496:, sodium moves down its concentration gradient to move glucose up its concentration gradient. Sodium has a greater concentration outside of the cell, and binds to the symporter, which is in its outward facing conformation. Once sodium is bound, glucose can bind from the extracellular space, causing the symporter to switch into the occluded formation (closed) before opening to the inside of the cell and releasing the two sodium ions and the one glucose molecule. Once both are released, the symporter re-orients itself to the outward facing conformation and the process starts all over again. A major example of up-regulation of the sodium-glucose symporter is seen in patients with
484:
455:
475:
leads to an inability of action potentials to propagate at their usual rate, leading to a lowered hear rate and potentially heart failure. In COLD diagnoses, a majority of patients found to have a lowered amount of magnesium and potassium also had a decreased concentration of the sodium-potassium pump in skeletal and smooth muscle during respiratory failure. COLD is treatable in the short term by glucocorticoid which up-regulates the sodium-potassium pump, helping to support muscle endurance and increase muscle activity during these episodes of respiratory failure.
509:
522:
charge. Water then moves in with the sodium to balance the osmotic pressure and ultimately leads to the thinning of mucus. In cases of Cystic
Fibrosis, the CFTR is defective and only binds a single ATP, leading to the channel failing to open and preventing chloride ions from diffusing into the airway lumen. Since chloride ions cannot diffuse in, there is no movement of sodium into the airway lumen, and no need for water to move into the lumen, leading to thick mucus that clogs and infects the airway lumen.
20:
342:(positively charged ion) in extracellular fluids in animals and humans. These fluids, such as blood plasma and extracellular fluids in other tissues, bathe cells and carry out transport functions for nutrients and wastes. Sodium is also the principal cation in seawater, although the concentration there is about 3.8 times what it is normally in extracellular body fluids.
776:
Thus, a minimum average requirement for adults can be estimated under conditions of maximal adaptation and without active sweating as no more than 5 mEq/day, which corresponds to 115 mg of sodium or approximately 300 mg of sodium chloride per day. In consideration of the wide variation
466:
works with the sodium and potassium leak channels to maintain the membrane potential between the cell and the extracellular space. Sodium moves down the concentration gradient from the cytosol into the extracellular matrix. Potassium moves down its concentration gradient from the extracellular matrix
470:
The sodium-potassium pump plays a large role in neural signaling due to the maintenance of cell membrane potential. This creates an action potential that causes the neurons to polarize and depolarize their membranes by opening and closing the voltage gated channels: this alters voltage potential and
399:
Severely dehydrated persons, such as people rescued from ocean or desert survival situations, usually have very high blood sodium concentrations. These must be very carefully and slowly returned to normal, since too-rapid correction of hypernatremia may result in brain damage from cellular swelling,
90:
Additionally, sodium ions are essential to several cellular processes. They are responsible for the co-transport of glucose in the sodium glucose symport, are used to help maintain membrane polarity with the help of the sodium potassium pump, and are paired with water to thin the mucus of the airway
432:
drug is given which causes the kidneys to excrete sodium, the effect is accompanied by an excretion of body water (water loss accompanies sodium loss). This happens because the kidney is unable to efficiently retain water while excreting large amounts of sodium. In addition, after sodium excretion,
474:
When the pump fails to function, patients are susceptible to illnesses like heart failure and chronic obstructive lung disease (COLD). Those who experienced an event of heart failure had on average, a 40% lower concentration of the sodium-potassium ATPase. This lack of polarization of the membrane
487:
The sodium-glucose symporter is initially opened to the extracellular matrix. Once 2 sodium and the glucose bind, the conformation closes to the extracellular matrix and opens to the cytosol where the sodium and glucose are released. The confirmation of the symporter than returns to the initial
1326:
Tomohiro Osanai; Naoto
Fujiwara; Masayuki Saitoh; Satoko Sasaki; Hirofumi Tomita; Masayuki Nakamura; Hiroshi Osawa; Hideaki Yamabe; Ken Okumura (2002). "Relationship between Salt Intake, Nitric Oxide and Asymmetric Dimethylarginine and Its Relevance to Patients with End-Stage Renal Disease â".
521:
works by binding two ATP to the A1 and A2, ATP-binding domain. This opens the CFTR channel and allows chloride ions to flow into the lungs and airway lumen. This influx of negatively charged chloride ions into the airway lumen causes sodium to move into the airway lumen to balance the negative
330:, and control them over long distances; excess sodium may also be stored in old plant tissue, limiting the damage to new growth. Though much how excess sodium loading in the xylem is yet to be determined. However, anti porter CHX21 can be attributed to active loading of sodium into the xylem.
