severe impacts. SRM could be implemented along with aggressive mitigation and adaptation in order "buy time" by slowing the rate of climate change or to eliminate the worst climate impacts until net negative emissions reduce atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations sufficiently. This is because SRM could in theory cool the planet within months after deployment. 1131:. SilverLining is an American organization that advances SRM research as part of "climate interventions to reduce near-term climate risks and impacts." The Alliance for Just Deliberation on Solar Geoengineering advances "just and inclusive deliberation" regarding SRM. The Carnegie Climate Governance Initiative catalyzed governance of SRM and carbon dioxide removal, although it ended operations in 2023. 541: 261:(CDR). However, serious questions have been raised on whether it is feasible to do CDR at the scale considered necessary to achieve net zero goals. Additionally, a minority of climate models indicate that substantial warming could continue after the goal of net zero emissions is achieved. These uncertainties form part of the case for exploring SRM as a secondary strategy to confront warming. 678:(present-day technology) and 34 million tons (optimal advancements). This proposal would cost between five and ten trillion dollars, but only once launch cost has been reduced to US$ 50/kg, which represents a massive reduction from the present-day costs of $ 4400–2700/kg for the most widely used launch vehicles. In July 2022, a pair of researchers from 1005:. The rapid rise in temperature might lead to more severe consequences than a gradual rise of the same magnitude. However, some scholars have argued that this appears preventable because it would be in states' interest to resume any terminated deployment regime, and because infrastructure and knowledge could be made redundant and resilient. 106:. Specifically, controlled stratospheric aerosol injection appears able to greatly moderate most environmental impacts—especially warming—and consequently most ecological, economic, and other impacts of climate change across most regions. However, because warming from greenhouse gases and cooling from SRM would operate differently across 875:. As a result, deployment of atmospheric SRM would reduce by at least 2–5% the growth rates of phytoplankton, trees, and crops between now and the end of the century. Uniformly reduced net shortwave radiation would hurt solar photovoltaics by the same >2–5% because of the bandgap of silicon photovoltaics. 1226:

In 2022, a dozen academics launched a political campaign for national policies of "no public funding, no outdoor experiments, no patents, no deployment, and no support in international institutions... including in assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change." The proponents call this

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are major advocates of SRM research. However, only a handful of conservatives and opponents of climate action have expressed support, and there is no evidence that fossil fuel firms are involved in SRM research. Instead, claims of fossil-fuel industry support typically conflate SRM and carbon dioxide

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The leading argument supportive of SRM research is that the risks of likely anthropogenic climate change are great and imminent enough to warrant research and evaluation of a wide range of responses, even one with limitations and risks of its own. Leading this effort have been some climate scientists

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Few countries have an explicit governmental position on SRM. Most of those that do, such as the United Kingdom and Germany, support SRM research. Other countries, such as the U.S., Germany, China, Finland, Norway, and Japan, as well as the European Union, have funded SRM research. In contrast, Mexico

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There is a risk that countries may start using SRM without proper precaution or research. SRM, at least by stratospheric aerosol injection, appears to have low direct implementation costs relative to its potential impact, and many countries have the financial and technical resources to undertake SRM.

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explains some of the risks and uncertainties as follows: " SRM could offset some of the effects of increasing GHGs on global and regional climate, including the carbon and water cycles. However, there would be substantial residual or overcompensating climate change at the regional scales and seasonal

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and volcanic eruptions. Some uncertainties in climate models (such as aerosol microphysics, stratospheric dynamics, and sub-grid scale mixing) are particularly relevant to SRM and are a target for future research. Volcanoes are an imperfect analogue as they release the material in the stratosphere in

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on the ground or in the ocean, yet completely ignored space-based approaches. There are still some proponents, who argue that unlike stratospheric aerosol injection, space-based approaches are advantageous because they do not interfere directly with the biosphere and ecosystems. After the IPCC report

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of the atmosphere or the surface. An increase in planetary albedo of 1% would reduce radiative forcing by 2.35 W/m, eliminating most of global warming from current anthropogenically elevated greenhouse gas concentrations, while a 2% albedo increase would negate the warming effect of doubling the

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The largest assessment of public opinion and perception of SRM, which had over 30,000 respondents in 30 countries, found that "Global South publics are significantly more favorable about potential benefits and express greater support for climate-intervention technologies." Though the assessment also

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is generally consensual, this creates a challenge of widespread participation being required. Key issues include who will have control over the deployment of SRM and under what governance regime the deployment can be monitored and supervised. A governance framework for SRM must be sustainable enough

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which affects different crops in different ways. A net increase in agricultural productivity from SRM has been predicted by some studies due to the combination of more diffuse light and carbon dioxide's fertilization effect. Other studies suggest that SRM would have little net effect on agriculture.

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A net reduction in tropical monsoon intensity might manifest at moderate use of SRM, although to some degree the effect of this on humans and ecosystems would be mitigated by greater net precipitation outside of the monsoon system. This has led to claims that SRM "would disrupt the Asian and African

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into space on a trajectory where it would interfere with sunlight streaming towards the Earth. Ejections would have to be near-continuous, as since the dust would scatter in a matter of days, and about 10 million tons would have to be dug out and launched annually. The authors admit that they lack a

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In the past year, the conversation around solar geoengineering as a climate solution has become more serious, says David Keith ... Suddenly we're getting conversations with senior political leaders and senior people in the environmental world who are starting to think about this and engage with it

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Some scholars argue that the current international political system is inadequate for the fair and inclusive governance of SRM deployment on a global scale. Other researchers have suggested that building a global agreement on SRM deployment will be very difficult, and instead power blocs are likely

364:

Modeling evidence of the effect of greenhouse gases and SRM on average annual temperature (left column) and precipitation (right column). The first row (a) is moderately high continued greenhouse gas emissions (RCP4.5) at the end of the century. The second row (b) is the same emissions scenario and

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There several deployment scenarios for SRM, which differ both in the scale of warming they would offset and their target endpoint. SRM's climatic effects would be rapid and reversible, which would bring the advantage of speed but the disadvantage of sudden warming if it were to be stopped suddenly.

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suggested that if global warming ever became a serious threat, it could be countered with airplane flights in the stratosphere, burning sulfur to make aerosols that would reflect sunlight away. Along with carbon dioxide removal, SRM was discussed jointly as "geoengineering" in a 1992 climate change

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Hansen, James E.; Sato, Makiko; Simons, Leon; Nazarenko, Larissa S.; Sangha, Isabelle; Kharecha, Pushker; Zachos, James C.; von Schuckmann, Karina; Loeb, Norman G.; Osman, Matthew B.; Jin, Qinjian; Tselioudis, George; Jeong, Eunbi; Lacis, Andrew; Ruedy, Reto; Russell, Gary; Cao, Junji; Li, Jing (2

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emphasized, in addition to the governance challenges, that SRM’s risks are “poorly understood and can never be fully known” and that its potential would threaten commitments to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. As of March 2024, nearly 500 academics and 60 advocacy organizations have endorsed the

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A few nongovernmental organizations actively support SRM research and governance dialogues. The Degrees Initiative works toward "changing the global environment in which SRM is evaluated, ensuring informed and confident representation from developing countries." Among other activities, it provides

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Models project that SRM interventions would take effect rapidly, but would also quickly fade out if not sustained. If SRM masked significant warming, stopped abruptly, and was not resumed within a year or so, the climate would rapidly warm towards levels which would have existed without the use of

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The advocates’ core argument is that, because SRM would be global in effect and some countries are much more powerful than others, it is “not governable in a globally inclusive and just manner within the current international political system.” They therefore oppose the “normalization” of SRM and

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Although climate models of SRM rely on some optimal or consistent implementation, leaders of countries and other actors may disagree as to whether, how, and to what degree SRM be used. This could result in suboptimal deployments and exacerbate international tensions. Likewise, blame for perceived

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Other relevant aspects of the governance of SRM include supporting research, ensuring that it is conducted responsibly, regulating the roles of the private sector and (if any) the military, public engagement, setting and coordinating research priorities, undertaking trusted scientific assessment,

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Some papers have proposed the deployment of specific thermal emitters (whether via advanced paint, or printed rolls of material) which would simultaneously reflect sunlight and also emit energy at longwave infrared (LWIR) lengths of 8–20 μm, which is too short to be trapped by the greenhouse

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A 2023 independent expert review from the UN Environment Programme concluded "In current climate model simulations, well-designed SRM deployments offset some effects of greenhouse gases (GHG) on global and regional climate change by reflecting more sunlight into space. SRM is the only option that

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Governing SRM is challenging for multiple reasons, including that several countries would likely be capable of doing it alone. For now, there is no formal international framework designed to regulate SRM, although aspects of existing international law would be applicable. Issues of governance and

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for a period of around 10 years, even though the production of the bubbles themselves would have to be done in space. The flights would not begin until research into production and maintenance of these bubbles is completed, which the authors estimate would require a minimum of 10–15 years. After

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published an influential scholarly paper in 2006 where he said "Given the grossly disappointing international political response to the required greenhouse gas emissions, and further considering some drastic results of recent studies, research on the feasibility and environmental consequences of

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strategic investment in research is needed to enhance policymakers' understanding of climate response options. The United States should develop a transdisciplinary research program, in collaboration with other nations, to advance understanding of solar geoengineering's technical feasibility and

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Models indicate that SRM would compensate more effectively for temperature than for precipitation. Therefore, using SRM to fully return global mean temperature to a preindustrial level would overcorrect for precipitation changes. This has led to claims that it would dry the planet or even cause

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sometimes discussed. The annual cost of delivering a sufficient amount of sulfur to counteract expected greenhouse warming is estimated at $ 5–10 billion US dollars. This technique could give much more than 3.7 W/m of globally averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to entirely

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time, with SRM to reduce global warming to 1.5 °C. The third row (c) is the same emissions scenario but in the near future, when global warming would be 1.5 °C, with no SRM. The similarity between the second and third rows suggests that SRM could reduce climate change reasonably well.

