971:). These trace fossils do not represent any physical part of an organism, but rather are evidence of an organism's activity within its environment. Whereas a bone, leaf, or stem might provide enough information to positively identify a particular species, trace fossils rarely allow for such a precise identification. However, unlike fossilized body parts which can be affected by many variables, trace fossils are not often transported away and are usually found in the place where the organism lived. This advantage makes trace fossils in paleosols especially important because they allow for interpretation of the animal's behavior in its natural environment. A great example of this is the simple shallow fossilized burrows of solitary bees that make their homes in soil.
991:, which can be understood by comparing the thin rocky soils of mountain tops to the thick fertile soils of grass-covered lowlands. Even in a featureless lowland, the nature of a soil will vary greatly depending on whether or not it is well drained; although the drainage of soil is not completely independent because vegetation, microclimate, and the age of the land surfaces will vary within a given landscape. However, in smaller areas, the limiting factors may be so extensive that a variation in soils across a landscape will constitute a true topographical sequence, and the features within these soils can yield reliable topographic functions.
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providing an overall assessment of the influence past organisms had on any particular paleosol. However, qualifying these general effects of organism activity can be difficult because the level of their expression is as related to their nature as it is to the amount of time available for soil formation. Even when fossils that are found in paleosols are understood, much more can be learned regarding their preservation, ecology, and evolution by studying the paleosols they inhabited.
47:
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1011:, which is the starting point for the process of soil formation. During early formation, soils are not so different from their parent materials. With time however, soils will contain less features of their original parent material. In order to make an accurate assessment of the amount of soil formation that has occurred, the parent material must be known to establish a base line, or starting point in the soil's formation.
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classification of soils has been challenged by efforts to base the classification of soil on observable features within the soils. However, paleoclimates cannot be interpreted from paleosols identified using paleoclimatic data. The identification of paleosols using climatic data is changing. For example, aridisols have been redefined as soils that possess a calcic horizon of less than 1 meter in depth.
999:, and impacted by rock fall. These processes create thin, shallowly rooted, lightly weathered and rocky soils that are indicative of a mountain slope environment. The size and degree of these processes do not allow for strict analysis as topographic functions because of the extensive variation in climate, vegetation, parent materials, and land surface age at different elevations on a mountainside.
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parent material played during the formation of the soil. The generalized relationships obtained from these studies can be used to determine what effects the parent material had on the paleosol during its formation. The difficulty lies with the fact that the parent material no longer exists, and therefore its nature can only be estimated using nearby materials.
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climate is not related to regional climate because the temperature and oxygenation of waterlogged soils is more dependent on local groundwater paths and rates than on atmospheric conditions. Estimates of other types of soil climate are now beginning to find their way into the classification of soils, the models for soil formation, and into the study of
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material, and time. These five factors can be easily remembered using the acronym "CLORPT". These categories are useful for mentally considering that aspects that occurred during the formation of a soil or paleosol. More importantly however, CLORPT allows for a theoretical framework when creating natural experiments for the study of soil formation.
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These estimates are typically based on four critical assumptions that should be recognized as assumptions and thus assessed cautiously when evaluating soils and paleosols. These four simplifying assumptions allow for a detailed analysis of the changes that occur during the formation of a soil and the
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occurs in locations and by processes below the surface of the Earth. These rocks are often the parent material for soils and are sometimes derived from soils, but the degree of sedimentary sorting and distribution varies so widely that these are also considered to be independent of soils.
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General features such as stature and spacing determine what botanists call a "plant formation." Distinct from a community or association, plant formation is not defined by any particular species. Examples of plant formation include forests, woodlands, and grasslands. Because it may not be possible to
974:
Just as fossilized footprints, burrows, and coprolites represent trace fossils or organisms, paleosols can be considered trace fossils of an ancient ecosystem. Much like the small percentage of species that are fossilized, very few species within an ecosystem leave any discernible trace in paleosols.