467:
into the cytosol. In order to maintain the membrane potential, the sodium-potassium pump acts as a form of direct active transport where the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and an inorganic phosphate at the P-type ATPase moves 3 potassium ions back out of the cell and 2 sodium ions into the cell.
427:
system ordinarily works well to cause drinking or urination to restore the body's sodium concentrations to normal, this system can be used in medical treatment to regulate the body's total fluid content, by first controlling the body's sodium content. Thus, when a powerful
126:
for sodium is 1.2 to 1.5 g per day, but on average people in the United States consume 3.4 g per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension. Note that salt contains about 39.3% sodium by massâthe rest being chlorine and other trace chemicals; thus the
512:
Pictured on the left is the working CFTR where the ions are able to move through the cells and the mucus is thinned out. On the right is a not functioning CFTR that prevents the movements of ions and causes thicker mucus in the airway
181:, pumping ions against the gradient, and sodium-potassium channels. Sodium channels are known to be less selective in comparison to potassium channels. Sodium is the most prominent cation in extracellular fluid: in the 15 L of
204:
of the membranes with potentially fatal consequences. However, drugs with smaller effects on sodium ion motion in nerves may have diverse pharmacological effects that range from anti-depressant to anti-seizure actions.
411:
production. Nitric oxide (NO) contributes to vessel homeostasis by inhibiting vascular smooth muscle contraction and growth, platelet aggregation, and leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium.
458:
Here is a hand-drawn depiction of a membrane bound sodium-potassium pump and sodium and potassium ion channels can be seen along with the directed movement of the ions indicated by arrows.
368:
Although the system for maintaining optimal salt and water balance in the body is a complex one, one of the primary ways in which the human body keeps track of loss of body water is that
110:
The minimum physiological requirement for sodium is between 115 and 500 mg per day depending on sweating due to physical activity, and whether the person is adapted to the climate.
1535:
376:
sense a balance of sodium and water concentration in extracellular fluids. Relative loss of body water will cause sodium concentration to rise higher than normal, a condition known as
326:
can lead to enzyme inhibition, which in turn causes necrosis and chlorosis. To avoid these problems, plants developed mechanisms that limit sodium uptake by roots, store them in cell
651:
Pohl, Hanna R.; Wheeler, John S.; Murray, H. Edward (2013). "Chapter 2. Sodium and
Potassium in Health and Disease". In Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K. O. Sigel (ed.).
128:
500:, where there is roughly a 3-4 fold up-regulation of the sodium-glucose symporter (SGLT1). This leads to an influx of glucose into the cell and results in hyperglycemia.
225:
the sodium ion as "salty." Receptors for the pure salty taste respond best to sodium; otherwise, the receptors respond only to a few other small monovalent cations (
892:
1382:
Pirahanchi Y, Jessu R, Aeddula NR. Physiology, Sodium
Potassium Pump. . In: StatPearls . Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from:
1957:
531:
888:
740:
National
Research Council (US) Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (1989). "10". In National Academies Press (US) (ed.).
1397:"The concentration of sodium,potassium pumps in chronic obstructive lung disease (COLD) patients: the impact of magnesium depletion and steroid treatment"
518:
1510:
1542:
380:. This ordinarily results in thirst. Conversely, an excess of body water caused by drinking will result in too little sodium in the blood (
1262:
Clausen, Michael Jakob
Voldsgaard; Poulsen, Hanne (2013). "Chapter 3 Sodium/Potassium Homeostasis in the Cell". In Banci, Lucia (ed.).
994:
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system may sense lowered sodium concentration in the blood and then direct compensatory urinary water loss in order to correct the
884:
1299:
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and aiding in the opening and closing of stomata. Excess sodium in the soil limits the uptake of water due to decreased
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and other mineral sources. The animal need for sodium is probably the reason for the highly conserved ability to
165:, which depends on sodium ion motion across the nerve cell membrane, in all nerves. Sodium is thus important in
1628:
777:
of patterns of physical activity and climatic exposure, a safe minimum intake might be set at 500 mg/day.
249:
ion (Ca) also tastes salty and sometimes bitter to some people but, like potassium, can trigger other tastes.
1906:
396:, and a consequent loss of water in the urine, which acts to restore blood sodium concentrations to normal.
