716:). ADH then enters the bloodstream and signals the kidney to bring back sufficient solute-free water from the fluid in the kidney tubules to dilute the serum sodium back to normal, and this turns off the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. Also, thirst is stimulated. Normally, when mild hyponatremia begins to occur, that is, the serum sodium begins to fall below 135 mEq/L, there is no secretion of ADH, and the kidney stops returning water to the body from the kidney tubule. Also, no thirst is experienced. These two act in concert to raise the serum sodium to the normal range.
2611:
752:, 3) overzealous intravenous solute free water infusion, or 4) infantile water intoxication. "Impairment of urine diluting ability related to ADH" occurs in nine situations: 1) arterial volume depletion 2) hemodynamically mediated, 3) congestive heart failure, 4) cirrhosis, 5) nephrosis, 6) spinal cord disease, 7) Addison's disease, 8) cerebral salt wasting, and 9) syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH). If the feed-back system is normal, but an
1015:. The disorder is more frequent in females, the elderly, and in people who are hospitalized. The number of cases of hyponatremia depends largely on the population. In hospital it affects about 15–20% of people; however, only 3–5% of people who are hospitalized have a sodium level less than 130 mmol/L. Hyponatremia has been reported in up to 30% of the elderly in nursing homes and is also present in approximately 30% of people who are depressed on
40:
895:
recommended. A rapid rise in serum sodium is anticipated in certain groups when the cause of the hyponatremia is addressed thus warranting closer monitoring in order to avoid overly rapid correction of the blood sodium concentration. These groups include persons who have hypovolemic hyponatremia and receive intravenous fluids (thus correcting their hypovolemia), persons with adrenal insufficiency who receive
381:. Lower levels of plasma sodium are associated with more severe symptoms. However, mild hyponatremia (plasma sodium levels at 131–135 mmol/L) may be associated with complications and subtle symptoms (for example, increased falls, altered posture and gait, reduced attention, impaired cognition, and possibly higher rates of death).
970:, may be slightly more effective than fluid restriction in those with high volume or normal volume hyponatremia. They should not be used in people with low volume. They may also be used in people with chronic hyponatremia due to SIADH that is insufficiently responsive to fluid restriction and/or sodium tablets.
422:
Symptom severity depends on how fast and how severe the drop in blood sodium level is. A gradual drop, even to very low levels, may be tolerated well if it occurs over several days or weeks, because of neuronal adaptation. The presence of underlying neurological disease such as a seizure disorder or
724:
Hyponatremia occurs 1) when the hypothalamic-kidney feedback loop is overwhelmed by increased fluid intake, 2) the feedback loop malfunctions such that ADH is always "turned on", 3) the receptors in the kidney are always "open" regardless of there being no signal from ADH to be open; or 4) there is
882:
Chronic hyponatremia is when sodium levels drop gradually over several days or weeks and symptoms and complications are typically moderate. Chronic hyponatremia is often called asymptomatic hyponatremia in clinical settings because it is thought to have no symptoms; however, emerging data suggests
817:
True hyponatremia, also known as hypotonic hyponatremia, is the most common type. It is often simply referred to as "hyponatremia." Hypotonic hyponatremia is categorized in 3 ways based on the person's blood volume status. Each category represents a different underlying reason for the increase in
784:
The history, physical exam, and laboratory testing are required to determine the underlying cause of hyponatremia. A blood test demonstrating a serum sodium less than 135 mmol/L is diagnostic for hyponatremia. The history and physical exam are necessary to help determine if the person is
894:
The treatment of hyponatremia depends on the underlying cause. How quickly treatment is required depends on a person's symptoms. Fluids are typically the cornerstone of initial management. In those with severe disease an increase in sodium of about 5 mmol/L over one to four hours is
785:
hypovolemic, euvolemic, or hypervolemic, which has important implications in determining the underlying cause. An assessment is also made to determine if the person is experiencing symptoms from their hyponatremia. These include assessments of alertness, concentration, and orientation.
936:
Severe hyponatremia or severe symptoms (confusion, convulsions, or coma): consider hypertonic saline (3%) 1–2 mL/kg IV in 3–4 h. Hypertonic saline may lead to a rapid dilute diuresis and fall in the serum sodium. It should not be used in those with an expanded extracellular fluid
958:
American and
European guidelines come to different conclusions regarding the use of medications. In the United States they are recommended in those with SIADH, cirrhosis, or heart failure who fail limiting fluid intake. In Europe they are not generally recommended.
1022:
People who have hyponatremia who require hospitalisation have a longer length of stay (with associated increased costs) and also have a higher likelihood of requiring readmission. This is particularly the case in men and in the elderly.
921:
Mild and asymptomatic hyponatremia is treated with adequate solute intake (including salt and protein) and fluid restriction starting at 500 millilitres per day (mL/d) of water with adjustments based on serum sodium levels. Long-term
759:
Sodium is the primary positively charged ion outside of the cell and cannot cross from the interstitial space into the cell. This is because charged sodium ions attract around them up to 25 water molecules, thereby creating a large
309:
while high volume hyponatremia is typically treated with both fluid restriction and a diet low in salt. Correction should generally be gradual in those in whom the low levels have been present for more than two days.