1135:
The fourth assumption is that volume change is proportional to thickness and density. This states that the loss of soil volume and the degree of compaction during burial are related to their density or thickness change. Although common sense suggests that volume and density are three dimensional and
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in that they represent a boundary between the Earth and the atmosphere where materials are transported and are changed. There are four basic types of flux: additions, subtractions, transfers, and transformations. Examples of addition can include mineral grains and leaf litter, while subtractions can
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The different definitions applied to soils are indicative of the different approaches taken to them. Where farmers and engineers concentrate on certain soil properties, soil scientists have a different view. Essentially, these differing views of the definition of soil are different theoretical bases
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Soil fossils, whether buried or exposed, suffer from alteration. This occurs largely because almost all past soils have lost their former vegetative covering, and the organic matter they once supported has been used up by plants since the soil was buried. However, if remains of plants can be found,
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The second assumption is that the parent material had a uniform composition within the soil profile. If the properties of the material found below the profile are to be considered representative of the parent material of the entire profile, this must be true. However, this is difficult considering
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surface material has been established by nonpedogenic instances. Other instances of sedimentary surface cementation, or fine interbedded sequences of clay and sand, could be considered to be not conducive to the formation of a soil. Nonuniform parent materials may be difficult to find in soils and
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Very few parent materials associated with soils are entirely uniform in their composition or structure. Frequently, there is some degree of irregularity including foliation, veining, jointing, or layering that in some cases helps with soil formation and in other cases hampers it. For example, some
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Not only can particular organisms be interpreted from paleosols, but also ancient ecosystems. The soil interaction of plants is different from community to community. They each have distinct patterns of root traces, soil structure, and overall profile form. Identifying these features is useful for
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by making available nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus in a way that their host plants can utilize, and play an important role in returning organic matter to the soil by decomposing leaf litter. The list of organisms that interact with and affect soil is extensive, and it is these interactions
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The classification of climate from paleosols can be related using climatically sensitive features of soils that are sensitive to particular climatic variables, but even the best of these features lack precision. This is because soils are not as sensitive as meteorological instruments for recording
902:
Soil climate is also a special kind of microclimate. It refers to the moisture, temperature, and other climatic indicators that are found within the pores of soil. For example, in well-drained soils, the soil climate is a somewhat subdued version of the regional climate. In waterlogged soils, soil
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The role of parent material is best understood from studies of soils that formed under similar conditions on different parent materials or lithosequences (differing soil profile characteristics because of differing parent materials). This provides a starting point for understanding what role the
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When soil science was first founded, climate was considered one of the most important factors regarding the formation of soil. For instance, temperate regions have widespread acidic sand spodosols, and in tropical regions red clayey oxisols are common. The tendency to use climatic data for the
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Another way to view soils is that they are environmental products that are molded over a period of time from the materials available to them. The large amount of influences that effect the formation of soils can be simplified to five main factors: climate, organisms, topographic relief, parent
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circa 1795 whereby it was found that some soils in cliffs appeared to be remains of a former exposed land surface. During the 19th century there were many other finds of former soils throughout Europe and North
America. However, most of this was only found in the search for animal and/or plant
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However, their more general effects within a paleosol may be preserved. A good example of this is root traces. Analyzing the pattern of root traces, the sequence of soil horizons, and other features can help identify the type of vegetation that was present during the formation of the soil.
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climatic conditions. However, in a fairly broad category, climate can be interpreted from the sensitive features found in soils. One of the most large-scale influences regarding the classification of climate was created in 1918, then modified over two decades by the German meteorologist
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Soils can also be considered to be energy transformers in that they are physical structures of material that are modified by naturally occurring processes. The Sun constitutes the primary energy source for soils and significantly outweighs any heat generated by
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was not present. There are also some forest soils of more recent times that cannot clearly be classified as alfisols or as spodosols because, despite their sandy horizons, they are not nearly acidic enough to have the typical features of a spodosol.
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that few rocks or sediments are uniform enough to be considered an accurate representation of the original parent material. For example, it is extremely difficult to detect a thin layer of windblown dust on top of granite within a thick clayey soil.
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paleosols, although deviations from normally found minerals could lend clues to the original parent material. If grains of primary materials are not found in the parent material, it can be inferred that later additions occurred. For example,
919:), each corresponding to the main types of terrestrial vegetation. Each climate type is designated by letters, with upper-case letters referring to the main climate groups and lower-case letters referring to subsidiary climatic features.