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would have been necessary to prevent it from dissipating. A 2006 variation on this idea suggested relying entirely on a ring of satellites electromagnetically tethered in the same location. In all cases, sunlight exerts pressure which can displace these reflectors from orbit over time, unless

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SRM would pose environmental risks. In addition to its imperfect reduction of climate-change impacts, stratospheric aerosol injection could, for example, slow the recovery of stratospheric ozone. If a significant SRM intervention were to suddenly stop and not be resumed, the cooling would end

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in the near-Earth orbit, which would then arrive to L1 point over 600 days one by one. Once they all form an array in situ, the combined 1.5 billion sails would have total area of 3.75 million square kilometers, while their combined mass is estimated in a range between 83 million tons

1863:

Climate Intervention: Reflecting Sunlight to Cool Earth -Committee on Geoengineering Climate: Technical Evaluation Discussion of Impacts; National Research Council (U.S.) Division On Earth And Life Studies National Research Council (U.S.) Ocean Studies Board: Board on Atmospheric Sciences

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Reflecting Sunlight: Recommendations for Solar Geoengineering Research and Research Governance Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate Committee on Science, Technology, and Law Division on Earth and Life Studies Policy and Global Affairs National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and

5579: 759:) would need to be covered with these emitters, at the deployment cost of $ 1.25–2.5 trillion. While low next to the estimated $ 20 trillion saved by limiting the warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) rather than 2 °C (3.6 °F), it does not include any maintenance costs. 1255:

As of 2018, total research funding worldwide remained modest, at less than 10 million US dollars annually. Almost all research into SRM has to date consisted of computer modeling or laboratory tests, and there are calls for more research funding as the science is poorly understood.

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wires "about one millionth of a millimetre thick" was also proposed. Two other proposals from the early 2000s advocated the use of thin metallic disks 50–60 cm in diameter, which would either be launched from the Earth at a rate of once per minute over several decades, or be

495:, which works by spraying seawater in the atmosphere to increase the reflectivity of clouds. The extra condensation nuclei created by the spray would change the size distribution of the drops in existing clouds to make them whiter. The sprayers would use fleets of unmanned 198:

concluded "Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) has the potential to limit the rise in global surface temperatures by increasing the concentrations of particles in the stratosphere... . However, SAI comes with significant risks and can cause unintended consequences."

186:

report on SRM stated: "The available research indicates that could reduce surface temperatures and potentially ameliorate some risks posed by climate change (e.g., to avoid crossing critical climate 'tipping points'; to reduce harmful impacts of weather extremes)."

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Climate models consistently indicate that a moderate magnitude of SRM would bring important aspects of the climate—for example, average and extreme temperature, water availability, cyclone intensity—closer to their preindustrial values at a subregional resolution.

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The Climate Overshoot Commission is a group of global, eminent, and independent figures. It investigated and developed a comprehensive strategy to reduce climate risks which includes SRM in its policy portfolio. The Commission's recommendation regarding SRM are:

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Biermann, Frank; Oomen, Jeroen; Gupta, Aarti; Ali, Saleem H.; Conca, Ken; Hajer, Maarten A.; Kashwan, Prakash; Kotzé, Louis J.; Leach, Melissa; Messner, Dirk; Okereke, Chukwumerije; Persson, Åsa; Potočnik, Janez; Schlosberg, David; Scobie, Michelle (May 2022).

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Injecting reflective aerosols into the stratosphere is the proposed SRM method that has received the most sustained attention. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded that Stratospheric aerosol injection "is the most-researched SRM method, with

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Opposition to SRM research has come from various academics and groups. The most common concern is that SRM could lessen climate change mitigation efforts. Opponents of SRM research often emphasize that reductions of greenhouse gas emissions would also bring

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stated that in the last year or so, there has been far more engagement with SRM from senior political leaders than was previously the case. Other countries have expressed a range of views at intergovernmental forums such as the UN Environment Assembly.

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Some have suggested that SRM could be within reach of a lone "Greenfinger", a wealthy individual who takes it upon him or herself to be the "self-appointed protector of the planet". Others argue that states will insist on maintaining control of SRM.

126:

effectiveness are intertwined, as poorly governed use of SRM might lead to its highly suboptimal implementation. Thus, many questions regarding the acceptable deployment of SRM, or even its research and development, are currently unanswered.

114:, a world where global warming would be offset by SRM would have a different climate from one where this warming did not occur in the first place. Furthermore, confidence in the current projections of how SRM would affect regional climate and 935:

The governance of SRM contains many relevant aspects. The potential use of SRM poses several challenges because of its high leverage, low apparent direct costs, and technical feasibility as well as issues of power and jurisdiction. Because

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Abrams, Jesse F.; Huntingford, Chris; Williamson, Mark S.; Armstrong Mckay, David I.; Boulton, Chris A.; Buxton, Joshua E.; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Zimm, Caroline; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Lenton, Timothy M. (6 November 2023).

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Tilmes, Simone; Richter, Jadwiga H.; Kravitz, Ben; MacMartin, Douglas G.; Mills, Michael J.; Simpson, Isla R.; Glanville, Anne S.; Fasullo, John T.; Phillips, Adam S.; Lamarque, Jean-Francois; Tribbia, Joseph (November 2018).

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says: "There is high agreement in the literature that for addressing climate change risks SRM cannot be the main policy response to climate change and is, at best, a supplement to achieving sustained net zero or net negative

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Relatively few researchers have revisited the subject since that Royal Society review, as it became accepted that space-based approaches would cost about 1000 times more than their terrestrial alternatives. In 2022, the

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The basic function of a space lens to mitigate global warming. The image is simplified, as a 1000 kilometre diameter lens is considered sufficient by most proposals, and would be much smaller than shown. Additionally, a

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Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming: Mitigation, Adaptation, and the Science Base: Panel on Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, Institute of

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There have been a handful of studies into attitudes to and opinions of SRM. These generally find low levels of awareness, uneasiness with the implementation of SRM, cautious support of research, and a preference for

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Visioni, Daniele; MacMartin, Douglas G.; Kravitz, Ben; Richter, Jadwiga H.; Tilmes, Simone; Mills, Michael J. (28 June 2020). "Seasonally Modulated Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering Alters the Climate Outcomes".

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announced that it will prohibit "experimental practices with solar geoengineering", although it remains unclear what this policy will include and whether the policy has actually been implemented. In 2024, Professor

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is more important for plants than average annual precipitation. Because SRM would reduce evaporation, it more precisely compensates for changes to soil moisture than for average annual precipitation. Likewise, the

1247:, itself a coalition of more than 1900 political organizations. The position from Climate Action Network included a footnote that excluded the Environmental Defense Fund and the Natural Resources Defense Council. 1940: 1399:

Trisos, Christopher H.; Geden, Oliver; Seneviratne, Sonia I.; Sugiyama, Masahiro; van Aalst, Maarten; Bala, Govindasamy; Mach, Katharine J.; Ginzburg, Veronika; de Coninck, Heleen; Patt, Anthony.

510:

This technique can give more than 3.7 W/m of globally averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration.

1038:, a form of SAI expected to reflect solar energy back into space. Based in California, they conducted early work in Mexico, though this resulted in the Mexican government soon after mentioning 499:

known as Flettner vessels to spray mist created from seawater into the air to thicken clouds and thus reflect more radiation from the Earth. The whitening effect is created by using very small

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Stratospheric aerosol injection is expected to have low direct financial costs of implementation, relative to the expected costs of both unabated climate change and aggressive mitigation.

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estimated that even the most optimistic assumptions regarding countries' current conditional emissions policies and pledges has only a 14% chance of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C.

280:, the net difference between the amount of sunlight absorbed by the Earth and the amount of energy radiated back to space has risen from 1.7 W/m in 1980, to 3.1 W/m in 2019. This 619:

between the Earth and the Sun as an alternative to near-Earth orbits, even though this tends to increase manufacturing or delivery costs instead. In 1989, a paper suggested founding a

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Moriyama, Ryo; Sugiyama, Masahiro; Kurosawa, Atsushi; Masuda, Kooiti; Tsuzuki, Kazuhiro; Ishimoto, Yuki (8 September 2016). "The cost of stratospheric climate engineering revisited".

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to evaluate SRM. The 2021 US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine report recommended an initial investment into SRM research of $ 100–200 million over five years.

6961:"What do people think when they think about solar geoengineering? A review of empirical social science literature, and prospects for future research: REVIEW OF SOLAR GEOENGINEERING" 2688: 237:

scenarios, and how it would be affected by the deployment of SAI, starting from 2034, to either halve the speed of warming by 2100, to halt the warming, or to reverse it entirely.

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Natural cirrus clouds are believed to have a net warming effect. These could be dispersed by the injection of various materials. This method is strictly not SRM, as it increases

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SRM would imperfectly compensate for anthropogenic climate changes. Greenhouse gases warm throughout the globe and year, whereas SRM reflects light more effectively at low

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Merk, Christine; Pönitzsch, Gert; Kniebes, Carola; Rehdanz, Katrin; Schmidt, Ulrich (10 February 2015). "Exploring public perceptions of stratospheric sulfate injection".

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to emerge. There are, however, significant incentives for states to cooperate in choosing a specific SRM policy, which make unilateral deployment a rather unlikely event.

5317:

Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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to contain a multilateral commitment over a long period of time and yet be flexible as information is acquired, the techniques evolve, and interests change through time.

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There is no meaningful public advocacy for the use of SRM. In the private sector several startups have secured funding for potential SRM deployment, and in the case of

919:

time scales, and large uncertainties associated with aerosol–cloud–radiation interactions persist. The cooling caused by SRM would increase the global land and ocean CO

5080: 1063:), some of whom have endorsed one or both public letters that support further SRM research. Scientific organizations that have called for further research include the 665:

was published, three astronomers have revisited the space dust concept, instead advocating for a lunar colony which would continuously mine the Moon in order to eject

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Managing solar radiation using aerosols or cloud cover would involve changing the ratio between direct and indirect solar radiation. This would affect plant life and

453:. Sulfates are the most commonly proposed aerosol, since there is a natural analogue with (and evidence from) volcanic eruptions. Alternative materials such as using 8679: 1068: 953: 348:

or regional MCB in order to protect coral reefs from bleaching. However, there is low confidence about the ability to control geographical boundaries of the effect.

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Committee on Developing a Research Agenda and Research Governance Approaches for Climate Intervention Strategies that Reflect Sunlight to Cool Earth (28 May 2021).

8347: 7804: 2078:"Boundary Work and Interpretations in the IPCC Review Process of the Role of Bioenergy With Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) in Limiting Global Warming to 1.5°C" 1623:

Rasch, Philip J; Tilmes, Simone; Turco, Richard P; Robock, Alan; Oman, Luke; Chen, Chih-Chieh (Jack); Stenchikov, Georgiy L; Garcia, Rolando R (13 November 2008).

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Major reports about investigating SRM followed, for example by the Royal Society (2009), the US National Academies (2015, 2021), and the UN Environment Programme.

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Gu, L.; et al. (1999). "Responses of Net Ecosystem Exchanges of Carbon Dioxide to Changes in Cloudiness: Results from Two North American Deciduous Forests".

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Cheng, Wei; MacMartin, Douglas G.; Dagon, Katherine; Kravitz, Ben; Tilmes, Simone; Richter, Jadwiga H.; Mills, Michael J.; Simpson, Isla R. (16 December 2019).