899:, persons in whom a medication causing increased ADH release has been stopped, and persons who have hyponatremia due to decreased salt and/or solute intake in their diet who are treated with a higher solute diet. If
3066:
3051:
929:
Moderate and/or symptomatic hyponatremia is treated by raising the serum sodium level by 0.5 to 1 mmol per liter per hour for a total of 8 mmol per liter during the first day with the use of
387:
symptoms typically occur with very low levels of plasma sodium (usually <115 mmol/L). When sodium levels in the blood become very low, water enters the brain cells and causes them to swell (
851:, wherein the increase in ADH is secondary to either physiologic but excessive ADH release (as occurs with nausea or severe pain) or inappropriate and non-physiologic secretion of ADH, that is,
700:
There is a hypothalamic-kidney feedback system which normally maintains the concentration of the serum sodium within a narrow range. This system operates as follows: in some of the cells of the
321:
event. Among those in hospital, hyponatremia is associated with an increased risk of death. The economic costs of hyponatremia are estimated at $ 2.6 billion per annum in the United States.
2685:
Bernsen, HJ; Prick, MJ (September 1999). "Improvement of central pontine myelinolysis as demonstrated by repeated magnetic resonance imaging in a patient without evidence of hyponatremia".
1457:
Ball, S; De Groot, LJ; Beck-Peccoz, P; Chrousos, G; Dungan, K; Grossman, A; Hershman, JM; Koch, C; McLachlan, R; New, M; Rebar, R; Singer, F; Vinik, A; Weickert, MO (2000). "Hyponatremia".
2804:
301:
is only recommended in those with significant symptoms and occasionally those in whom the condition was of rapid onset. Low volume hyponatremia is typically treated with intravenous
2510:
SchĂĽrer, Ludwig; Wolf, Stefan; Lumenta, Christianto B. (2010). "Water and
Electrolyte Regulation". In Lumenta, Christianto B.; Di Rocco, Concezio; Haase, Jens; et al. (eds.).
855:(SIADH). Often categorized under euvolemic is hyponatremia due to inadequate urine solute (not enough chemicals or electrolytes to produce urine) as occurs in beer potomania or "
450:), without low tonicity, and falsely low sodiums. Those with low tonicity are then grouped by whether the person has high fluid volume, normal fluid volume, or low fluid volume.
3243:
852:
1897:
Mange, Kevin; Matsuura, D; Cizman, B; Soto, H; Ziyadeh, FN; Goldfarb, S; Neilson, EG (1997). "Language
Guiding Therapy: The Case of Dehydration versus Volume Depletion".
886:
Acute hyponatremia is when sodium levels drop rapidly, resulting in potentially dangerous effects, such as rapid brain swelling, which can result in coma and death.
673:
compartments and subcompartments and their regulation; how under normal circumstances the body is able to maintain the sodium concentration within a narrow range (
263:
2480:
2849:
Corona, Giovanni; Giuliani, Corinna; Parenti, Gabriele; Colombo, Giorgio L.; Sforza, Alessandra; Maggi, Mario; Forti, Gianni; Peri, Alessandro (August 2016).
809:
occurs. It occurs when using techniques that measure the amount of sodium in a specified volume of serum/plasma, or that dilute the sample before analysis.
873:, wherein ADH secretion is stimulated by or associated with volume depletion (not enough water in the body) due to decreased effective circulating volume.
3183:
793:
False hyponatremia, also known as spurious, pseudo, hypertonic, or artifactual hyponatremia is when the lab tests read low sodium levels but there is no
2946:
744:
to ADH. If the feedback system is overwhelmed, this is water intoxication with maximally dilute urine and is caused by 1) pathological water drinking (
2986:
536:
Hypovolemia (extracellular volume loss) is due to total body sodium loss. Hyponatremia is caused by a relatively smaller loss in total body water.
2977:
403:
can occur, which is a squeezing of the brain across the internal structures of the skull. This can lead to headache, nausea, vomiting, confusion,
987:
by mouth, while not commonly used due to the taste, has tentative evidence in SIADH. However, it is not available in many areas of the world.
756:
occurs, this is 1) oliguric kidney failure, 2) tubular interstitial kidney disease, 3) diuretics, or 4) nephrogenic syndrome of antidiuresis.
1481:
2216:
Antunes-Rodrigues, J; de Castro, M; Elias, LL; Valença, MM; McCann, SM (January 2004). "Neuroendocrine control of body fluid metabolism".
1378:
297:
Treatment is based on the underlying cause. Correcting hyponatremia too quickly can lead to complications. Rapid partial correction with
2363:
Kwon, TH; Hager, H; Nejsum, LN; Andersen, ML; Frøkiaer, J; Nielsen, S (May 2001). "Physiology and pathophysiology of renal aquaporins".
1665:
833:
or swelling, especially in the ankles). The decreased effective circulating volume stimulates the release of anti-diuretic hormone (
3375:
3479:
3176:
1052:
317:, and is often found in older adults. It occurs in about 20% of those admitted to hospital and 10% of people during or after an
1016:
2951:
2833:
2535:
2464:
2423:
2347:
1978:
1951:
1659:
1438:
1372:
458:
Both sodium and water content increase: Increase in sodium content leads to hypervolemia and water content to hyponatremia.
3278:
764:
too large to pass through the cell membrane: "channels" or "pumps" are required. Cell swelling also produces activation of
1769:
Filippatos, TD; Liamis, G; Elisaf, MS (June 2016). "Ten pitfalls in the proper management of patients with hyponatremia".
692:); and the consequences of the malfunction of that system on the size and solute concentration of the fluid compartments.
3394:
2712:
Ashrafian, H.; Davey, P. (2001). "A review of the causes of central pontine myelinosis: yet another apoptotic illness?".
2910:
187:), with severe hyponatremia being below 120 mEq/L. Symptoms can be absent, mild or severe. Mild symptoms include a
3169:
2251:
Baylis, PH; Thompson, CJ (November 1988). "Osmoregulation of vasopressin secretion and thirst in health and disease".
1501:"Exploring hyponatremia in older hospital in-patients: management, association with falls, and other adverse outcomes"
3464:
2488:
588:
3370:
3238:
3226:
1012:
980:. In many people it has no benefit while in others it can result in overcorrection and high blood sodium levels.