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The first assumption is that the parent material is fresh. This means that the parent material assumed to be a proxy for the original parent material must be both chemically and physically similar to that original material. For example,
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or rain, can also be considered an energy gain because new minerals and water can alter preexisting materials within the soil. These processes, coupled with the amount of energy available to fuel them, are what create a soil profile.
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to determine key minerals. This analysis can be of some use in determining the structure of a soil fossil, but today X-ray diffraction is preferred because it permits the crystal structure of the former soil to be determined.
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thickness is one dimensional, observations on various materials, including fossil plants of known shape show that while under conditions of static vertical load, soils and fossils are maintained by pressure at the side.
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The third assumption is that at least one of the constituents of the parent material is unaltered by weathering and is still present. The main problem with this is that no constituents are fully immune to the broad
994:
Bold landscapes like alpine ridges and peaks can be resolved based on distinct slope-related processes. For example, steep alpine slopes have sparse vegetation with soils that are eroded by snow melt, agitated by
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determine whether a particular plant was an oak, eucalyptus, or other species, plant formations in paleosols make it possible to identify an ancient woodland ecosystem from an ancient grassland ecosystem.
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the nature of the soil fossil can be made a great deal clearer than if no flora can be found because roots can nowadays be identified with respect to the plant group from which they come. Patterns of
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including their shape and size, is good evidence for the vegetation type the former soil supported. Bluish colours in the soil tend to indicate the plants have mobilized nutrients within the soil.
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Paleopedology is an important scientific discipline for the understanding of the ecology and evolution of ancient ecosystems, both on Earth and the emerging field of exoplanet research, or
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cannot be considered to be an accurate representation of a parent material derived from a forested soil on granite, but it could be representative of a cultivated soil formed after a
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quite easily with all recent soils. Interest in earlier soil fossils was much slower to grow but has steadily developed since the 1960s owing to the development of such techniques as
719:. The kinds of horizons in fossil soils are generally the same as those found in present-day soils, allowing easy classification in modern taxonomy of all but the oldest soils.
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to monitor recent environmental changes in the northern hemisphere had become firmly established. These developments have allowed soil fossils to be classified according to
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that there was any interest in applying the finds of former soils to past ecosystems. This occurred because, by the 1920s, some soils in Russia had been found by
1427:"On the factors which influence the external form of fossil plants; with description of some species of the Paleozoic equisetalean genus Annularia Sternberg"
1124:) is stable in between pH 4.5 and 8 (mostly in clay). Trace elements that are usually stable in soils over a wider range of environmental conditions include
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content, which determines both their pH and how reactive they will be to dilute acids. Chemical analysis is also useful, usually through
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in unglaciated areas or in extremely steep cliffs where the old soil can be seen below the younger present-day soil. In cases where
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Anderson, D.W. (1988). "The effect of parent material and soil development on nutrient cycling in temperate ecosystems".
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666:. If there is continued deposition of sediment, a sequence of soil fossils will form, especially after the retreat of
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843:, a knowledge of the structure of former soils is also valuable to understand the composition of paleo continents.
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1083:burial of a soil.
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819:. The green colour is due to the presence of certain unoxidised minerals found in the primitive Earth because
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had related soil and climate in the United States in the same manner, and by the 1950s analysis of
Quaternary
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processes that exist in nature. For example, quartz is a fairly stable mineral in soils with pH>9, while
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227:
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101:
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17:
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Gardner, L.R. (1980). "Mobilization of Al and Ti during weathering - isovolumetric chemical evidence".
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674:. Soil fossils can also exist where a younger soil has been eroded (for instance by wind), as in the
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571:) to the earliest periods of the Earth's history. Paleopedology can be seen either as a branch of
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With the aid of X-ray diffraction, paleosols can now be classified into one of the 12 orders of
682:. (One must exclude areas where present-day soils are relics of former wetter climates, as with
583:, since the methods it uses are in many ways a well-defined combination of the two disciplines.
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that did not fit with present climates and were seen as relics of warmer climates in the past.