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Climate Change 2021 – The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

4446:"Effects of aerosols on the wavelength dependence of atmospheric transmission in the ultraviolet and visible 2. Continental and urban aerosols in clear skies" 1433:

Climate Change 2021 – The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

911:

As well as imperfect and geographically uneven cancellation of the climatic effect of greenhouse gases, described above, SRM has other significant risks. The

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at L1 point better than any alternative with the same weight. The use of these "bubbles" would limit the mass of a distributed sunshade roughly the size of

3667: 992:", although such language is not precise. Some modelling work suggests that the threat of SRM may in fact increase the likelihood of emissions reduction. 7956: 7777: 775:) and only during daytime. Deployment regimes could compensate for this heterogeneity by changing and optimizing injection rates by latitude and season. 3939: 7951: 3117: 698:

to about 100,000 tons, much lower than the earlier proposals. However, it would still require between 399 and 899 yearly launches of a vehicle such as

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into ultra-thin polymeric films (described as "space bubbles" in the media ), whose semi-transparent nature would allow them to resist the pressure of

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Smith, Wake; Bhattarai, Umang; MacMartin, Douglas G; Lee, Walker Raymond; Visioni, Daniele; Kravitz, Ben; Rice, Christian V Rice (15 September 2022).

871:. Visible light, useful for photosynthesis, is reduced proportionally more than is the infrared portion of the solar spectrum due to the mechanism of 7819: 6672:"A last-resort 'planet-hacking' plan could make Earth habitable for longer – but scientists warn it could have dramatic consequences" 563:

There has been a range of proposals to reflect or deflect solar radiation from space, before it even reaches the atmosphere, commonly described as a

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an international, independent scientific review and assessment of the best available evidence from SRM research should take place every few years...

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SRM has been suggested as a means of stabilizing regional climates. There have also been proposals to focus SRM at the poles, in order to combat

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have likewise called for further SRM research, as have a handful of relatively moderate American environmental nongovernmental organizations (

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undertaking has been criticised even by some who advocate for more research into SRM. The most salient political issues thus regard research.

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Stratospheric aerosol injection, the most studied SRM technique, using sulphates appears likely to catalyze the destruction of the protective

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and mentioned "deliberately bringing about countervailing climatic changes", including "raising the albedo, or reflectivity, of the Earth".

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delivered "Restoring the Quality of Our Environment", a landmark report which warned of the harmful effects of carbon dioxide emissions from

6435: 6405: 532:. However, because it shares some of the physical and especially governance characteristics as the other SRM methods, it is often included. 7693: 6816: 4518: 3327: 1238:

On the day that the academic article was published, the authors also launched a campaign calling for others to endorse the proposal. Their

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objected to the test taking place in their homeland. Although the test would not have involved any atmospheric experiments, members of the

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SRM is generally intended to complement, not replace, greenhouse gas emissions reduction and carbon dioxide removal. For example, the

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Potential complementary responses to climate change: greenhouse gas emissions abatement, carbon dioxide removal, SRM, and adaptation.

142: 6615: 6304: 8051: 7767: 7485: 7262: 5958:"Report of the World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology (COMEST) on the ethics of climate engineering" 1272: 891: 191: 8407: 8196: 7359: 277: 5880: 1811: 8056: 8019: 7873: 7858: 7772: 7421: 7365: 7114:"The North–South Divide on Public Perceptions of Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering?: A Survey in Six Asia-Pacific Countries" 4850: 4675: 3280: 2585: 4978:

Horton, Joshua (2011). "Geoengineering and the myth of unilateralism: pressures and prospects for international cooperation".

8715: 7853: 6772: 5941: 5368: 5333: 5049: 5012: 4913: 4340: 4192: 4154: 3321: 2709: 2161: 1926: 1822: 1708: 1510: 1449: 5072: 2111:"From Zero to Hero?: Why Integrated Assessment Modeling of Negative Emissions Technologies Is Hard and How We Can Do Better" 8737: 7688: 7683: 5543: 3494: 1096: 790: 334: 300: 234: 2426:

Trisos, Christopher H.; Amatulli, Giuseppe; Gurevitch, Jessica; Robock, Alan; Xia, Lili; Zambri, Brian (22 January 2018).

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could cool the planet within years... An operational SRM deployment would introduce new risks to people and ecosystems."

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Burns, Elizabeth T.; Flegal, Jane A.; Keith, David W.; Mahajan, Aseem; Tingley, Dustin; Wagner, Gernot (November 2016).

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from increasing in the atmosphere or affect the resulting ocean acidification under continued anthropogenic emissions."

8647: 8508: 8465: 7961: 5029: 558: 6147:"Fuel to the Fire: How Geoengineering Threatens to Entrench Fossil Fuels and Accelerate the Climate Crisis (Feb 2019)" 2961:"Stratospheric dynamics and midlatitude jets under geoengineering with space mirrors and sulfate and titania aerosols" 883:

Much uncertainty remains about SRM's likely effects. Most of the evidence regarding SRM's expected effects comes from

8574: 8450: 8267: 7465: 2743: 1872: 1363: 1120: 572: 195: 2204:"Is there warming in the pipeline? A multi-model analysis of the Zero Emissions Commitment from CO2". 15 June 2020. 8807: 8445: 8425: 8372: 8324: 7381: 6640: 6172: 5713: 5505: 1064: 3759: 1400: 8564: 8515: 7941: 7903: 7848: 7313: 3584: 2772: 1148: 1076: 826: 703:

that, the space shield may be large enough by 2050 to prevent crossing of the 2 °C (3.6 °F) threshold.

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and natural analogues, have generally shown that some forms of SRM could reduce global warming and many adverse

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are would increase the albedo or reflectivity of the Earth's surface to deflect solar radiation back into space

32: 7181:"Public perceptions and support of climate intervention technologies across the Global North and Global South" 2378: 8742: 8277: 7809: 3895: 3109: 1134:

Some critics claim that political conservatives, opponents of action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and

1128: 1116: 292: 5350: 5315: 4994: 4895: 4174: 4136: 2428:"Potentially dangerous consequences for biodiversity of solar geoengineering implementation and termination" 1431: 1205:"a moratorium on the deployment of solar radiation modification (SRM) and large-scale outdoor experiments... 8839: 8725: 8397: 7926: 7921: 7826: 7698: 7255: 1300:—which tend to be more vulnerable to climate change impacts—find slightly greater levels of support there. 1104: 657: 588: 6406:"An Indigenous Group's Objection to Geoengineering Spurs a Debate About Social Justice in Climate Science" 4873: 7936: 7784: 5190:"The Intergenerational Transfer of Solar Radiation Management Capabilities and Atmospheric Carbon Stocks" 4797:

Proctor, Jonathan; Hsiang, Solomon; Burney, Jennifer; Burke, Marshall; Schlenker, Wolfram (August 2018).

525: 376:(SAI), in which small particles would be injected into the upper atmosphere to cool the planet with both 7059:"Perceptions of climate engineering in the South Pacific, Sub-Saharan Africa, and North American Arctic" 6032: 2530:

Irvine, Peter; Emanuel, Kerry; He, Jie; Horowitz, Larry W.; Vecchi, Gabriel; Keith, David (April 2019).

1235:

call on countries, intergovernmental organizations, and others to adopt the proposal’s five elements.

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Urpelainen, Johannes (10 February 2012). "Geoengineering and global warming: a strategic perspective".

4015:"Soil Moisture and Other Hydrological Changes in a Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering Large Ensemble" 3531:"Transparent occulters: A nearly zero-radiation pressure sunshade to support climate change mitigation" 3495:"Global Warming and Ice Ages: Prospects for Physics-Based Modulation of Global Change- See pages 10–14" 1597: 1112: 1072: 216: 6212:"Five solar geoengineering tropes that have outstayed their welcome: Five solar geoengineering tropes" 4541: 4254:

Gu, L.; et al. (2002). "Advantages of Diffuse Radiation for Terrestrial Ecosystem Productivity".

1474:"One Atmosphere: An Independent Expert Review on Solar Radiation Modification Research and Deployment" 1189:

spoke out against the lack of consultation and SRM more broadly. Speaking at a panel organized by the

8664: 8339: 8314: 8287: 8249: 8166: 7984: 7831: 7789: 7539: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7113: 5982: 5434: 4754:

Pongratz, J.; Lobell, D. B.; Cao, L.; Caldeira, K. (2012). "Crop yields in a geoengineered climate".

4070:

Bhowmick, Mansi; Mishra, Saroj Kanta; Kravitz, Ben; Sahany, Sandeep; Salunke, Popat (December 2021).

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Fuhrman, Jay; McJeon, Haewon; Doney, Scott C.; Shobe, William; Clarens, Andres F. (4 December 2019).

1624: 1027: 985: 979: 500: 326: 322: 254: 103: 8179: 5519: 4573:"Effect of Stratospheric Aerosols on Direct Sunlight and Implications for Concentrating Solar Power" 3021:"Albedo Enhancement by Stratospheric Sulfur Injections: A Contribution to Resolve a Policy Dilemma?" 2190: 1738:"Albedo Enhancement by Stratospheric Sulfur Injections: A Contribution to Resolve a Policy Dilemma?" 1304:

found Global South publics had greater concern the technologies could undermine climate-mitigation.

8674: 8669: 8659: 8600: 8440: 7946: 7911: 7799: 7726: 7567: 7396: 7332: 7293: 5983:"Reflecting Sunlight to Reduce Climate Risk: Priorities for Research and International Cooperation" 4072:"Response of the Indian summer monsoon to global warming, solar geoengineering and its termination" 3194: 1289: 895: 752: 670:

background in either climate or rocket science, and the proposal may not be logistically feasible.

482: 386: 285: 281: 212: 165: 84: 80: 5866: 3066:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

3062:"Lifting options for stratospheric aerosol geoengineering: Advantages of tethered balloon systems" 2613:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

1629:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

851:

SRM does not directly influence atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and thus does not reduce

329:

continue to be insufficient, or if climate change impacts are severe due to greater-than-expected

8783: 8705: 8615: 8357: 8329: 8009: 7663: 7641: 7248: 2767:

Self, Stephen; Zhao, Jing-Xia; Holasek, Rick E.; Torres, Ronnie C. & McTaggart, Joey (1999).

1406:. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. pp. 221–222. 1159: 1051: 915: 587:

projects in 1923. and this was followed by other books in 1929, 1957 and 1978. By 1992, the U.S.

488: 310: 122:

relatively rapidly, posing serious environmental risks. Some environmental risks remain unknown.

6808: 6436:"Open letter requesting cancellation of plans for geoengineering related test flights in Kiruna" 5792:"An open letter regarding research on reflecting sunlight to reduce the risks of climate change" 3302: 1267:

alone investing $ 22 million from 2019 to 2022, though few outdoor tests have been run to date.