963:
708:
which respond to an elevated serum sodium in body fluids by signalling the posterior pituitary gland to secrete
3441:
3389:
765:
558:
188:
797:. In hypertonic hyponatremia, resorption of water by molecules such as glucose (hyperglycemia or diabetes) or
641:
False or pseudo hyponatremia is caused by a false lab measurement of sodium due to massive increases in blood
3469:
2956:
1000:
996:
826:
566:
2994:
725:
an increased ADH even though there is no normal stimulus (elevated serum sodium) for ADH to be increased.
669:
The causes of and treatments for hyponatremia can only be understood by having a grasp of the size of the
572:
3015:
2119:"Hyponatremia in Association With Second-Generation Antipsychotics: A Systematic Review of Case Reports"
637:
Miscellaneous causes that are not included under the above classification scheme include the following:
976:, while sometimes used for SIADH, has significant side effects including potential kidney problems and
2615:
2987:"What Is Hyponatremia: Hyponatremia or water intoxication – Can Athletes Drink Too Much Water?"
1855:"Association Between Hyponatremia, Osteoporosis and Fracture: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis"
946:
In persons with hyponatremia due to low blood volume (hypovolemia) from diuretics with simultaneous
837:), which in turn leads to water retention. Hypervolemic hyponatremia is most commonly the result of
3272:
3268:
3200:
3081:
3021:
838:
587:
Prolonged exercise and sweating, combined with drinking water without electrolytes is the cause of
468:
1996:"Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for treatment of exercise-associated hyponatremia"
829:(less blood flowing in the body) even though total body volume is increased (by the presence of
3431:
2894:
Sandy Craig; Erik D Schraga; Francisco
Talavera; Howard A Bessen; John D Halamka (2010-04-13).
2519:
2335:
1941:
1362:
856:
342:
123:
3121:
2823:
1968:
1649:
1428:
3436:
3192:
2562:
864:
548:
392:
314:
247:
2511:
1910:
610:
have been reported to cause hyponatremia in a review of medical articles from 1946 to 2016.
423:
non-neurological metabolic abnormalities, also affects the severity of neurologic symptoms.
3334:
3311:
3233:
903:
are seen, this can be a warning sign that overcorrection is imminent in these individuals.
867:, and those rare instances of hyponatremia that are truly secondary to excess water intake.
802:
761:
728:
Hyponatremia occurs in one of two ways: either the osmoreceptor-aquaporin feedback loop is
709:
554:
2893:
2619:
2610:
426:
Hyponatremia, by interfering with bone metabolism, has been linked with a doubled risk of
8:
3070:
214:
The causes of hyponatremia are typically classified by a person's body fluid status into
2895:
2781:
2756:
2737:
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2637:
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2415:
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2581:
2531:
2512:
2460:
2437:
2429:
2419:
2406:
Diringer, M. (2017). "Neurologic manifestations of major electrolyte abnormalities".
2380:
2343:
2311:
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2099:
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2017:
1974:
1947:
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1336:
1282:
1196:
1152:
1147:
1130:
1099:
1083:
1075:
923:
629:
can lead to hyponatremia. Age is a significant factor for drug induced hyponatremia.
579:
which results in a lifelong tendency to lose excessive amounts of sodium by sweating.
374:
354:
306:
298:
113:
84:
58:
3132:
2741:
2280:
1926:
1208:
1095:
950:, correction of the low potassium level can assist with correction of hyponatremia.
3347:
3258:
2862:
2776:
2768:
2721:
2657:
2649:
2589:
2571:
2523:
2411:
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2007:
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1612:
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1401:
1326:
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1264:
1188:
1142:
1067:
657:
650:
591:(EAH). It is common in marathon runners and participants of other endurance events.
576:
400:
358:
283:
279:
200:
132:
1782:
1616:
1003:. It is recommended not to raise the serum sodium by more than 10 mEq/L/day.
801:(hypertonic infusion) occurs. In isotonic hyponatremia a measurement error due to
3474:
3319:
3086:
2867:
2850:
2527:
1738:
977:
689:
618:
416:
366:
318:
3419:
3324:
3296:
3288:
3208:
3138:
3135:
2307:
2229:
2194:
Sterns (2013). "Chapter 44. Antinatriureic peptides", in Seldin and
Giebisch's
2078:"High incidence of mild hyponatraemia in females using ecstasy at a rave party"
1405:
1331:
1314:
973:
896:
860:
749:
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622:
607:
513:
502:
388:
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251:
136:
51:
3097:
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2012:
1995:
1814:"The pathophysiology and treatment of hyponatraemic encephalopathy: An update"
1517:
1500:
1427:
Chatterjee, Kanu; Anderson, Mark; Heistad, Donald; Kerber, Richard E. (2014).
3458:
3414:
3301:
3264:
3254:
3221:
3213:
2930:
2772:
2653:
2585:
2433:
2180:
2167:
1526:
1392:
Ball, SG; Iqbal, Z (March 2016). "Diagnosis and treatment of hyponatraemia".
1079:
1071:
705:
614:
562:
547:
Diuretic use (due to the diuretic causing a volume depleted state and thence
431:
302:
291:
271:
267:
243:
239:
176:
140:
2576:
2376:
1994:
Bennett, BL; Hew-Butler, T; Hoffman, MD; Rogers, IR; Rosner, MH (Sep 2013).
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2698:
2671:
2603:
2441:
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2315:
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1200:
1156:
1087:
701:
642:
582:
443:
427:
384:
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219:
106:
2851:"The Economic Burden of Hyponatremia: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
2272:
1918:
1499:
Valle, Jana M.; Beveridge, Alexander; ChrĂłinĂn, Danielle NĂ (2022-02-16).