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Large plants are only part of the organisms that play a role in soil formation. For example,
869:, and transformations are the change of composition and form of the materials within a soil.
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of fossil soils typically are sharply defined only in the top layers, unless some of the
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It was only when the first relationships between soils and climate were observed in the
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first developed that buried soils of past geological ages were considered of any value.
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In most instances, parent material is independent of soil formation. The formation of
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The rock or sediment associated with a soil's development is referred to as its
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Johnson, D. & Watson-Stegner, D. (1987). "Evolution model of pedogenesis".
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can provide a good deal of evidence as to how life moved onto land during the
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which permit their classification. This has allowed many developments in
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1918:
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that allow for the presence of paleosols to be inferred.
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soils, however, when examined do not fit the characteristics for
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Paleopedology's earliest developments arose from observations in
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1958:
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sedimentary layering promotes the formation of soil such as a
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of these soil orders and have been placed in an order called
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Chemical analysis of soil fossils generally focuses on their
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1132:(Zr) but are not always sufficiently present to be useful.
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1247:(2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Science. pp.
865:. Transfers include the movement of a material within a
563:
in the United
Kingdom) is the discipline that studies
662:
have been active, some soil fossils occur under the
1243:
Soils of the Past: An introduction to paleopedology
1349:(4th ed.). Ames: Iowa State University Press.
915:. He proposed there are five main climate groups (
654:Remains of former soils can either be found under
1359:
881:. The deposition of sediment, or the addition of
2795:
2561:Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated
1047:cover on bedrock, or a sandy cover on a clayey
2597:National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists
967:(fossil feces), are examples of trace fossils
939:are closely associated with the roots of many
1809:
1466:
1379:. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
537:
1213:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
852:for their study. Soils can be thought of as
567:of past geological eras, from quite recent (
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1816:
1802:
1473:
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27:Discipline studying soils of the past eras
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2571:Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
1286:
1274:A multiple-process model of soil genesis
1271:
1033:
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950:
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734:
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690:. The soils of these regions are proper
650:Finding soil fossils and their structure
2677:Soil Science Society of America Journal
1823:
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1276:. Norwich: Geoabstracts. pp. 1–25.
14:
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2649:Journal of Soil and Water Conservation
2110:Canadian system of soil classification
1797:
1454:
1329:
982:
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2587:International Union of Soil Sciences
1344:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1224:
2614:Soil and Water Conservation Society
1364:. Blacksburg, VA: Pocahontas Press.
987:The nature of soils will vary with
24:
2094:Unified Soil Classification System
1626:Soil retrogression and degradation
1424:
1002:
931:Bee nest ichnofossils from Wyoming
25:
2820:
2099:AASHTO Soil Classification System
1221:
1051:layer. In both of these cases, a
2777:
2762:
2761:
2750:
2642:Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B
2582:Indian Institute of Soil Science
2566:Canadian Society of Soil Science
2397:
2396:
1572:
1480:
1193:10.1097/00010694-198705000-00005
877:flowing up from deep within the
731:Vertisol paleosol Watervol Onder
45:
2620:Soil Science Society of America
1418:
1347:Soil Genesis and Classification
107:List of human evolution fossils
2625:World Congress of Soil Science
2609:Soil Science Society of Poland
2115:Australian Soil Classification
2106:(French classification system)
1383:
1368:
1353:
1338:
1323:
1280:
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1239:Retallack, Gregory J. (2001).
1164:
596:fossils, and it was not until
13:
1:
1636:Soil compaction (agriculture)
1157:
917:Köppen climate classification
830:
1412:10.1016/0009-2541(80)90122-9
922:
739:Mollisol in Dayville, Oregon
715:has not been obliterated by
102:List of transitional fossils
7:
2577:German Soil Science Society
2135:List of vineyard soil types
1140:
1038:Sedimentary parent material
955:Fossil stumps in a paleosol
722:
218:Mammalian auditory ossicles
10:
2825:
2756:Knowledge:WikiProject Soil
2592:International Year of Soil
2120:Polish Soil Classification
1559:Environmental soil science
1433:. Series B, 226: 219–237.