8382: 8202: 8144: 8061: 8046: 7931: 7572: 7518: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7498: 7493: 6994:"Climate experts' views on geoengineering depend on their beliefs about climate change impacts" 5514: 1244: 1171: 679: 616: 258: 88: 6756:

Reflecting Sunlight: Recommendations for Solar Geoengineering Research and Research Governance

6590: 5544:"Climate Engineering in Global Climate Governance: Implications for Participation and Linkage" 2232: 1910:

Reflecting Sunlight: Recommendations for Solar Geoengineering Research and Research Governance

784:

drought, but this would depend on the intensity (i.e. radiative forcing) of SRM. Furthermore,

8771: 8417: 8294: 8102: 7557: 7480: 6565: 6540: 2145:

Carbon Unicorns and Fossil Futures: Whose Emission Reduction Pathways Is the IPCC Performing?

1321: 1163: 591:

described a plan to suspend 55,000 mirrors with an individual area of 100 square meters in a

519: 407: 6258: 5662:"UK government's view on greenhouse gas removal technologies and solar radiation management" 3639: 1551: 648:

concluded that their deployment times are measured in decades and costs in the trillions of

8610: 8488: 8149: 7719: 7646: 7192: 7125: 7070: 7005: 6917: 6715: 6270: 5446: 5397: 5278: 5204: 5146: 4950: 4939:"Strategic incentives for climate geoengineering coalitions to exclude broad participation" 4872:

Arias, Paola A.; Bellouin, Nicolas; Coppola, Erika; Jones, Richard G.; et al. (2021).

4810: 4763: 4710: 4643: 4584: 4502: 4457: 4416: 4382: 4308: 4263: 4217: 4083: 4026: 3971: 3907: 3808: 3705: 3365: 3152: 3073: 3032: 2975: 2931: 2872: 2672: 2620: 2543: 2502: 2439: 2260: 2032: 1975: 1749: 1636: 1563: 1369: 1197:

said, "This goes against our worldview that we as humans should live and adapt to nature."

859:, this points to the limitations of relying on it to the exclusion of emissions reduction. 2401: 1194: 8: 8627: 8402: 7631: 7626: 6329: 852: 836: 637: 624: 529: 410:(CCT), which is strictly not SRM but shares many of characteristics as the other methods. 330: 173: 92: 27:

Approaches to limit global warming by increasing the reflection of sunlight back to space

7221: 7196: 7180: 7129: 7074: 7009: 6921: 6759:. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 25 March 2021. p. 17. 6719: 6274: 5450: 5401: 5282: 5208: 5150: 4954: 4814: 4767: 4714: 4647: 4588: 4506: 4461: 4420: 4386: 4312: 4294:"Response of a Deciduous Forest to the Mount Pinatubo Eruption: Enhanced Photosynthesis" 4267: 4221: 4087: 4030: 3975: 3911: 3812: 3709: 3369: 3156: 3077: 3036: 2979: 2935: 2876: 2624: 2609:"Solar geoengineering as part of an overall strategy for meeting the 1.5°C Paris target" 2547: 2506: 2443: 2264: 2036: 1979: 1753: 1640: 1567: 8455: 8387: 8304: 8154: 8119: 8076: 8071: 8066: 7636: 7149: 7094: 7034: 6993: 6941: 6778: 6233: 6016: 5631:"Startups want to cool Earth by reflecting sunlight. There are few rules and big risks" 5571: 5470: 5415: 5236: 5170: 5119: 4963: 4938: 4919: 4842: 4779: 4736: 4667: 4332: 4243: 4112: 4071: 4052: 3995: 3931: 3870: 3845: 3826: 3552: 3424: 3381: 3254: 3001: 2895: 2860: 2715: 2649: 2608: 2577: 2471: 2178: 2053: 2020: 2001: 1932: 1775: 1692:

Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming: Mitigation, Adaptation, and the Science Base

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summer monsoons", but the impact would depend on the particular implementation regime.

772: 250: 2960: 2340:"NOAA/ESRL Global Monitoring Laboratory - THE NOAA ANNUAL GREENHOUSE GAS INDEX (AGGI)" 1166:

organization, has been a pioneer in opposing SRM research. It was later joined by the

734:

Painting roof materials in white or pale colors to reflect solar radiation, known as '

8689: 8352: 8097: 7863: 7651: 7614: 7401: 7355: 7226: 7208: 7153: 7141: 7098: 7086: 7058: 7039: 7021: 6945: 6933: 6782: 6768: 6733: 6286: 6180: 6007:

Trakimavicius, Lukas. "Playing God with climate: the EU's geoengineering conundrum".

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and thus cease warming, 1–2% of the Earth's surface (area equivalent to over half of

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Multiple authoritative international scientific assessments, based on evidence from

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The Governance of Solar Geoengineering: Managing Climate Change in the Anthropocene

4818: 4799:"Estimating global agricultural effects of geoengineering using volcanic eruptions" 4798: 4771: 4718: 4651: 4592: 4510: 4465: 4424: 4390: 4336: 4316: 4279: 4271: 4233: 4225: 4180: 4142: 4107: 4091: 4034: 3979: 3915: 3865: 3857: 3816: 3713: 3619: 3542: 3385: 3373: 3309: 3238: 3209: 3160: 3081: 3040: 2991: 2983: 2939: 2890: 2880: 2839: 2803: 2697: 2644: 2628: 2559: 2551: 2532:"Halving warming with idealized solar geoengineering moderates key climate hazards" 2510: 2447: 2313: 2276: 2268: 2205: 2149: 2122: 2089: 2076:

Hansson, Anders; Anshelm, Jonas; Fridahl, Mathias; Haikola, Simon (29 April 2021).

2048: 2040: 2025:

Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

1983: 1914: 1757: 1696: 1664: 1644: 1571: 1437: 1407: 1221: 751:

effect and would radiate into outer space. It has been suggested that to stabilize

739: 60: 7137: 5458: 5269:

Moreno-Cruz, Juan B. (1 August 2015). "Mitigation and the geoengineering threat".

4293: 1181:

In 2021, researchers at Harvard put plans for a SRM test on hold after Indigenous

264:

SRM would increase Earth's ability to deflect sunlight, such as by increasing the

8684: 8605: 8569: 8498: 8472: 8460: 8377: 8309: 8184: 8041: 7658: 7609: 7587: 5500: 3624: 3607: 2021:"Solar geoengineering to reduce climate change: a review of governance proposals" 699: 687: 600: 592: 487:

Various cloud reflectivity methods have been suggested, such as that proposed by

446: 168: 5348: 5313: 5073:"Extreme and risky action the only way to tackle global warming, say scientists" 5027: 4992: 4172: 4134: 3821: 3796: 3501: 2143: 1625:"An overview of geoengineering of climate using stratospheric sulphate aerosols" 1429: 1315: 612:

stabilized by enough mass. Yet, higher mass immediately drives up launch costs.

457:

particles, titanium dioxide, and diamond have been proposed. Delivery by custom

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Baum, Chad M.; Fritz, Livia; Low, Sean; Sovacool, Benjamin K. (6 March 2024).

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that it could limit warming to below 1.5 °C." This technique would mimic

8823: 8710: 8642: 8367: 8189: 8174: 8109: 8004: 7212: 7145: 7090: 7025: 6937: 6490: 6379: 6290: 6184: 5567: 5466: 5232: 5166: 4830: 4732: 4663: 4103: 4048: 3991: 3927: 3919: 3846:"A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling" 3250: 3214: 3195:"The radiative forcing potential of different climate geoengineering options" 3174: 2640: 2573: 2459: 2317: 2127: 2110: 1997: 1771: 1583: 1357: 1343: 1186: 1152: 970:

local negative impacts from SRM could be a source of international tensions.

884: 785: 645: 504: 454: 360: 99: 4320: 3478:

J. T. Early (1989). "Space-Based Solar Shield To Offset Greenhouse Effect".

2885: 2210: 817: 8595: 8392: 8036: 8026: 7678: 7562: 7475: 7230: 7043: 6737: 5816: 5528: 4838: 4632:"Uncertainty and the basis for confidence in solar geoengineering research" 4604: 4514: 4328: 4121: 3879: 3733: 3606:

Bromley, Benjamin C.; Khan, Sameer H.; Kenyon, Scott J. (8 February 2023).

3095: 3086: 3061: 2904: 2733: 2658: 2632: 2607:

MacMartin, Douglas G.; Ricke, Katharine L.; Keith, David W. (13 May 2018).

2467: 2249:"Committed Global Warming Risks Triggering Multiple Climate Tipping Points" 2062: 2044: 1656: 1648: 1060: 989: 868: 620: 584: 341:

The direct climatic effects of SRM are reversible within short timescales.

4905: 4699:"Climate Response to Pulse Versus Sustained Stratospheric Aerosol Forcing" 3896:"CESM1(WACCM) Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering Large Ensemble Project" 2245: 36:

Proposed methods of reflecting more sunlight to reduce Earth's temperature

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Sugiyama, Masahiro; Asayama, Shinichiro; Kosugi, Takanobu (3 July 2020).

6977: 6960: 6228: 6211: 5410: 5385: 4775: 4723: 4698: 4486: 4395: 4366: 4275: 4229: 4039: 4014: 3983: 3577:"Space Bubbles Could Be the Wild Idea We Need to Deflect Solar Radiation" 2987: 2564: 2305: 2272: 1292:

reduction. Although most public opinion studies have polled residents of

1239: 958:

Recommendations for Solar Geoengineering Research and Research Governance

806: 615:

In an attempt to deal with this problem, other researchers have proposed

146: 91:, but would not be a substitute for reducing emissions. SRM is a form of 83:. SRM could be a temporary measure to limit climate-change impacts while 68: 5741:"La experimentación con geoingeniería solar no será permitida en México" 5688:"Klimaaußenpolitik-Strategie der Bundesregierung (KAP)- BMUV - Download" 5224: 5028:

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), ed. (17 August 2023),

2796:"Why solar geoengineering should be part of the climate crisis solution" 2491:"A subpolar-focused stratospheric aerosol injection deployment scenario" 2281: 8654: 8031: 6259:"Solar geoengineering: The case for an international non-use agreement" 3844:

Wang, Tong; Wu, Yi; Shi, Lan; Hu, Xinhua; Chen, Min; Wu, Limin (2021).

2996: 2768: 2248: 1552:"Solar geoengineering: The case for an international non-use agreement" 1500: 840: 691: 682:, Olivia Borgue and Andreas M. Hein, have instead proposed integrating 674: 666: 596: 546: 496: 397: 229:

SRM can be deployed on different scales. This graph shows the baseline

115: 64: 6840:"The US government is developing a solar geoengineering research plan" 5299: 4596: 4470: 4445: 4284: 4238: 3692:

Fuglesang, Christer; García de Herreros Miciano, María (5 June 2021).