1192:
442:
The specific causes of hyponatremia are generally divided into those with
179:. It is generally defined as a sodium concentration of less than 135
3384:
3161:
3116:
2134:
2094:
2077:
2053:
2036:
1993:
1871:
1854:
1830:
1813:
1725:
Decaux, Guy (2006). "Is
Asymptomatic Hyponatremia Really Asymptomatic?".
947:
834:
806:
713:
674:
541:
492:
There is volume expansion in the body, no edema, but hyponatremia occurs
305:. SIADH is typically treated by correcting the underlying cause and with
215:
102:
1268:
3250:
3144:
967:
930:
681:
678:
670:
551:
release, and not a direct result of diuretic-induced urine sodium loss)
408:
255:
63:
3043:
2215:
1313:
Filippatos, TD; Liamis, G; Christopoulou, F; Elisaf, MS (April 2016).
278:. Conditions that can lead to falsely low sodium measurements include
3357:
3127:
2990:
2296:
Best
Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
2294:
Ball SG, Iqbal Z (2016). "Diagnosis and treatment of hyponatraemia".
1394:
Best
Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
1315:"Ten common pitfalls in the evaluation of patients with hyponatremia"
842:
773:
626:
519:
462:
346:
259:
231:
2558:"Vasopressin Receptor Antagonists in Hyponatremia: Uses and Misuses"
926:
of 1,200–1,800 mL/d may maintain the person in a symptom-free state.
565:
do not produce enough steroid hormones (combined glucocorticoid and
3027:
2900:
1312:
900:
798:
794:
685:
525:
350:
338:
334:
235:
227:
223:
204:
192:
88:
76:
2410:. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 141. pp. 705–13.
1129:
Williams, DM; Gallagher, M; Handley, J; Stephens, JW (July 2016).
544:
such as prolonged vomiting, decreased oral intake, severe diarrhea
2340:
Seldin and
Giebisch's The Kidney Physiology & Pathophysiology
2076:
Van Dijken, G. D.; Blom, R. E.; Hene, R. J.; Boer, W. H. (2013).
1482:"Doctor Found Guilty of Trying to Conceal Cause of Child's Death"
769:
447:
404:
128:
1128:
39:
3406:
3055:
2338:. In Alpern, Robert J.; Moe, Orson W.; Caplan, Michael (eds.).
1456:
1426:
883:
that "asymptomatic" hyponatremia is not actually asymptomatic.
330:
196:
180:
172:
80:
47:
2165:
2116:
995:
Raising the serum sodium concentration too rapidly may cause
853:
syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone hypersecretion
830:
818:
ADH that led to the water retention and thence hyponatremia:
496:
370:
184:
2848:
2755:
Abbott, R; Silber, E; Felber, J; Ekpo, E (8 October 2005).
1364:
Rosen's
Emergency Medicine – Concepts and Clinical Practice
984:
933:
and replacing sodium and potassium losses with 0.9% saline.
595:
508:
378:
208:
92:
1967:
Ronco, Claudio; Bellomo, Rinaldo; Kellum, John A. (2009).
1367:(8 ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 1639–42.
1251:
Lee, JJ; Kilonzo, K; Nistico, A; Yeates, K (13 May 2014).
1179:
Henry, DA (4 August 2015). "In The Clinic: Hyponatremia".
909:
Total body water = kilograms of body weight Ă— 0.6
906:
Sodium deficit = (140 – serum sodium) × total body water
2635:
264:
syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion
238:. Normal volume hyponatremia is divided into cases with
2944:
2809:
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
2362:
1896:
1853:
Upala, Sikarin; Sanguankeo, Anawin (25 February 2016).
1250:
2754:
2075:
2041:
Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology
1859:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
1768:
1654:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 205.
1598:
1498:
660:, causing a shift of excess free water into the serum.
2481:"Ask the Expert: May 2016 Investigating Hyponatremia"
999:. Rapid correction of sodium levels can also lead to
754:
impairment of urine diluting ability unrelated to ADH
3033:
2828:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 245–.
2636:
Zietse, R.; van der Lubbe, N.; Hoorn, E. J. (2009).
419:. This is usually fatal if not immediately treated.
2329:
2327:
2325:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1361:Marx, John; Walls, Ron; Hockberger, Robert (2013).
1360:
656:Hyponatremia with elevated tonicity can occur with
262:. Cases in which the urine is concentrated include
2555:
2509:
1966:
1599:Dineen, R; Thompson, CJ; Sherlock, M (June 2017).
246:urine. Cases in which the urine is dilute include
2333:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1756:
266:(SIADH). High volume hyponatremia can occur from
3456:
2322:
1672:
613:Available evidence suggests that all classes of
2984:
2911:"Hyponatremia and hypernatremia in the elderly"
2821:
2805:"Central Pontine Myelinolysis Information Page"
2638:"Current and future treatment options in SIADH"
1852:
2711:
2342:(5th ed.). Burlington: Elsevier Science.
2250:
1753:
1601:"Hyponatraemia – presentations and management"
3177:
2908:
2631:
2629:
2556:Rondon-Berrios, Helbert; Berl, Tomas (2017).
2551:
2549:
2547:
1943:Knobil and Neill's Physiology of Reproduction
1940:Plant, Tony M.; Zeleznik, Anthony J. (2014).
1939:
33:Hyponatraemia, low blood sodium, hyponatræmia
2976:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2705:
2684:
2034:
941:
575:(Carbonic anhydrase XII deficiency), a rare
2485:American Association for Clinical Chemistry
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1240:
1238:
329:Signs and symptoms of hyponatremia include
3191:
3184:
3170:
2626:
2544:
2334:Sterns, RH; Silver, SM; Hicks, JK (2013).