1360:Soil Survey Staff (1998).
893:
586:
2804:Subfields of paleontology
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2144:Non-systematic soil types
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2007:
1831:
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1564:Agricultural soil science
1506:
1488:
1332:Factors in Soil Formation
846:
415:Invertebrate paleontology
364:Biological classification
344:Introduction to evolution
245:Evolution of various taxa
2714:Infiltration (hydrology)
2508:Geotechnical engineering
2130:List of U.S. state soils
1377:Earth's Problem Climates
1375:Trewartha, G.T. (1982).
1334:. New York: McGraw-Hill.
959:A fossilized footprint,
399:Branches of paleontology
387:Timeline of paleontology
2783:List of soil scientists
2125:1938 USDA soil taxonomy
2104:Référentiel pédologique
2088:FAO soil classification
1272:Simonson, R.W. (1978).
1018:Igneous parent material
505:Vertebrate paleontology
382:History of paleontology
376:History of paleontology
97:Lagerstätte fossil beds
2554:Societies, Initiatives
1776:Soil water (retention)
1440:10.1098/rstb.1936.0008
1039:
1019:
956:
932:
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732:
638:to take place because
425:Molecular paleontology
2773:Category soil science
2457:Soil salinity control
1362:Keys to Soil Taxonomy
1037:
1017:
954:
930:
738:
730:
165:Timeline of evolution
2538:Agricultural science
2432:Soil guideline value
2256:Calcareous grassland
1833:World Reference Base
1330:Jenny, H.J. (1941).
182:Organs and processes
92:List of fossil sites
2634:Scientific journals
1825:Soil classification
1766:Soil organic matter
1727:Pore water pressure
1404:1980ChGeo..30..151G
1345:Buol, S.W. (1997).
1301:1988Biogc...5...71A
1185:1987SoilS.143..349J
1100:of a forested soil.
861:of minerals and of
516:Paleontology Portal
170:Transitional fossil
140:Geologic time scale
33:Part of a series on
2729:Impervious surface
2009:USDA soil taxonomy
1835:for Soil Resources
1722:Pore space in soil
1665:Soil acidification
1621:Soil contamination
1309:10.1007/bf02180318
1040:
1020:
983:Topographic relief
957:
933:
857:include surficial
749:solvent extraction
741:
733:
656:deposited sediment
624:USDA soil taxonomy
77:Fossil preparation
2791:
2790:
2422:Soil conservation
2408:
2407:
1682:Soil biodiversity
1529:Soil microbiology
1028:metamorphic rocks
875:radioactive decay
628:X-ray diffraction
616:Eugene W. Hilgard
554:
553:
480:Paleotempestology
465:Paleoneurobiology
420:Micropaleontology
16:(Redirected from
2816:
2781:
2780:
2765:
2764:
2754:
2753:
2603:OPAL Soil Centre
2400:
2399:
2296:Hydrophobic soil
1818:
1811:
1804:
1795:
1794:
1759:Soil respiration
1576:
1475:
1468:
1461:
1452:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1398:(1–2): 151–165.
1392:Chemical Geology
1387:
1381:
1380:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1284:
1278:
1277:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1246:
1236:
1219:
1218:
1212:
1204:
1168:
1071:is not found in
1060:is not found in
546:
539:
532:
495:Sclerochronology
223:Mosaic evolution
160:Paleoclimatology
130:Extinction event
49:
30:
29:
21:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2817:
2815:
2814:
2813:
2794:
2793:
2792:
2787:
2742:
2724:Crust (geology)
2704:Land management
2699:Land conversion
2682:
2629:
2549:
2528:Earth materials
2476:
2462:Erosion control
2447:Soil governance
2427:Soil management
2410:
2409:
2404:
2390:
2361:Subaqueous soil
2346:Serpentine soil
2206:Parent material
2139:
2076:
2003:
1834:
1827:
1822:
1782:
1702:Soil resilience
1631:Soil compaction
1599:Soil morphology
1577:
1568:
1502:
1484:
1479:
1449:
1448:
1423:
1419:
1388:
1384:
1373:
1369:
1358:
1354:
1343:
1339:
1328:
1324:
1289:Biogeochemistry
1285:
1281:
1270:
1266:
1259:
1251:–172, 180–182.