1528:
150:
1452:"Rapid Upregulation of Sodium-Glucose Transporter SGLT1 in Response to Intestinal Sweet Taste Stimulation"
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883:
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185:
in a 70 kg human there is around 50 grams of sodium, 90% of the body's total sodium content.
154:
75:
reflect what happens when the body has too much or too little sodium. Characteristic concentrations of
114:
is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for
1962:
1786:
1122:
Subbarao, G. V.; Ito, O.; Berry, W. L.; Wheeler, R. M. (2003). "SodiumâA Functional Plant
Nutrient".
454:
24:
945:"Impact of dietary and lifestyle factors on the prevalence of hypertension in Western populations"
252:
Sodium ions play a diverse and important role in many physiological processes, acting to regulate
303:
281:
1314:
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217:
will generally be very low in sodium. This requires some herbivores to obtain their sodium from
1798:
862:
162:
139:
72:
1369:
Ma, Yunyan. "The
Significance of Sodium-Potassium Pump (Naâş, Kâş-ATPase) in Neural Signaling."
91:
lumen when the active Cystic
Fibrosis Transport Receptor moves chloride ions into the airway.
1738:
1613:
983:
816:
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277:
87:, 30 mM in budding yeast, 10 mM in mammalian cell and 100 mM in blood plasma.
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28:
8:
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Stearns, Adam T.; Balakrishnan, Anita; Rhoads, David B.; Tavakkolizadeh, Ali (May 2010).
1325:
1099:"Manganese Nutrition and Photosynthesis in NAD-malic enzyme C4 plants Ph.D. dissertation"
572:
393:
182:
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80:
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563: â Electric potential difference between interior and exterior of a biological cell
1967:
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694:"Cell Biology by the Numbers: What are the concentrations of different ions in cells?"
142:/L (135 to 145 mmol/L). A serum sodium level of less than 135 mEq/L qualifies as
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63:. In animals, sodium ions are necessary for the aforementioned functions and for
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132:
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213:
Since only some plants need sodium and those in small quantities, a completely
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1828:
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146:, which is considered severe when the serum sodium level is below 125 mEq/L.
100:
60:
52:
1870:
1743:
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1348:
1289:
1248:
1215:"Sodium in plants: perception, signalling, and regulation of sodium fluxes"
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Dietary
Reference Intakes: Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate
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178:
56:
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leads to neurotransmitter secretion and ultimately signal transmission.
19:
1679:
1449:
1266:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 12. Springer. pp. 41â67.
655:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 13. Springer. pp. 29â47.
189:
68:
1520:
1340:
323:
311:
295:
285:
306:(involved in the biosynthesis of various aromatic compounds, and in
1763:
1671:
1655:
828:
429:
359:
135:. The average daily excretion of sodium is between 40 and 220 mEq.
115:
753:
1771:
401:
327:
246:
173:; the distribution of sodium ions are mediated in all animals by
138:
Normal serum sodium levels are between approximately 135 and 145
1687:
1663:
1647:
1638:
504:
Sodium's role in the Cystic Fibrosis Transport Regulator (CFTR)
339:
166:
131:
of 2.3 g sodium would be about 5.9 g of saltâabout 1
76:
48:
44:
725:
Alberts, B; Hopkin, K; Johnson, A; Morgan, D; Raff, M (2019).
653:
Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases
310:) and synthesis of chlorophyll. In others, it substitutes for
900:(7th ed.). U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 22.
322:, which may result in wilting; similar concentrations in the
222:
64:
40:
407:
In humans, a high-salt intake was demonstrated to attenuate
47:
as a nutrient is more generally needed in larger amounts by
1516:
Oregon State University â Micronutrient Information Center
724:
200:
in nerves and muscles, causing a massive and irreversible
302:
that aids in metabolism, specifically in regeneration of
1121:
984:
General, Organic, and Biochemistry: An Applied Approach
265:
943:
Geleijnse, J. M.; Kok, F. J.; Grobbee, D. E. (2004).
345:
598:"A plastidial sodium-dependent pyruvate transporter"
942:
39:) are necessary in small amounts for some types of
741:
169:function and osmoregulation between cells and the
1371:Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology
650:
539: â Neuron communication by electric impulses
94:
1944:
1511:Brooks/Cole publishers â Sodium Potassium pump
1261:
196:, increase the sodium ion permeability of the
27:, a critical enzyme for regulating sodium and
1958:Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements
1536:
1384:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537088/
532:Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements
444:
400:as water moves suddenly into cells with high
122:; most of it comes from processed foods. The
889:U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
384:), a condition which is again sensed by the
1157:Zhu, J. K. (2001). "Plant salt tolerance".