1811:
1805:
1562:
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1548:
1546:
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1257:CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal
1236:
1234:
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1228:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1131:"The clinical management of hyponatraemia"
38:
2866:
2780:
2661:
2593:
2575:
2459:(Fifth ed.). Aspen Publishers, Inc.
2293:
2179:
2166:Swapnajeet Sahoo; Sandeep Grover (2016).
2142:
2093:
2052:
2011:
1973:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 517.
1870:
1829:
1701:
1686:"Does 'asymptomatic hyponatremia' exist?"
1624:
1516:
1391:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1330:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1276:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1146:
1124:
1122:
1120:
222:. Low volume hyponatremia can occur from
2815:
2518:. European Manual of Medicine. pp.
2454:
2405:
2356:
2117:Sarah Naz Ali; Lydia A. Bazzano (2018).
1892:
1890:
313:Hyponatremia is the most common type of
2678:
2000:Wilderness & Environmental Medicine
1911:10.7326/0003-4819-127-9-199711010-00020
1683:
1541:
1479:
1447:
1385:
1215:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1017:selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
1011:Hyponatremia is the most commonly seen
877:
3457:
2748:
1724:
1651:Hyponatremia: Evaluation and Treatment
1347:
1293:
1163:
1117:
399:. As pressure increases in the skull,
3165:
2952:Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy
1887:
1647:
1319:European Journal of Internal Medicine
1178:
1053:"SIADH Associated With Ciprofloxacin"
1050:
788:
736:. If it is interrupted, it is either
695:
598:(ecstasy) can result in hyponatremia.
324:
203:. Severe symptoms include confusion,
16:Low sodium concentration in the blood
3279:Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia
2945:James L. Lewis, III, MD (May 2009).
2896:"Hyponatremia in Emergency Medicine"
1033:
859:" hyponatremia, hyponatremia due to
812:
446:(lower than normal concentration of
3395:Hypokalemic sensory overstimulation
2082:Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation
1818:Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation
1812:Moritz, M. L.; Ayus, J. C. (2003).
768:which is related to the release of
13:
2909:Kugler JP, Hustead T (June 2000).
2887:
2416:10.1016/B978-0-444-63599-0.00038-7
2265:10.1111/j.1365-2265.1988.tb03704.x
2204:10.1016/B978-0-12-381462-3.00037-9
2172:Journal of Geriatric Mental Health
2037:"Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia"
1001:central pontine myelinolysis (CPM)
664:
417:accumulation of fluid in the lungs
14:
3491:
3009:
2035:Rosner, M.H.; Kirven, J. (2006).
962:There is tentative evidence that
625:, mood stabilizers, and sedative/
377:, and decreased consciousness or
2855:The American Journal of Medicine
2757:"Osmotic demyelination syndrome"
2726:10.1046/j.1468-1331.2001.00176.x
2614: This article incorporates
2609:
1946:. Academic Press. p. 1962.
1727:The American Journal of Medicine
1668:from the original on 2016-08-15.
1480:Pilling, Kim (8 November 2022).
1381:from the original on 2016-08-15.
1148:10.1136/postgradmedj-2015-133740
964:vasopressin receptor antagonists
589:exercise-associated hyponatremia
487:
3371:Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis
3239:Disorders of calcium metabolism
2842:
2797:
2503:
2473:
2448:
2408:Critical Care Neurology Part II
2399:
2287:
2244:
2209:
2188:
2168:"Hyonatremia and psychotropics"
2159:
2110:
2069:
2028:
1987:
1960:
1933:
1846:
1718:
1641:
1492:
1473:
1433:. JP Medical Ltd. p. 142.
1006:
766:volume-regulated anion channels
719:
645:levels or extreme elevation of
632:
3480:Wilderness medical emergencies
3442:Cerebral salt-wasting syndrome
3390:Hypokalemic periodic paralysis
2985:Elizabeth Quinn (2011-03-07).
2198:, Fifth Edition. pp. 1511–13.
1420:
997:osmotic demyelination syndrome
990:
953:
559:congenital adrenal hyperplasia
453:
1:
2714:European Journal of Neurology
1783:10.1080/00325481.2016.1186488
1617:10.7861/clinmedicine.17-3-263
1060:The Annals of Pharmacotherapy
1026:
901:large volumes of dilute urine
825:, wherein there is decreased
803:high blood triglyceride level
684:); conditions can cause that
602:
531:
518:Normal physiologic change of
479:Excessive water consumption (
391:). This results in increased
3028:ICD-10 code for Hyponatremia
2868:10.1016/j.amjmed.2016.03.007
2528:10.1007/978-3-540-79565-0_40
1739:10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.05.013
1253:"Management of hyponatremia"
1135:Postgraduate Medical Journal
889:
827:effective circulating volume
779:
567:mineralocorticoid deficiency
131:intoxication or withdrawal,
118:Serum sodium < 135 mmol/L
75:Decreased ability to think,
7:
3244:Hypercalcemia of malignancy
2761:BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.)
1899:Annals of Internal Medicine
1684:Schrier, Robert W. (2010).
1181:Annals of Internal Medicine
1013:water–electrolyte imbalance
573:Isolated hyperchlorhidrosis
397:hyponatremic encephalopathy
10:
3496:
2825:Physician Assistant Review
2455:Sabatine, Marc S. (2014).
2308:10.1016/j.beem.2015.12.001
2230:10.1152/physrev.00017.2003
1406:10.1016/j.beem.2015.12.001
1332:10.1016/j.ejim.2015.11.022
1051:Babar, S. (October 2013).