7604: 6071: 3377: 984:

The existence of SRM may reduce the political and social impetus for

735: 632: 608: 462: 390: 6282: 6121: 6096: 5766: 4572: 3668:"Space Transportation Costs: Trends in Price Per Pound to Orbit ..." 2861:"Photophoretic levitation of engineered aerosols for geoengineering" 2690: 1575: 6764: 5139:

International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics

3691: 3644: 2701: 2673:"Global Cooling: Increasing World-Wide Urban Albedos to Offset CO2" 1918: 768: 683: 641: 466: 458: 107: 56: 6616:"CAN Position: Solar Radiation Modification (SRM), September 2019" 6305:"CAN Position: Solar Radiation Modification (SRM), September 2019" 3313: 2370: 1700: 1690: 7582: 7240: 6883: 6210:

Reynolds, Jesse L.; Parker, Andy; Irvine, Peter (December 2016).

6046: 5435:"Governing the termination problem in solar radiation management" 5314:

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (22 June 2023).

5188:

Goeschl, Timo; Heyen, Daniel; Moreno-Cruz, Juan (20 March 2013).

4993:

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (22 June 2023).

4173:

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (22 June 2023).

4135:

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (22 June 2023).

3760:"Global Cooling: Increasing World-wide Urban Albedos to Offset CO 1372: – Act of intentionally altering or manipulating the weather 604: 450: 5349:

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (6 July 2023).

3694:"Realistic sunshade system at L1 for global temperature control" 1430:

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (6 July 2023).

1222:

Proposed international non-use agreement on solar geoengineering

1026:, have begun implementing their solution. Inspired by the novel 742:, which emits carbon dioxide and contributes to global warming. 8590: 6515: 4697:

Duan, Lei; Cao, Long; Bala, Govindasamy; Caldeira, Ken (2019).

1812:

Geoengineering the Climate: Science, Governance and Uncertainty

1418:

In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability .

1100: 756: 721: 695: 661: 644:

directly in orbit. When summarizing these options in 2009, the

576: 401: 381: 265: 111: 3960: 3228: 2920:"Solar geoengineering using solid aerosol in the stratosphere" 1906: 1695:. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 1 January 1992. 1217:

broad consultations and dialogues on these issues are needed."

1155:) and that consideration of SRM could prevent these outcomes. 716: 291:

The context for the interest in SRM options is continued high

8504:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

7592: 5687: 5649:

seriously in a way that just wasn't happening five years ago,

3892: 3110:"Can a Million Tons of Sulfur Dioxide Combat Climate Change?" 2425: 1907:

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering (25 March 2021).

791:

intensity of tropical monsoons is increased by climate change

628: 568: 540: 2959:

A. J. Ferraro; A. J. Charlton-Perez; E. J. Highwood (2015).

2769:"The Atmospheric Impact of the 1991 Mount Pinatubo Eruption" 2075: 6907: 5601: 5064: 4069: 3192: 3059: 1401:"Cross-Working Group Box SRM: Solar Radiation Modification" 1264: 912: 470:

offset the warming caused by a doubling of carbon dioxide.

307: 4012: 3141:"The cost of stratospheric aerosol injection through 2100" 3060:

Davidson, P.; Burgoyne, C.; Hunt, H.; Causier, M. (2012).

2488: 1964:"The cost of stratospheric aerosol injection through 2100" 1398: 8680:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

6992:

Dannenberg, Astrid; Zitzelsberger, Sonja (October 2019).

5817:"Research to Inform Decisions about Climate Intervention" 5635: 5386:"The Risk of Termination Shock From Solar Geoengineering" 4871: 4753: 2302: 1859: 954:

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

649: 571:

around the Earth—an idea first suggested even before the

184:

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

5685: 5320:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 2474. 5036:(1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 1494, 4999:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 2477. 4936: 4796: 4367:"Geoengineering Earth's Radiation Balance to Mitigate CO 4141:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 2476. 3500:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Archived from 3452:(in German). Econ Duesseldorf Germany. pp. 125–182. 2828:"Geoengineering the climate : History and Prospect" 1017: 812: 429:

Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering

284:

means that the Earth absorbs more energy than it emits,

6991: 6958: 5355:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 629. 5187: 4937:

Ricke, K. L.; Moreno-Cruz, J. B.; Caldeira, K. (2013).

2529: 2108: 1229:

International Non-Use Agreement on Solar Geoengineering

822: 800: 660:

had discussed SAI, MCB, CCT and even attempts to alter

4179:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 19. 3231:

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change

1622: 1360: – Method that condenses clouds to cause rainfall 8521:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

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Borgue, Olivia; Hein, Andreas M. (10 December 2022).

3493:

Teller, Edward; Hyde, Roderick; Wood, Lowell (1997).

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building trust, and compensating for possible harms.

393:

to whiten clouds and thus increase cloud reflectivity

7178: 6641:"Funding for Solar Geoengineering from 2008 to 2018" 6209: 5739:

Climático, Instituto Nacional de Ecología y Cambio.

5714:"Funding for Solar Geoengineering from 2008 to 2018" 4630:

Kravitz, Ben; MacMartin, Douglas G. (January 2020).

1311: 1101:

UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

995: 4696: 4364: 3797:"Tackling Climate Change through Radiative Cooling" 2606: 1805: 1803: 1801: 1799: 1797: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1789: 888:a single pulse, as opposed to sustained injection. 673:In 2021, researchers in Sweden considered building 6704:"Give research into solar geoengineering a chance" 5034:Climate Change 2022 - Mitigation of Climate Change 1143:involved—under the broader term "geoengineering". 419: 4495:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 3605: 1809: 892:Climate change has various effects on agriculture 8821: 8721:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5624: 5622: 5102:Millard-Ball, A. (2011). "The Tuvalu Syndrome". 5095: 4629: 4405:"Geoengineering: Worthy of Cautious Evaluation?" 2917: 1817:(Report). London: The Royal Society. p. 1. 1786: 1501:World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (2022). 1208:governance of SRM research should be expanded... 1042:while announcing a ban on solar geoengineering. 878: 47:), also known as solar radiation management, or 5503:(2008). "On the regulation of geoengineering". 4881:Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis 4491:evolution as a function of photon flux density" 4487:"Automated measurement of leaf photosynthetic O 4443: 3900:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 3273:"Programmes | Five Ways To Save The World" 2865:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1193:and other groups, Saami Council Vice President 4542:"Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs)" 4444:Erlick, Carynelisa; Frederick, John E (1998). 3570: 3568: 3566: 3492: 2696:. 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Among the multiple potential approaches, 51:, refers to a range of approaches to limit 8802: 8790: 8247: 7263: 7249: 6384:Center for International Environmental Law 6330:"Climate & Geoengineering | ETC Group" 6151:Center for International Environmental Law 5933:Klimaatengineering: hype, hoop of wanhoop? 5881:"Climate Change: Have We Lost the Battle?" 5136: 4900:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 4402: 4365:Govindasamy, Balan; Caldeira, Ken (2000). 3788: 3751: 3528: 3519: 3486: 3342: 3181: 2523: 1902: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1436:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 1191:Center for International Environmental Law 1176:Center for International Environmental Law 988:. This has often been called a potential " 771:and in the hemispheric summer (due to the 762: 724:of several types of roofs (lower = hotter) 447:a cooling phenomenon that occurs naturally 8542: 8348:Adaptation strategies on the German coast 7486:United Nations Climate Change conferences 7220: 7033: 6976: 6744: 6727: 6355:"Geoengineering | Heinrich Böll Stiftung" 6227: 6006: 5518: 5409: 5298: 4962: 4722: 4546:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 4469: 4428: 4394: 4283: 4237: 4111: 4038: 3869: 3837: 3820: 3717: 3623: 3546: 3471: 3213: 3164: 3085: 3044: 2995: 2943: 2918:Weisenstein, D. K.; Keith, D. W. 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Another contemporary plan was to use 14: 8822: 8057:Economics of climate change mitigation 8020:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 7538: 7366:Scientific consensus on climate change 6837: 6813:geoengineering.environment.harvard.edu 6645:geoengineering.environment.harvard.edu 6595:Solar Geoengineering Non-Use Agreement 6570:Solar Geoengineering Non-Use Agreement 6545:Solar Geoengineering Non-Use Agreement 6520:Solar Geoengineering Non-Use Agreement 6251: 6249: 6247: 5718:geoengineering.environment.harvard.edu 5541: 5499: 5432: 4977: 4636:Nature Reviews Earth & Environment 4570: 4484: 3794: 3757: 3673:. Futron Corporation. 6 September 2002 3462: 3447: 3422: 3405: 3348: 3308:. The National Academies Press. 1992. 3193:Lenton, T. M.; Vaughan, N. E. (2009). 2684: 2682: 2400:Environment, U. N. (8 November 2023). 2350:from the original on 22 September 2013 2141: 1282: 956:released their consensus study report 835:between the 1700s and the 1990s. 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(1990). 3157:2020ERL....15k4004S 3078:2012RSPTA.370.4263D 3037:2006ClCh...77..211C 2980:2015JGRD..120..414F 2936:2015ACP....1511835W 2877:2010PNAS..10716428K 2871:(38): 16428–16431. 2625:2018RSPTA.37660454M 2548:2019NatCC...9..295I 2507:2022ERCom...4i5009S 2444:2018NatEE...2..475T 2265:2023EaFut..1103250A 2037:2019RSPSA.47590255R 1980:2020ERL....15k4004S 1754:2006ClCh...77..211C 1641:2008RSPTA.366.4007R 1635:(1882): 4007–4037. 1568:2022WIRCC..13E.754B 1294:developed countries 1283:Society and culture 1095:. Reports from the 853:ocean acidification 837:ocean acidification 625:diffraction grating 530:shortwave radiation 449:by the eruption of 331:climate sensitivity 174:climate engineering 93:climate engineering 8199:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 8171:Forest management 8155:Direct air capture 8120:Sustainable energy 8077:Net zero emissions 8072:Low-carbon economy 8067:Green Climate Fund 7854:Indigenous peoples 7752:Plant biodiversity 7540:Effects and issues 6177:The New York Times 6025:|access-date= 5962:unesdoc.unesco.org 5720:. 13 November 2018 5110:(3–4): 1047–1066. 4076:Scientific Reports 3507:on 27 January 2016 3072:(1974): 4263–300. 2930:(8): 11799–11851. 2675:. 14 January 2008. 2619:(2119): 20160454. 2148:. pp. 34–49. 2031:(2229): 20190255. 1350:Environment portal 1261:Harvard University 1172:German Green Party 1087:(UK), Australia's 849: 726: 551: 432: 367: 247: 239: 38: 8817: 8816: 8755: 8754: 8751: 8750: 8690:Radiative forcing 8533: 8532: 8529: 8528: 8353:Adaptive capacity 8238: 8237: 8234: 8233: 8098:Energy transition 7974: 7973: 7970: 7969: 7689:Tropical cyclones 7615:Urban heat island 7529: 7528: 7441: 7440: 7437: 7436: 7402:Carbon accounting 7356:Greenhouse effect 7322: 7321: 6774:978-0-309-67605-2 5943:978-90-77364-51-2 5370:978-1-009-15789-6 5335:978-1-009-32584-4 5051:978-1-009-15792-6 5014:978-1-009-32584-4 4915:978-1-316-67679-0 4809:(7719): 480–483. 4709:(15): 8976–8984. 4597:10.1021/es802206b 4501:(1216): 313–326. 4471:10.1029/98JD02119 4307:(5615): 2035–38. 4194:978-1-009-32584-4 4156:978-1-009-32584-4 3906:(11): 2361–2371. 3698:Acta Astronautica 3648:. 8 February 2023 3581:Popular Mechanics 3535:Acta Astronautica 3364:(6291): 339–340. 3323:978-0-585-03095-1 2800:Knowable Magazine 2711:978-0-309-67605-2 2344:www.esrl.noaa.gov 2227:Missing or empty 2163:978-1-9788-0939-0 1928:978-0-309-67605-2 1824:978-0-85403-773-5 1710:978-0-309-04386-1 1512:978-9914-733-99-0 1451:978-1-009-15789-6 1195:Åsa Larsson Blind 1136:fossil fuel firms 1028:Termination Shock 1003:termination shock 938:international law 746:Radiative cooling 231:radiative forcing 221:Greenhouse effect 139:Lyndon B. Johnson 73:thermal radiation 67:reflects back to 16:(Redirected from 8852: 8805: 8804: 8793: 8792: 8781: 8780: 8770: 8769: 8768: 8733:Paleoclimatology 8550: 8549: 8539: 8538: 8300:Ecological grief 8283:Climate movement 8258: 8257: 8244: 8243: 8224:Plant-based diet 8115:Renewable energy 7993: 7992: 7980: 7979: 7815:Economic impacts 7742:Invasive species 7598:Coastal flooding 7548: 7547: 7535: 7534: 7471:Svante Arrhenius 7447: 7446: 7417:from agriculture 7407:Carbon footprint 7392:Greenhouse gases 7341: 7340: 7328: 7327: 7280: 7279: 7265: 7258: 7251: 7242: 7241: 7235: 7234: 7224: 7176: 7170: 7169: 7167: 7165: 7109: 7103: 7102: 7069:(1–2): 119–132. 7054: 7048: 7047: 7037: 6989: 6983: 6982: 6980: 6956: 6950: 6949: 6905: 6899: 6898: 6896: 6894: 6879: 6873: 6872: 6870: 6868: 6858: 6852: 6851: 6849: 6847: 6835: 6829: 6828: 6826: 6824: 6809:"Geoengineering" 6805: 6799: 6798: 6796: 6794: 6751: 6742: 6741: 6731: 6700: 6694: 6693: 6691: 6689: 6677:Business Insider 6667: 6661: 6660: 6658: 6656: 6637: 6631: 6630: 6628: 6626: 6612: 6606: 6605: 6603: 6601: 6587: 6581: 6580: 6578: 6576: 6562: 6556: 6555: 6553: 6551: 6537: 6531: 6530: 6528: 6526: 6512: 6506: 6505: 6503: 6501: 6487: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6476: 6462: 6456: 6455: 6453: 6451: 6432: 6426: 6425: 6423: 6421: 6401: 6395: 6394: 6392: 6390: 6380:"Geoengineering" 6376: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6365: 6351: 6345: 6344: 6342: 6340: 6334:www.etcgroup.org 6326: 6320: 6319: 6317: 6315: 6301: 6295: 6294: 6253: 6242: 6241: 6231: 6207: 6201: 6200: 6198: 6196: 6168: 6162: 6161: 6159: 6157: 6143: 6137: 6136: 6134: 6132: 6118: 6112: 6111: 6109: 6107: 6093: 6087: 6086: 6084: 6082: 6068: 6062: 6061: 6059: 6057: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6020: 6012: 6004: 5998: 5997: 5995: 5993: 5979: 5973: 5972: 5970: 5968: 5954: 5948: 5947: 5927: 5921: 5920: 5918: 5916: 5911: 5907:"Geoengineering" 5902: 5896: 5895: 5893: 5891: 5877: 5871: 5870: 5863: 5857: 5856: 5854: 5852: 5838: 5832: 5831: 5829: 5827: 5813: 5807: 5806: 5804: 5802: 5788: 5782: 5781: 5779: 5777: 5763: 5757: 5756: 5754: 5752: 5736: 5730: 5729: 5727: 5725: 5710: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5699: 5683: 5677: 5676: 5674: 5672: 5658: 5652: 5651: 5645: 5643: 5626: 5617: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5598: 5592: 5591: 5589: 5587: 5539: 5533: 5532: 5522: 5501:Victor, David G. 5497: 5491: 5490: 5488: 5486: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5413: 5381: 5375: 5374: 5346: 5340: 5339: 5311: 5305: 5304: 5302: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5255: 5249: 5194: 5185: 5179: 5178: 5134: 5128: 5127: 5099: 5093: 5092: 5090: 5088: 5068: 5062: 5061: 5060: 5058: 5025: 5019: 5018: 4990: 4984: 4983: 4975: 4969: 4968: 4966: 4934: 4928: 4927: 4891: 4885: 4884: 4878: 4869: 4863: 4862: 4860: 4858: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4751: 4745: 4744: 4726: 4694: 4688: 4687: 4685: 4683: 4627: 4621: 4620: 4618: 4616: 4583:(8): 2783–2786. 4568: 4562: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4528: 4526: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4473: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4432: 4400: 4398: 4362: 4356: 4355: 4353: 4351: 4345: 4298: 4289: 4287: 4251: 4241: 4205: 4199: 4198: 4170: 4161: 4160: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4115: 4067: 4061: 4060: 4042: 4010: 4004: 4003: 3958: 3952: 3951: 3949: 3947: 3890: 3884: 3883: 3873: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3824: 3807:(9): 2057–2060. 3792: 3786: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3775: 3768: 3755: 3749: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3730: 3724: 3723: 3721: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3664: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3636: 3630: 3629: 3627: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3583:. Archived from 3572: 3561: 3560: 3550: 3526: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3506: 3499: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3460: 3454: 3453: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3436: 3434: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3403: 3397: 3396: 3395:on 16 July 2011. 3394: 3388:. Archived from 3378:10.1038/347339b0 3355: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3299: 3293: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3269: 3263: 3262: 3237:(8): 1207–1228. 3226: 3220: 3219: 3217: 3208:(1): 2559–2608. 3199: 3190: 3179: 3178: 3168: 3136: 3130: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3116:. 23 June 2008. 3106: 3100: 3099: 3089: 3057: 3051: 3050: 3048: 3031:(3–4): 211–220. 3016: 3010: 3009: 2999: 2965: 2956: 2950: 2949: 2947: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2898: 2888: 2856: 2850: 2849: 2847: 2823: 2814: 2813: 2811: 2791: 2785: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2764: 2758: 2757: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2686: 2677: 2676: 2669: 2663: 2662: 2652: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2595: 2593: 2567: 2527: 2521: 2520: 2518: 2486: 2480: 2479: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2397: 2391: 2390: 2388: 2386: 2366: 2360: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2304:November 2023). 