478:
333:
51:, due to their use of it for generation of
1543:
1529:
519:Cystic Fibrosis Transport Regulator (CFTR)
1483:
1394:
1230:
960:
790:"Sodium and Potassium Quick Health Facts"
1212:
1071:
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507:
482:
453:
449:
18:
1550:
863:"How much sodium should I eat per day?"
691:
1945:
1096:
894:Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010
314:in several roles, such as maintaining
1524:
857:
855:
569: â Use of Potassium by organisms
557: â Use of Magnesium by organisms
1213:Maathuis, Frans J. M. (2014-03-01).
720:
718:
716:
714:
591:
589:
575: â Use of Selenium by organisms
1641: (Core six elements)
1413:10.1046/j.1365-2796.1997.69891000.x
1156:
545: â Use of calcium by organisms
13:
1124:Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences
1076:. Benjamin/Cummings. p. 795.
865:. American Heart Association. 2016
852:
596:Furumoto, Tsuyoshi (24 Aug 2011).
551: â Use of Iodine by organisms
346:Sodium and water balance in humans
157:indirectly regulate the amount of
14:
1989:
1504:
1104:. University of Missouri-Columbia
949:European Journal of Public Health
748:. National Academies Press (US).
711:
586:
414:
821:United States National Academies
208:
79:in model organisms are: 10
1443:
1395:Ravn, H. B.; DøRup, I. (2003).
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1185:
1150:
1115:
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1065:
1044:
1023:
999:
988:
977:
936:
177:, which are active transporter
1629:Biological aspects of fluorine
1219:Journal of Experimental Botany
1193:"Plants and salt ion toxicity"
885:U.S. Department of Agriculture
877:
803:
782:
744:Recommended Dietary Allowances
733:
685:
644:
95:Sodium distribution in species
1:
1907:Composition of the human body
1171:10.1016/S1360-1385(00)01838-0
579:
1468:10.1097/SLA.0b013e3181d96e1f
1401:Journal of Internal Medicine
815:. Food and Nutrition Board,
129:Tolerable Upper Intake Level
7:
1917:Mineral (Essential element)
1272:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-1_3
661:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_2
525:
392:hormone secretion from the
10:
1994:
1932:Uranium in the environment
445:Sodium at a cellular level
441:(low blood sodium) state.
349:
290:Crop tolerance to seawater
275:
155:atrial natriuretic peptide
98:
16:Use of sodium by organisms
1899:
1787:Acute beryllium poisoning
1762:
1699:
1637:
1556:
1136:10.1080/07352680390243495
692:Milo, Ron; Philips, Rob.
271:
105:
1264:Metallomics and the Cell
729:(5th ed.). Pearson.
494:sodium-glucose symporter
479:Sodium-glucose symporter
388:, causing a decrease in
334:Sodium and Water Balance
151:reninâangiotensin system
1159:Trends in Plant Science
1072:Campbell, Neil (1987).
962:10.1093/eurpub/14.3.235
282:Salt tolerance of crops
55:and for maintenance of
1799:Chlorine gas poisoning
1097:Kering, M. K. (2008).
727:Essential Cell Biology
514:
489:
459:
338:Sodium is the primary
175:sodiumâpotassium pumps
163:central nervous system
73:health effects of salt
32:
1772:Argyria (Silver)
1614:Molybdenum in biology
995:Table Salt Conversion
817:Institute of Medicine
511:
486:
464:sodium-potassium pump
457:
450:Sodium-potassium pump
278:Soil salinity control
67:activity and certain
25:sodiumâpotassium pump
22:
1912:Lithium (medication)
1624:Arsenic biochemistry
1584:Manganese in biology
1574:Potassium in biology
1569:Magnesium in biology
567:Potassium in biology
555:Magnesium in biology
1782:Beryllium poisoning
1609:Selenium in biology
1551:Elements in biology
1373:66 (2023): 208-212.