948:low blood potassium levels
849:Normal volume hyponatremia
189:decreased ability to think
171:is a low concentration of
3405:
3356:
3333:
3310:
3287:
3199:
3107:
3037:
2838:– via Google Books.
2174:. 3(2):108-122 (2): 108.
2013:10.1016/j.wem.2013.01.011
1690:Nature Reviews Nephrology
1518:10.1016/j.ahr.2022.100060
1505:Aging and Health Research
1469:. Accessed 1 August 2016.
1443:– via Google Books.
942:Electrolyte abnormalities
912:
437:
430:and an increased risk of
280:high blood protein levels
154:
150:Based on underlying cause
146:
122:
112:
98:
69:
57:
46:
37:
29:
24:
3465:Electrolyte disturbances
3273:Dystrophic calcification
3269:Metastatic calcification
2822:Patrick C. Auth (2012).
2773:10.1136/bmj.331.7520.829
2687:Acta Neurologica Belgica
2648:(Suppl_3): iii12–iii19.
2181:10.4103/2348-9995.195604
1970:Critical Care Nephrology
1072:10.1177/1060028013502457
839:congestive heart failure
823:High volume hyponatremia
469:Congestive heart failure
2642:Clinical Kidney Journal
2577:10.3389/fmed.2017.00141
2377:10.1053/snep.2001.21647
1648:Simon, Eric E. (2014).
1430:Manual of Heart Failure
871:Low volume hyponatremia
688:system to malfunction (
401:herniation of the brain
256:drinking too much water
3193:Electrolyte imbalances
2654:10.1093/ndtplus/sfp154
2365:Seminars in Nephrology
2253:Clinical Endocrinology
1703:10.1038/nrneph.2010.21
746:psychogenic polydipsia
415:, and non-cardiogenic
343:short-term memory loss
124:Differential diagnosis
2563:Frontiers in Medicine
2218:Physiological Reviews
1771:Postgraduate Medicine
1193:10.7326/aitc201508040
865:adrenal insufficiency
499:(and its many causes)
393:pressure in the skull
315:electrolyte imbalance
288:high blood fat levels
248:adrenal insufficiency
137:high blood fat levels
3470:Mineral deficiencies
3234:Milk-alkali syndrome
2618:available under the
2135:10.31486/toj.17.0059
2054:10.2215/CJN.02730806
1872:10.1210/jc.2015-4228
878:Acute versus chronic
845:, or kidney disease.
710:antidiuretic hormone
218:, normal volume, or
3218:Symptoms and signs
3024:at Lab Tests Online
2123:The Ochsner Journal
1269:10.1503/cmaj.120887
966:(vaptans), such as
211:; death can ensue.
133:high protein levels
3108:External resources
3018:at the Mayo Clinic
2336:"44: Hyponatremia"
2095:10.1093/ndt/gft023
1831:10.1093/ndt/gfg394
789:False hyponatremia
696:Normal homeostasis
481:Water intoxication
474:Nephrotic syndrome
413:respiratory arrest
325:Signs and symptoms
319:endurance sporting
50:, as shown on the
3452:
3451:
3159:
3158:
2861:(8): 823–835.e4.
2835:978-1-4511-7129-7
2537:978-3-540-79565-0
2466:978-1-4511-9378-7
2425:978-0-444-63599-0
2349:978-0-12-381463-0
1980:978-1-4160-4252-5
1953:978-0-12-397769-4
1661:978-1-4614-6645-1
1605:Clinical Medicine
1440:978-93-5090-630-9
1374:978-1-4557-4987-4
924:fluid restriction
917:Options include:
813:True hyponatremia
805:(most common) or
776:from astrocytes.
555:Addison's disease
307:fluid restriction
162:
161:
158:Relatively common
114:Diagnostic method
105:, normal volume,
19:Medical condition
3487:
3259:Calcinosis cutis
3186:
3179:
3172:
3163:
3162:
3035:
3034:
3030:- Diagnosis Code
3005:
3003:
3002:
2993:. Archived from
2981:
2975:
2967:
2965:
2964:
2955:. Archived from
2941:
2939:
2938:
2929:. Archived from
2915:Am Fam Physician
2905:
2881:
2880:
2870:
2846:
2840:
2839:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2784:
2767:(7520): 829–30.
2752:
2746:
2745:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2665:
2633:
2624:
2613:
2607:
2597:
2579:
2553:
2542:
2541:
2517:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2487:. Archived from
2477:
2471:
2470:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2331:
2320:
2319:
2291:
2285:
2284:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2213:
2207:
2206:. Elsevier Inc.
2192:
2186:
2185:
2183:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2146:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2097:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2056:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2015:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1894:
1885:
1884:
1874:
1850:
1844:
1843:
1833:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1766:
1751:
1750:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1705:
1681:
1670:
1669:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1628:
1596:
1539:
1538:
1520:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1454:
1445:
1444:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1389:
1383:
1382:
1358:
1345:
1344:
1334:
1310:
1291:
1290:
1280:
1248:
1213:
1212:
1176:
1161:
1160:
1150:
1141:(1089): 407–11.
1126:
1115:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1104:
1098:. Archived from
1057:
1048:
658:high blood sugar
651:multiple myeloma
649:as may occur in
577:genetic disorder
411:compression and
359:loss of appetite
299:3% normal saline
292:high blood sugar
284:multiple myeloma
141:high blood sugar
42:
22:
21:
3495:
3494:
3490:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3485:
3484:
3455:
3454:
3453:
3448:
3401:
3352:
3329:
3306:
3283:
3195:
3190:
3160:
3155:
3154:
3103:
3102:
3046:
3012:
3000:
2998:
2969:
2968:
2962:
2960:
2936:
2934:
2921:(12): 3623–30.