2300: 2294: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2284: 2243: 2237: 2236: 2230: 2225: 2223: 2215: 2213: 2201: 2195: 2194: 2188: 2184: 2182: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2139: 2133: 2132: 2130: 2106: 2100: 2099: 2097: 2073: 2067: 2066: 2056: 2016: 2010: 2009: 1991: 1959: 1953: 1952: 1950: 1948: 1904: 1891: 1890: 1888: 1886: 1857: 1844: 1843: 1841: 1839: 1833: 1816: 1807: 1784: 1783: 1765: 1733: 1727: 1726: 1724: 1722: 1687: 1681: 1680: 1678: 1676: 1620: 1614: 1613: 1611: 1609: 1594: 1588: 1587: 1546: 1537: 1536: 1526: 1517: 1516: 1498: 1489: 1488: 1486: 1484: 1469: 1456: 1455: 1427: 1421: 1420: 1415: 1405: 1396: 1352: 1347: 1346: 1338: 1333: 1332: 1331: 1324: 1319: 1318: 1251:Research funding 740:air conditioning 356:Proposed methods 276:Due to elevated 190:The most recent 157:report from the 87:are reduced and 21: 8860: 8859: 8855: 8854: 8853: 8851: 8850: 8849: 8820: 8819: 8818: 8813: 8766: 8764: 8747: 8694: 8685:Orbital forcing 8579: 8544: 8525: 8499:Paris Agreement 8477: 8473:Warming stripes 8412: 8378:Managed retreat 8373:Loss and damage 8334: 8268:Business action 8252: 8230: 8207: 8130: 8124: 8081: 8042:Climate finance 7987: 7966: 7898: 7756: 7732:Extinction risk 7708:Flora and fauna 7703: 7664:Permafrost thaw 7659:Ozone depletion 7588:Extreme weather 7542: 7525: 7452: 7433: 7370: 7335: 7318: 7285: 7274: 7269: 7239: 7238: 7177: 7173: 7163: 7161: 7110: 7106: 7063:Climatic Change 7055: 7051: 7004:(10): 769–775. 6990: 6986: 6971:(11): 536–542. 6957: 6953: 6910:Climatic Change 6906: 6902: 6892: 6890: 6880: 6876: 6866: 6864: 6860: 6859: 6855: 6845: 6843: 6836: 6832: 6822: 6820: 6807: 6806: 6802: 6792: 6790: 6775: 6753: 6752: 6745: 6702: 6701: 6697: 6687: 6685: 6668: 6664: 6654: 6652: 6639: 6638: 6634: 6624: 6622: 6614: 6613: 6609: 6599: 6597: 6589: 6588: 6584: 6574: 6572: 6564: 6563: 6559: 6549: 6547: 6539: 6538: 6534: 6524: 6522: 6514: 6513: 6509: 6499: 6497: 6489: 6488: 6484: 6474: 6472: 6464: 6463: 6459: 6449: 6447: 6434: 6433: 6429: 6419: 6417: 6402: 6398: 6388: 6386: 6378: 6377: 6373: 6363: 6361: 6353: 6352: 6348: 6338: 6336: 6328: 6327: 6323: 6313: 6311: 6303: 6302: 6298: 6283:10.1002/wcc.754 6254: 6245: 6222:(12): 562–568. 6208: 6204: 6194: 6192: 6169: 6165: 6155: 6153: 6145: 6144: 6140: 6130: 6128: 6120: 6119: 6115: 6105: 6103: 6095: 6094: 6090: 6080: 6078: 6070: 6069: 6065: 6055: 6053: 6045: 6044: 6040: 6028: 6024: 6023: 6014: 6013: 6005: 6001: 5991: 5989: 5981: 5980: 5976: 5966: 5964: 5956: 5955: 5951: 5944: 5928: 5924: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5903: 5899: 5889: 5887: 5879: 5878: 5874: 5865: 5864: 5860: 5850: 5848: 5840: 5839: 5835: 5825: 5823: 5815: 5814: 5810: 5800: 5798: 5790: 5789: 5785: 5775: 5773: 5765: 5764: 5760: 5750: 5748: 5737: 5733: 5723: 5721: 5712: 5711: 5707: 5697: 5695: 5684: 5680: 5670: 5668: 5660: 5659: 5655: 5641: 5639: 5627: 5620: 5610: 5608: 5606:makesunsets.com 5600: 5599: 5595: 5585: 5583: 5540: 5536: 5520:10.1.1.536.5401 5498: 5494: 5484: 5482: 5431: 5427: 5382: 5378: 5371: 5347: 5343: 5336: 5312: 5308: 5267: 5263: 5253: 5251: 5247: 5192: 5186: 5182: 5135: 5131: 5104:Climatic Change 5100: 5096: 5086: 5084: 5069: 5065: 5056: 5054: 5052: 5026: 5022: 5015: 4991: 4987: 4976: 4972: 4935: 4931: 4916: 4892: 4888: 4876: 4870: 4866: 4856: 4854: 4795: 4791: 4752: 4748: 4695: 4691: 4681: 4679: 4628: 4624: 4614: 4612: 4569: 4565: 4555: 4553: 4538: 4534: 4524: 4522: 4490: 4483: 4479: 4450:J. Geophys. Res 4442: 4438: 4415:(3–4): 235–43. 4409:Climatic Change 4381:(14): 2141–44. 4370: 4363: 4359: 4349: 4347: 4343: 4296: 4206: 4202: 4195: 4171: 4164: 4157: 4133: 4129: 4068: 4064: 4011: 4007: 3959: 3955: 3945: 3943: 3891: 3887: 3842: 3838: 3793: 3789: 3779: 3777: 3773: 3766: 3763: 3756: 3752: 3742: 3740: 3734:"Space bubbles" 3732: 3731: 3727: 3690: 3686: 3676: 3674: 3666: 3665: 3661: 3651: 3649: 3638: 3637: 3633: 3618:(2): e0000133. 3604: 3600: 3590: 3588: 3587:on 1 April 2023 3573: 3564: 3527: 3520: 3510: 3508: 3504: 3497: 3491: 3487: 3476: 3472: 3461: 3457: 3446: 3442: 3432: 3430: 3421: 3417: 3404: 3400: 3392: 3353: 3347: 3343: 3333: 3331: 3324: 3301: 3300: 3296: 3286: 3284: 3271: 3270: 3266: 3227: 3223: 3197: 3191: 3182: 3137: 3133: 3123: 3121: 3108: 3107: 3103: 3058: 3054: 3025:Climatic Change 3017: 3013: 2963: 2957: 2953: 2916: 2912: 2857: 2853: 2824: 2817: 2792: 2788: 2778: 2776: 2765: 2761: 2746: 2732: 2731: 2727: 2712: 2687: 2680: 2671: 2670: 2666: 2605: 2601: 2591: 2589: 2528: 2524: 2487: 2483: 2424: 2420: 2410: 2408: 2398: 2394: 2384: 2382: 2367: 2363: 2353: 2351: 2336: 2332: 2322: 2320: 2301: 2297: 2287: 2285: 2244: 2240: 2228: 2226: 2217: 2216: 2203: 2202: 2198: 2186: 2185: 2176: 2175: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2140: 2136: 2107: 2103: 2074: 2070: 2017: 2013: 1960: 1956: 1946: 1944: 1929: 1905: 1894: 1884: 1882: 1875: 1858: 1847: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1825: 1814: 1808: 1787: 1742:Climatic Change 1734: 1730: 1720: 1718: 1711: 1689: 1688: 1684: 1674: 1672: 1621: 1617: 1607: 1605: 1596: 1595: 1591: 1576:10.1002/wcc.754 1547: 1540: 1527: 1520: 1513: 1505:. Geneva: WMO. 1499: 1492: 1482: 1480: 1470: 1459: 1452: 1428: 1424: 1403: 1397: 1384: 1379: 1348: 1341: 1334: 1329: 1327: 1320: 1313: 1310: 1285: 1253: 1224: 1020: 1011: 998: 982: 976: 933: 926: 922: 909: 899: 881: 865: 846: 833: 815: 803: 781: 765: 748: 732: 714: 709: 700:SpaceX Starship 688:silicon dioxide 601:Rings of Saturn 593:Low Earth orbit 561: 553:Main articles: 538: 522: 516: 485: 479: 438: 422: 417: 358: 317: 273:concentration. 223: 209: 132: 61:solar radiation 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8858: 8848: 8847: 8842: 8837: 8832: 8815: 8814: 8812: 8811: 8799: 8787: 8775: 8760: 8757: 8756: 8753: 8752: 8749: 8748: 8746: 8745: 8740: 8735: 8730: 8729: 8728: 8718: 8713: 8708: 8702: 8700: 8696: 8695: 8693: 8692: 8687: 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8651: 8650: 8640: 8638:Cloud feedback 8635: 8630: 8625: 8620: 8619: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8603: 8593: 8587: 8585: 8581: 8580: 8578: 8577: 8572: 8567: 8562: 8556: 8554: 8546: 8545: 8535: 8534: 8531: 8530: 8527: 8526: 8524: 8523: 8518: 8513: 8512: 8511: 8506: 8496: 8494:Kyoto Protocol 8491: 8485: 8483: 8479: 8478: 8476: 8475: 8470: 8469: 8468: 8463: 8458: 8448: 8446:Media coverage 8443: 8438: 8436:Climate spiral 8433: 8428: 8422: 8420: 8414: 8413: 8411: 8410: 8405: 8400: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8375: 8370: 8365: 8360: 8355: 8350: 8344: 8342: 8336: 8335: 8333: 8332: 8327: 8325:Public opinion 8322: 8317: 8312: 8307: 8302: 8297: 8292: 8291: 8290: 8280: 8275: 8273:Climate action 8270: 8264: 8262: 8254: 8253: 8240: 8239: 8236: 8235: 8232: 8231: 8229: 8228: 8227: 8226: 8215: 8213: 8209: 8208: 8206: 8205: 8200: 8194: 8193: 8192: 8187: 8185:REDD and REDD+ 8182: 8177: 8169: 8164: 8162:Carbon farming 8159: 8158: 8157: 8152: 8142: 8136: 8134: 8126: 8125: 8123: 8122: 8117: 8112: 8107: 8106: 8105: 8095: 8089: 8087: 8083: 8082: 8080: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8054: 8049: 8044: 8039: 8034: 8029: 8024: 8023: 8022: 8012: 8007: 8001: 7999: 7989: 7988: 7976: 7975: 7972: 7971: 7968: 7967: 7965: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7908: 7906: 7900: 7899: 7897: 7896: 7894:Water security 7891: 7889:Water scarcity 7886: 7884:Urban flooding 7881: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7845: 7844: 7834: 7829: 7824: 7823: 7822: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7781: 7780: 7775: 7764: 7762: 7758: 7757: 7755: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7737:Forest dieback 7734: 7729: 7724: 7723: 7722: 7711: 7709: 7705: 7704: 7702: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7674:Sea level rise 7671: 7666: 7661: 7656: 7655: 7654: 7649: 7647:stratification 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7619: 7618: 7617: 7612: 7602: 7601: 7600: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7554: 7552: 7544: 7543: 7531: 7530: 7527: 7526: 7524: 7523: 7522: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7488: 7483: 7478: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7457: 7454: 7453: 7443: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7435: 7434: 7432: 7431: 7426: 7425: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7412:Carbon leakage 7409: 7404: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7378: 7376: 7372: 7371: 7369: 7368: 7363: 7353: 7351:Climate system 7347: 7345: 7337: 7336: 7324: 7323: 7320: 7319: 7317: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7296: 7290: 7287: 7286: 7276: 7275: 7272:Climate change 7268: 7267: 7260: 7253: 7245: 7237: 7236: 7171: 7124:(5): 641–656. 7104: 7049: 6984: 6965:Earth's Future 6951: 6916:(2): 299–312. 6900: 6874: 6853: 6830: 6800: 6773: 6765:10.17226/25762 6743: 6695: 6662: 6632: 6607: 6591:"Endorsements" 6582: 6557: 6532: 6507: 6482: 6457: 6427: 6396: 6371: 6346: 6321: 6296: 6243: 6216:Earth's Future 6202: 6163: 6138: 6113: 6088: 6063: 6038: 5999: 5974: 5949: 5942: 5922: 5897: 5885:www.imeche.org 5872: 5858: 5833: 5808: 5783: 5758: 5731: 5705: 5678: 5653: 5618: 5602:"Make Sunsets" 5593: 5534: 5513:(2): 322–336. 5492: 5445:(3): 502–522. 5425: 5396:(3): 456–467. 5390:Earth's Future 5376: 5369: 5341: 5334: 5306: 5261: 5180: 5145:(4): 375–389. 5129: 5094: 5063: 5050: 5020: 5013: 4985: 4970: 4929: 4914: 4886: 4864: 4789: 4746: 4689: 4622: 4563: 4532: 4488: 4477: 4436: 4368: 4357: 4200: 4193: 4162: 4155: 4127: 4062: 4005: 3970:(12): e88337. 3953: 3885: 3836: 3787: 3761: 3750: 3725: 3684: 3659: 3631: 3598: 3562: 3518: 3485: 3470: 3455: 3440: 3415: 3398: 3341: 3322: 3294: 3264: 3221: 3180: 3151:(11): 114004. 3131: 3101: 3052: 3011: 2974:(2): 414–429. 2951: 2910: 2851: 2838:(1): 245–284. 2815: 2786: 2759: 2744: 2725: 2710: 2702:10.17226/25762 2678: 2664: 2599: 2542:(4): 295–299. 2522: 2481: 2438:(3): 475–482. 2418: 2392: 2361: 2330: 2295: 2253:Earth's Future 2238: 2196: 2187:|website= 2162: 2134: 2101: 2068: 2011: 1974:(11): 114004. 1954: 1927: 1919:10.17226/25762 1892: 1873: 1845: 1823: 1785: 1748:(3): 211–220. 1728: 1709: 1682: 1615: 1589: 1538: 1518: 1511: 1490: 1457: 1450: 1422: 1381: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1373: 1367: 1361: 1354: 1353: 1339: 1336:Ecology portal 1325: 1309: 1306: 1284: 1281: 1252: 1249: 1223: 1220: 1219: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1036:sulfur dioxide 1019: 1016: 1010: 1007: 997: 994: 975: 972: 960:, concluding: 932: 929: 924: 920: 908: 905: 897: 885:climate models 880: 877: 873:Mie scattering 864: 861: 844: 831: 814: 811: 802: 799: 780: 777: 764: 761: 747: 744: 728:Main article: 713: 710: 708: 705: 581:Hermann Oberth 565:space sunshade 555:Space sunshade 537: 534: 518:Main article: 515: 512: 493:Stephen Salter 481:Main article: 478: 475: 443:high agreement 434:Main article: 421: 418: 416: 413: 412: 411: 405: 394: 384: 380:and increased 378:global dimming 357: 354: 346:sea level rise 335:tipping points 315: 271:carbon dioxide 208: 205: 166:Nobel Laureate 154:Mikhail Budyko 136:U.S. President 131: 128: 100:climate models 53:global warming 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8857: 8846: 8843: 8841: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8827: 8825: 8810: 8809: 8800: 8798: 8797: 8788: 8786: 8785: 8776: 8774: 8773: 8762: 8761: 8758: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8731: 8727: 8724: 8723: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8711:Climate model 8709: 8707: 8704: 8703: 8701: 8697: 8691: 8688: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8649: 8646: 8645: 8644: 8643:Cloud forcing 8641: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8621: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8598: 8597: 8594: 8592: 8589: 8588: 8586: 8582: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8557: 8555: 8551: 8547: 8540: 8536: 8522: 8519: 8517: 8514: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8501: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8486: 8484: 8480: 8474: 8471: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8453: 8452: 8449: 8447: 8444: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8432: 8429: 8427: 8424: 8423: 8421: 8419: 8418:Communication 8415: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8398:Vulnerability 