1237:
1222:
1206:
1205:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1143:
1123:
1119:
1009:parent material
1005:
1003:Parent material
985:
941:vascular plants
925:
913:Vladimir Köppen
896:
849:
833:
824:
725:
713:parent material
688:southern Africa
652:
605:Eurasian Steppe
589:
550:
518:
510:
509:
405:Biostratigraphy
400:
392:
391:
377:
369:
368:
339:
331:
330:
246:
238:
237:
228:Nervous systems
183:
175:
174:
150:History of life
145:Geologic record
120:
119:Natural history
112:
111:
87:List of fossils
57:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2822:
2812:
2811:
2806:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2785:
2775:
2769:
2758:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2735:
2733:Surface runoff
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2690:
2688:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2680:
2673:
2666:
2659:
2656:Plant and Soil
2652:
2645:
2637:
2635:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2611:
2606:
2600:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2568:
2563:
2557:
2555:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2484:
2482:
2481:Related fields
2478:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2416:
2412:
2411:
2406:
2405:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2336:Prime farmland
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2291:Fuller's earth
2288:
2283:
2281:Expansive clay
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2013:
2011:
2005:
2004:
2002:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1840:
1838:
1829:
1828:
1821:
1820:
1813:
1806:
1798:
1792:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1780:
1779:
1778:
1768:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1751:
1746:
1744:Soil biomantle
1741:
1736:
1731:
1730:
1729:
1724:
1717:Soil structure
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1697:Soil fertility
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1657:
1656:
1655:
1645:
1640:
1639:
1638:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1609:Soil formation
1606:
1601:
1591:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1578:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1554:Soil chemistry
1551:
1549:Soil mechanics
1546:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1503:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1478:
1477:
1470:
1463:
1455:
1447:
1446:
1417:
1382:
1367:
1352:
1337:
1322:
1279:
1264:
1257:
1220:
1179:(5): 349–366.
1162:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1154:
1149:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1121:
1117:
1105:
1101:
1004:
1001:
984:
981:
924:
921:
895:
892:
863:organic matter
848:
845:
832:
829:
822:
724:
721:
717:soil formation
651:
648:
640:soil chemistry
636:paleogeography
588:
585:
561:palaeopedology
552:
551:
549:
548:
541:
534:
526:
523:
522:
512:
511:
508:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
470:Paleopathology
467:
462:
457:
455:Paleolimnology
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
430:Palaeoxylology
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
401:
398:
397:
394:
393:
390:
389:
384:
378:
375:
374:
371:
370:
367:
366:
361:
356:
351:
349:Common descent
346:
340:
337:
336:
333:
332:
329:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
247:
244:
243:
240:
239:
236:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
184:
181:
180:
177:
176:
173:
172:
167:
162:
157:
155:Origin of life
152:
147:
142:
137:
132:
127:
121:
118:
117:
114:
113:
110:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
58:
55:
54:
51:
50:
42:
41:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2821:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2801:
2799:
2784:
2776:
2774:
2770:
2768:
2767:Category soil
2759:
2757:
2749:
2748:
2745:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2674:
2672:
2671:
2670:Soil Research
2667:
2665:
2664:
2663:Pochvovedenie
2660:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2651:
2650:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2638:
2636:
2632:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2604:
2601:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2552:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2503:Geomorphology
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2472:Liming (soil)