2890:
2888:Further reading
2885:
2884:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2820:
2816:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2753:
2749:
2710:
2706:
2683:
2679:
2634:
2627:
2554:
2545:
2538:
2508:
2504:
2494:
2492:
2479:
2478:
2474:
2467:
2457:Pocket medicine
2453:
2449:
2426:
2404:
2400:
2361:
2357:
2350:
2332:
2323:
2292:
2288:
2249:
2245:
2214:
2210:
2193:
2189:
2164:
2160:
2115:
2111:
2074:
2070:
2033:
2029:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1938:
1934:
1895:
1888:
1851:
1847:
1824:(12): 2486–91.
1810:
1806:
1767:
1754:
1723:
1719:
1682:
1673:
1662:
1646:
1642:
1597:
1542:
1497:
1493:
1478:
1474:
1455:
1448:
1441:
1425:
1421:
1390:
1386:
1375:
1359:
1348:
1311:
1294:
1249:
1216:
1177:
1164:
1127:
1118:
1108:
1106:
1102:
1066:(10): 1359–63.
1055:
1049:
1034:
1029:
1009:
993:
978:sun sensitivity
956:
944:
915:
892:
880:
815:
807:paraproteinemia
791:
782:
762:polar structure
722:
698:
690:pathophysiology
667:
665:Pathophysiology
647:immunoglobulins
635:
619:antidepressants
605:
534:
490:
456:
440:
367:muscle weakness
327:
20:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3493:
3483:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3446:
3445:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3424:
3423:
3422:
3420:Salt poisoning
3411:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3397:
3392:
3382:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3378:
3362:
3360:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3350:
3345:
3339:
3337:
3331:
3330:
3328:
3327:
3322:
3316:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3293:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3276:
3262:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3236:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3227:Trousseau sign
3224:
3216:
3211:
3205:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3189:
3188:
3181:
3174:
3166:
3157:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3141:
3124:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3105:
3104:
3101:
3100:
3089:
3078:
3063:
3047:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3038:Classification
3032:
3031:
3025:
3019:
3011:
3010:External links
3008:
3007:
3006:
2982:
2947:"Hyponatremia"
2942:
2906:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2841:
2834:
2814:
2796:
2747:
2704:
2677:
2625:
2543:
2536:
2502:
2491:on 8 June 2016
2472:
2465:
2447:
2424:
2398:
2355:
2348:
2321:
2286:
2243:
2224:(1): 169–208.
2208:
2187:
2158:
2129:(3): 230–235.
2109:
2088:(9): 2277–83.
2068:
2027:
1986:
1979:
1959:
1952:
1932:
1886:
1865:(4): 1880–86.
1845:
1804:
1752:
1717:
1671:
1660:
1640:
1540:
1491:
1472:
1446:
1439:
1419:
1384:
1373:
1346:
1292:
1263:(8): E281–86.
1214:
1187:(3): ITC1–19.
1162:
1116:
1105:on May 1, 2015
1031:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1008:
1005:
992:
989:
974:Demeclocycline
955:
952:
943:
940:
939:
938:
934:
927:
914:
911:
897:hydrocortisone
891:
888:
879:
876:
875:
874:
868:
861:hypothyroidism
846:
814:
811:
790:
787:
781:
778:
750:beer potomania
721:
718:
697:
694:
666:
663:
662:
661:
654:
634:
631:
623:antipsychotics
608:Antipsychotics
604:
601:
600:
599:
592:
585:
580:
570:
563:adrenal glands
552:
545:
533:
530:
529:
528:
522:
516:
514:Beer potomania
511:
505:
503:Hypothyroidism
500:
489:
486:
485:
484:
477:
476:in the kidneys
471:
466:
455:
452:
439:
436:
389:cerebral edema
326:
323:
276:kidney failure
252:hypothyroidism
160:
159:
156:
152:
151:
148:
144:
143:
126:
120:
119:
116:
110:
109:
100:
96:
95:
73:
67:
66:
61:
55:
54:
52:periodic table
44:
43:
35:
34:
31:
27:
26:
18:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3492:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3429:
3428:
3425:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3416:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3408:
3404:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3386:
3383:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3372:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3336:
3332:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3309:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3286:
3280:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3265:Calcification
3263:
3260:
3256:
3255:Calciphylaxis
3252:
3249:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3222:Chvostek sign
3220:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3187:
3182:
3180:
3175:
3173:
3168:
3167:
3164:
3151:
3147:
3146:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3130:
3129:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3113:
3110:
3106:
3099:
3095:
3094:
3090:
3088:
3084:
3083:
3079:
3077:
3073:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3062:
3058:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3048:
3045:
3040:
3036:
3029:
3026:
3023:
3020:
3017:
3014:
3013:
2997:on 2009-10-28
2996:
2992:
2988:
2983:
2979:
2973:
2959:on 2011-01-11
2958:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2933:on 2011-06-06
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2907:
2903:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2891:
2878:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2845:
2837:
2831:
2827:
2826:
2818:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2792:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2720:(2): 103–09.
2719:
2715:
2708:
2700:
2696:
2693:(3): 189–93.
2692:
2688:
2681:
2673:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2630:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2612:
2605:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2564:
2559:
2552:
2550:
2548:
2539:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2516:
2515:
2506:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2476:
2468:
2462:
2458:
2451:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2402:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2371:(3): 231–38.
2370:
2366:
2359:
2351:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2302:(2): 161–73.
2301:
2297:
2290:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2259:(5): 549–76.
2258:
2254:
2247:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2212:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2047:(1): 151–61.
2046:
2042:
2038:
2031:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2006:(3): 228–40.