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8376: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8368:Flood control 8366: 8364: 8361: 8359: 8356: 8354: 8351: 8349: 8346: 8345: 8343: 8341: 8337: 8331: 8328: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8311: 8308: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8298: 8296: 8293: 8289: 8286: 8285: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8269: 8266: 8265: 8263: 8259: 8255: 8251: 8245: 8241: 8225: 8222: 8221: 8220: 8217: 8216: 8214: 8210: 8204: 8201: 8198: 8195: 8191: 8190:reforestation 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8175:afforestation 8173: 8172: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8147: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8137: 8135: 8133: 8127: 8121: 8118: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8110:Nuclear power 8108: 8104: 8101: 8100: 8099: 8096: 8094: 8091: 8090: 8088: 8084: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8033: 8030: 8028: 8025: 8021: 8018: 8017: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8005:Carbon budget 8003: 8002: 8000: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7981: 7977: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7909: 7907: 7905: 7901: 7895: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7843: 7842:Mental health 7840: 7839: 7838: 7835: 7833: 7830: 7828: 7825: 7821: 7818: 7817: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7779: 7778:United States 7776: 7774: 7771: 7770: 7769: 7766: 7765: 7763: 7759: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7721: 7718: 7717: 7716: 7713: 7712: 7710: 7706: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7632:deoxygenation 7630: 7628: 7627:acidification 7625: 7624: 7623: 7620: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7607: 7606: 7603: 7599: 7596: 7595: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7555: 7553: 7549: 7545: 7541: 7536: 7532: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7491: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7458: 7455: 7448: 7444: 7430: 7427: 7423: 7422:from wetlands 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7399: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7382:Deforestation 7380: 7379: 7377: 7373: 7367: 7364: 7361: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7342: 7338: 7334: 7329: 7325: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7291: 7288: 7281: 7277: 7273: 7266: 7261: 7259: 7254: 7252: 7247: 7246: 7243: 7232: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7175: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7115: 7108: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7053: 7045: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6988: 6979: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6955: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6911: 6904: 6889: 6885: 6878: 6863: 6857: 6841: 6834: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6804: 6788: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6757: 6750: 6748: 6739: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6705: 6699: 6683: 6679: 6678: 6673: 6666: 6650: 6646: 6642: 6636: 6621: 6617: 6611: 6596: 6592: 6586: 6571: 6567: 6566:"Signatories" 6561: 6546: 6542: 6541:"Open Letter" 6536: 6521: 6517: 6511: 6496: 6492: 6486: 6471: 6467: 6461: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6431: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6400: 6385: 6381: 6375: 6360: 6356: 6350: 6335: 6331: 6325: 6310: 6306: 6300: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6252: 6250: 6248: 6239: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6206: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6167: 6152: 6148: 6142: 6127: 6123: 6122:"C2G Mission" 6117: 6102: 6098: 6092: 6077: 6073: 6067: 6052: 6048: 6042: 6034: 6018: 6010: 6003: 5988: 5984: 5978: 5963: 5959: 5953: 5945: 5939: 5935: 5934: 5926: 5908: 5901: 5886: 5882: 5876: 5868: 5862: 5847: 5843: 5837: 5822: 5818: 5812: 5797: 5793: 5787: 5772: 5768: 5762: 5746: 5742: 5735: 5719: 5715: 5709: 5693: 5689: 5682: 5667: 5663: 5657: 5650: 5638: 5637: 5632: 5629:Julia Simon. 5625: 5623: 5607: 5603: 5597: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5554:(1): 89–110. 5553: 5549: 5545: 5538: 5530: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5507: 5502: 5496: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5429: 5421: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5380: 5372: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5353: 5345: 5337: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5318: 5310: 5301: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5265: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5203:(1): 85–104. 5202: 5198: 5191: 5184: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5133: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5098: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5067: 5053: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5024: 5016: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4997: 4989: 4981: 4974: 4965: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4949:(1): 014021. 4948: 4944: 4940: 4933: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4898: 4890: 4882: 4875: 4868: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4793: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4750: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4693: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4626: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4567: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4536: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4481: 4472: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4440: 4431: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4361: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4295: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4249: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4204: 4196: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4177: 4169: 4167: 4158: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4139: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4066: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4009: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3957: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3791: 3772: 3765: 3754: 3739: 3735: 3729: 3720: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3688: 3672: 3669: 3663: 3647: 3646: 3641: 3635: 3626: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3602: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3571: 3569: 3567: 3558: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3525: 3523: 3503: 3496: 3489: 3481: 3474: 3466: 3459: 3451: 3444: 3428: 3427: 3419: 3411: 3410: 3402: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3352: 3345: 3329: 3325: 3319: 3315: 3314:10.17226/1605 3311: 3307: 3306: 3298: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3268: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3225: 3216: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3196: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3176: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3135: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3105: 3097: 3093: 3088: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3056: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3007: 3003: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2962: 2955: 2946: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2914: 2906: 2902: 2897: 2892: 2887: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2855: 2846: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2822: 2820: 2810: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2790: 2774: 2770: 2763: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2745:9789291691517 2741: 2737: 2736: 2729: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2694: 2685: 2683: 2674: 2668: 2660: 2656: 2651: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2603: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2566: 2565:1721.1/126780 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2526: 2517: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2501:(9): 095009. 2500: 2496: 2492: 2485: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2422: 2407: 2403: 2396: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2365: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2334: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2299: 2283: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2242: 2234: 2221: 2212: 2207: 2200: 2192: 2180: 2165: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2146: 2138: 2129: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2105: 2096: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2072: 2064: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2015: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1990: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1958: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1911: 1903: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1880: 1876: 1874:9780309314824 1870: 1866: 1865: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1830: 1826: 1820: 1813: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1800: 1798: 1796: 1794: 1792: 1790: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1764: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1732: 1716: 1712: 1706: 1702: 1701:10.17226/1605 1698: 1694: 1693: 1686: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1619: 1603: 1599: 1593: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1545: 1543: 1534: 1533: 1525: 1523: 1514: 1508: 1504: 1497: 1495: 1479: 1475: 1468: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1453: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1434: 1426: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1402: 1395: 1393: 1391: 1389: 1387: 1382: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1359: 1358:Cloud seeding 1356: 1355: 1351: 1345: 1340: 1337: 1326: 1323: 1317: 1312: 1305: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1280: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1257: 1248: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1232: 1230: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1202: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1187:Saami Council 1184: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1156: 1154: 1153:air pollution 1150: 1144: 1142: 1137: 1132: 1130: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1056: 1053: 1047: 1045: 1044:Make Sunsets' 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1015: 1006: 1004: 993: 991: 987: 981: 971: 966: 961: 959: 955: 952:In 2021, the 950: 946: 942: 939: 928: 917: 914: 904: 901: 893: 889: 886: 876: 874: 870: 860: 858: 854: 842: 838: 834: 828: 827:anthropogenic 824: 819: 810: 808: 798: 794: 792: 787: 786:soil moisture 776: 774: 770: 760: 758: 754: 743: 741: 737: 731: 723: 718: 704: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 676: 671: 668: 663: 659: 653: 651: 647: 646:Royal Society 643: 639: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 613: 610: 606: 602: 599:to replicate 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 560: 556: 548: 542: 533: 531: 527: 521: 511: 508: 506: 505:Twomey effect 502: 498: 494: 490: 484: 474: 471: 468: 464: 460: 456: 455:photophoretic 452: 448: 444: 437: 430: 426: 409: 406: 403: 399: 395: 392: 388: 385: 383: 379: 375: 372: 371: 370: 362: 353: 349: 347: 342: 338: 336: 332: 328: 324: 319: 312: 309: 304: 302: 298: 294: 289: 287: 283: 279: 274: 272: 267: 262: 260: 256: 255:emission cuts 252: 243: 236: 232: 227: 222: 218: 214: 204: 200: 197: 193: 188: 185: 180: 177: 175: 170: 167: 162: 160: 155: 150: 148: 144: 140: 137: 127: 123: 119: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 96: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 50: 46: 42: 34: 30: 19: 8806: 8794: 8782: 8763: 8596:Carbon cycle 8553:Measurements 8248:Society and 8132:carbon sinks 8037:Climate debt 8027:Carbon price 7849:Human rights 7679:Season creep 7637:heat content 7563:Anoxic event 7476:James Hansen 7188: 7184: 7174: 7162:. 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