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2413:
2403:
2402:Types of soil
2393:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2381:Tropical peat
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2266:Dry quicksand
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2083:
2081:Other systems
2079:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2006:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1814:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1800:
1799:
1796:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1771:Soil moisture
1769:
1767:
1764:
1760:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1661:
1658:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1649:
1648:Soil salinity
1646:
1644:
1641:
1637:
1634:
1633:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1604:Pedodiversity
1602:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1586:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1476:
1471:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1457:
1456:
1453:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1386:
1378:
1371:
1363:
1356:
1348:
1341:
1333:
1326:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1283:
1275:
1268:
1260:
1258:9780632053766
1254:
1250:
1245:
1244:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1216:
1210:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1167:
1163:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1036:
1032:
1029:
1025:
1024:igneous rocks
1016:
1012:
1010:
1000:
998:
992:
990:
980:
976:
972:
970:
969:(ichnofossils
966:
962:
953:
949:
945:
942:
938:
929:
920:
918:
914:
908:
906:
900:
891:
887:
884:
880:
879:Earth's crust
876:
870:
868:
864:
860:
855:
844:
842:
838:
837:astropedology
828:
825:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
757:soil taxonomy
753:
750:
746:
737:
729:
720:
718:
714:
710:
705:
703:
697:
695:
694:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
647:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
612:
610:
606:
601:
599:
594:
584:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
557:Paleopedology
547:
542:
540:
535:
533:
528:
527:
525:
524:
521:
517:
514:
513:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
475:Paleopedology
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
460:Paleomycology
458:
456:
453:
451:
450:Paleogenetics
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
402:
396:
395:
388:
385:
383:
380:
379:
373:
372:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
341:
335:
334:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
248:
242:
241:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
185:
179:
178:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
135:Geochronology
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
122:
116:
115:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
78:
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
63:
62:Fossilization
60:
59:
53:
52:
48:
44:
43:
40:
37:
36:
32:
31:
19:
2675:
2668:
2661:
2654:
2647:
2640:
2523:Biogeography
2518:Hydrogeology
2493:Geochemistry
2415:Applications
2311:Martian soil
1739:Soil horizon
1712:Soil texture
1687:Soil quality
1643:Soil sealing
1616:Soil erosion
1544:Soil physics
1539:Soil ecology
1534:Soil zoology
1524:Soil biology
1482:Soil science
1430:
1420:
1395:
1391:
1385:
1376:
1370:
1361:
1355:
1346:
1340:
1331:
1325:
1295:(1): 71–97.
1292:
1288:
1282:
1273:
1267:
1242:
1209:cite journal
1176:
1173:Soil Science
1172:
1166:
1081:
1077:
1041:
1021:
1006:
993:
986:
977:
973:
958:
946:
934:
909:
905:soil biology
901:
897:
888:
871:
867:soil profile
854:open systems
850:
841:geochemistry
834:
816:
812:
754:
742:
706:
701:
698:
691:
680:South Dakota
664:volcanic ash
653:
632:paleoecology
620:stratigraphy
613:
602:
598:soil science
590:
581:paleontology
573:soil science
560:
556:
555:
485:Paleozoology
474:
445:Paleoecology
435:Paleobiology
188:Avian flight
125:Biogeography
82:Index fossil
67:Trace fossil
39:Paleontology
2719:Groundwater
2533:Archaeology
2467:Agroecology
2437:Soil survey
2376:Terra rossa
2371:Terra preta
2351:Spodic soil
2271:Duplex soil
2251:Brown earth
2231:Alkali soil
2221:Rhizosphere
2216:Laimosphere
2090:(1974–1998)
2047:Inceptisols
1954:Plinthosols
1919:Kastanozems
1749:Soil carbon
1672:Soil health
1653:Alkali soil
1582:Soil topics
1507:Main fields
1425:Walton, J.