698:book.bionumbers.org
622:10.1038/nature10250
614:2011Natur.476..472F
573:Selenium in biology
394:posterior pituitary
304:phosphoenolpyruvate
262:osmotic equilibrium
183:extracellular fluid
171:extracellular fluid
159:signal transduction
1953:Biological systems
1876:Thallium poisoning
1579:Calcium in biology
1232:10.1093/jxb/ert326
561:Membrane potential
543:Calcium in biology
515:
490:
460:
33:
1940:
1939:
1886:Toxic heavy metal
1871:Selenium toxicity
1856:Mercury poisoning
1824:Fluoride toxicity
1819:Cadmium poisoning
1804:Chromium toxicity
1777:Arsenic poisoning
1619:Iodine in biology
1599:Copper in biology
1594:Cobalt in biology
1564:Sodium in biology
1456:Annals of Surgery
1341:10.1159/000063555
1300:978-94-007-5561-1
1281:978-94-007-5560-4
907:978-0-16-087941-8
891:(December 2010).
838:978-0-309-09169-5
763:978-0-309-04633-6
670:978-94-007-7499-5
608:(7361): 472â475.
549:Iodine in biology
1985:
1963:Dietary minerals
1851:Lithium toxicity
1809:Cobalt poisoning
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1033:. MayoClinic.com
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1007:"Sodium - Urine"
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992:
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918:. Archived from
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241:and somewhat to
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215:plant-based diet
38:
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1922:Oxygen toxicity
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1814:Copper toxicity
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1604:Zinc in biology
1589:Iron in biology
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1195:. Plant Biology
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498:type 2 diabetes
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350:Main articles:
348:
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320:water potential
316:turgor pressure
308:carbon fixation
292:
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211:
124:Adequate Intake
112:Sodium chloride
108:
103:
97:
71:functions. The
36:
31:levels in cells
17:
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5:
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1861:Metal toxicity
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1052:"Hyponatremia"
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1031:"Hyponatremia"
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412:
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405:
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378:hypernatremia
375:
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370:osmoreceptors
365:
361:
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356:Hypernatremia
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209:Other animals
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194:batrachotoxin
191:
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161:in the human
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101:Halotolerance
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1701:Deficiencies
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435:osmoreceptor
425:osmoreceptor
421:hypothalamus
419:Because the
418:
409:nitric oxide
406:
398:
386:hypothalamus
382:hyponatremia
374:hypothalamus
367:
352:Hyponatremia
337:
293:
254:blood volume
251:
212:
188:Some potent
187:
179:solute pumps
148:
144:hyponatremia
137:
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1792:Berylliosis
1329:Blood Purif
1309:electronic-
390:vasopressin
364:Vasopressin
190:neurotoxins
57:electrolyte
1947:Categories
1739:Molybdenum
1199:2010-11-02
1108:2011-11-09
1058:2013-06-30
1054:. Medscape
1037:2010-09-01
1016:2022-04-29
929:2011-11-23
869:21 October
844:21 October
795:7 November
580:References
276:See also:
219:salt licks
192:, such as
99:See also:
1968:Nutrition
1734:Manganese
1729:Potassium
1683:hosphorus
1476:0003-4932
1421:0954-6820
1315:1868-0402
1307:1559-0836
1241:0022-0957
916:738512922
638:205225645
324:cytoplasm
312:potassium
296:C4 plants
286:Halophyte
69:metabolic
29:potassium
1973:Serology
1764:Toxicity
1749:Selenium
1709:Chromium
1557:Elements
1494:20395849
1437:28561998
1357:46833231
1349:12207094
1290:23595670
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526:See also
430:diuretic
360:Diuretic
328:vacuoles
153:and the
133:teaspoon
116:pickling
1900:Related
1675:itrogen
1659:ydrogen
1485:4123655
1429:9042090
1074:Biology
703:8 March
610:Bibcode
492:In the
402:osmolar
372:in the
247:calcium
245:). The
85:E. coli
49:animals
1978:Sodium
1744:Sodium
1724:Iodine
1714:Copper
1639:CHONPS
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362:, and
340:cation
288:, and
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167:neuron
106:Humans
77:sodium
45:sodium
43:, but
41:plants
1691:ulfur
1667:xygen
1651:arbon
1433:S2CID
1353:S2CID
1140:S2CID
1102:(PDF)
923:(PDF)
898:(PDF)
634:S2CID
223:taste
120:jerky
65:heart
1754:Zinc
1719:Iron
1490:PMID
1472:ISSN
1425:PMID
1417:ISSN
1345:PMID
1311:ISSN
1303:ISSN
1296:ISBN
1286:PMID
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967:PMID
912:OCLC
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