997:frost heave
883:groundwater
817:green clays
809:Precambrian
789:Inceptisols
702:root traces
670:during the
609:K.D. Glinka
440:Paleobotany
261:Cephalopods
256:Butterflies
72:Microfossil
18:Soil fossil
2798:Categories
2709:Vegetation
2452:Soil value
2356:Stagnogley
2306:Lunar soil
2261:Dark earth
2246:Brickearth
2211:Pedosphere
2181:Soil crust
1989:Technosols
1974:Solonchaks
1894:Ferralsols
1859:Anthrosols
1734:Soil crust
1707:Soil color
1692:Soil value
1594:Pedosphere
1519:Edaphology
1158:References
1110:weathering
989:topography
831:Importance
569:Quaternary
490:Palynology
359:Cladistics
198:Multicells
2738:Petrichor
2513:Hydrology
2498:Petrology
2442:Soil test
2341:Quicksand
2286:Fill dirt
2226:Bulk soil
2072:Vertisols
2062:Spodosols
2052:Mollisols
2042:Histosols
2027:Aridisols
1999:Vertisols
1994:Umbrisols
1984:Stagnosol
1949:Planosols
1944:Phaeozems
1924:Leptosols
1909:Gypsisols
1899:Fluvisols
1879:Chernozem
1874:Cambisols
1869:Calcisols
1864:Arenosols
1788:Soil type
1677:Soil life
1201:140140410
1152:Paleosols
1130:zirconium
1128:(Pb) and
1094:clear-cut
1090:saprolite
1065:phonolite
965:coprolite
923:Organisms
801:Vertisols
797:Histosols
781:Aridisols
777:Spodosols
773:Mollisols
693:paleosols
684:Australia
660:volcanoes
644:Paleozoic
500:Taphonomy
410:Ichnology
354:Phylogeny
338:Evolution
326:Tetrapods
271:Dinosaurs
266:Cetaceans
2809:Pedology
2694:Land use
2687:See also
2543:Agrology
2326:Paleosol
2241:Blue goo
2196:Gypcrust
2067:Ultisols
2037:Gelisols
2032:Entisols
2022:Andisols
2017:Alfisols
1979:Solonetz
1969:Retisols
1964:Regosols
1939:Nitisols
1934:Luvisols
1929:Lixisols
1914:Histosol
1904:Gleysols
1889:Durisols
1884:Cryosols
1854:Andosols
1844:Acrisols
1754:Soil gas
1514:Pedology
1317:95971825
1141:See also
1062:basaltic
1049:alluvium
807:). Many
805:Andisols
793:Gelisols
785:Entisols
769:Alfisols
765:Ultisols
723:Analysis
709:horizons
676:Badlands
672:Holocene
668:glaciers
614:In 1892
593:Scotland
579:) or of
577:pedology
520:Category
316:Sea cows
311:Reptiles
301:Molluscs
208:Flagella
2771:
2573:(India)
2488:Geology
2276:Eluvium
2236:Bay mud
2201:Caliche
2191:Hardpan
2186:Claypan
2176:Subsoil
2171:Topsoil
2057:Oxisols
1959:Podzols
1849:Alisols
1837:(1998–)
1660:Soil pH
1493:History
1400:Bibcode
1297:Bibcode
1181:Bibcode
1114:alumina
1098:erosion
1073:granite
1069:olivine
1053:friable
894:Climate
859:erosion
761:Oxisols
587:History
321:Spiders
296:Mammals
291:Insects
56:Fossils
2760:
2386:Yedoma
2321:Muskeg
1315:
1255:
1199:
1147:Cutans
1067:, and
1058:quartz
961:burrow
847:Models
306:Plants
286:Humans
276:Fishes
2366:Takir
2301:Loess
1498:Index
1313:S2CID
1197:S2CID
1045:silty
963:, or
937:fungi
839:. In
646:era.
565:soils
281:Fungi
251:Birds
193:Cells
2616:(US)
2605:(UK)
2599:(US)
2331:Peat
2166:Loam
2161:Clay
2156:Silt
2151:Sand
1589:Soil
1253:ISBN
1215:link
1126:lead
1096:and
1026:and
803:and
745:lime
707:The
686:and
634:and
213:Hair
203:Eyes
2316:Mud
1435:doi
1408:doi
1305:doi
1249:171
1189:doi
1177:143
1116:(Al
813:any
696:.)
678:of
233:Sex
2800::
1429:.
1406:.
1396:30
1394:.
1311:.
1303:.
1291:.
1223:^
1211:}}
1207:{{
1195:.
1187:.
1175:.
1075:.
907:.
799:,
795:,
791:,
787:,
783:,
779:,
775:,
771:,
767:,
763:,
2731:/
1817:e
1810:t
1803:v
1474:e
1467:t
1460:v
1443:.
1437::
1414:.
1410::
1402::
1319:.
1307::
1299::
1293:5
1261:.
1217:)
1203:.
1191::
1183::
1122:3
1120:O
1118:2
823:2
821:O
759:(
575:(
559:(
545:e
538:t
531:v
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