2005:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1982:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1963:
1955:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1936:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1905:(9): 848–53.
1904:
1900:
1893:
1891:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1849:
1841:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1808:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1777:(5): 516–22.
1776:
1772:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1733:(7): S79–82.
1732:
1728:
1721:
1713:
1709:
1704:
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1691:
1687:
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1667:
1663:
1657:
1653:
1652:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1611:(3): 263–69.
1610:
1606:
1602:
1595:
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1591:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1567:
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1553:
1551:
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1547:
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1532:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
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1487:
1483:
1476:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1451:
1442:
1436:
1432:
1431:
1423:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1400:(2): 161–73.
1399:
1395:
1388:
1380:
1376:
1370:
1366:
1365:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1342:
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1333:
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1324:
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1237:
1235:
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1231:
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1225:
1223:
1221:
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1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1054:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1032:
1024:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1004:
1002:
998:
988:
986:
983:Daily use of
981:
979:
975:
971:
969:
965:
960:
951:
949:
935:
932:
928:
925:
920:
919:
918:
910:
907:
904:
902:
898:
887:
884:
872:
869:
866:
862:
858:
857:tea and toast
854:
850:
847:
844:
843:liver failure
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
821:
820:
819:
810:
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804:
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786:
777:
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771:
767:
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735:
731:
726:
717:
715:
711:
707:
706:osmoreceptors
703:
693:
691:
687:
683:
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676:
672:
659:
655:
652:
648:
644:
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639:
638:
630:
628:
624:
620:
616:
615:psychotropics
611:
609:
597:
593:
590:
586:
584:
581:
578:
574:
571:
568:
564:
561:in which the
560:
556:
553:
550:
546:
543:
540:Any cause of
539:
538:
537:
527:
523:
521:
517:
515:
512:
510:
506:
504:
501:
498:
495:
494:
493:
488:Normal volume
482:
478:
475:
472:
470:
467:
464:
461:
460:
459:
451:
449:
445:
435:
433:
432:bone fracture
429:
424:
420:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
322:
320:
316:
311:
308:
304:
303:normal saline
300:
295:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
272:liver failure
269:
268:heart failure
265:
261:
260:too much beer
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
212:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
169:hyponatraemia
166:
157:
153:
149:
145:
142:
138:
134:
130:
127:
125:
121:
117:
115:
111:
108:
104:
101:
97:
94:
90:
87:, confusion,
86:
82:
78:
74:
72:
68:
65:
62:
60:
56:
53:
49:
45:
41:
36:
32:
28:
23:
3426:
3150:Hyponatremia
3143:
3126:
3115:
3091:
3080:
3065:
3050:
3016:Hyponatremia
2999:. Retrieved
2995:the original
2961:. Retrieved
2957:the original
2950:
2935:. Retrieved
2931:the original
2918:
2914:
2899:
2858:
2854:
2844:
2824:
2817:
2808:
2799:
2764:
2760:
2750:
2717:
2713:
2707:
2690:
2686:
2680:
2645:
2641:
2608:
2567:
2561:
2514:Neurosurgery
2513:
2505:
2495:16 September
2493:. Retrieved
2489:the original
2484:
2475:
2456:
2450:
2407:
2401:
2368:
2364:
2358:
2339:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2256:
2252:
2246:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2195:
2190:
2171:
2161:
2126:
2122:
2112:
2085:
2081:
2071:
2044:
2040:
2030:
2003:
1999:
1989:
1969:
1962:
1942:
1935:
1902:
1898:
1862:
1858:
1848:
1821:
1817:
1807:
1774:
1770:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1693:
1689:
1650:
1643:
1608:
1604:
1508:
1504:
1494:
1485:
1475:
1458:
1429:
1422:
1397:
1393:
1387:
1363:
1322:
1318:
1260:
1256:
1184:
1180:
1138:
1134:
1109:November 18,
1107:. Retrieved
1100:the original
1063:
1059:
1021:
1010:
1007:Epidemiology
994:
982:
972:
961:
957:
945:
916:
908:
905:
893:
885:
881:
870:
848:
822:
816:
795:hypotonicity
792:
783:
758:
753:
741:
737:
733:
729:
727:
723:
720:Hyponatremia
704:, there are
702:hypothalamus
699:
668:
643:triglyceride
636:
633:Other causes
612:
606:
583:Pancreatitis
535:
491:
465:of the liver
457:
444:low tonicity
441:
428:osteoporosis
425:
421:
396:
385:Neurological
383:
369:, spasms or
363:irritability
328:
312:
296:
244:concentrated
213:
201:poor balance
168:
165:Hyponatremia
164:
163:
25:Hyponatremia
3117:MedlinePlus
1486:Medscape UK
991:Precautions
954:Medications
863:or central
742:not related
734:interrupted
732:, or it is
730:overwhelmed
714:vasopressin
675:homeostasis
594:The use of
542:hypovolemia
507:Not enough
454:High volume
395:and causes
282:such as in
220:high volume
107:high volume
30:Other names
3459:Categories
3251:Calcinosis
3145:Patient UK
3093:DiseasesDB
3001:2009-08-16
2963:2011-05-15
2937:2011-05-15
2196:The Kidney
1696:(4): 185.
1511:: 100060.
1027:References
968:conivaptan
931:furosemide
682:osmolality
679:body fluid
671:body fluid
603:Medication
532:Low volume
409:brain stem
242:urine and
216:low volume
183:(135
103:Low volume
64:Nephrology
3432:Hypotonic
3358:Potassium
3335:Phosphate
3312:Magnesium
3133:emerg/275
3128:eMedicine
2991:About.com
2620:CC BY 4.0
2586:2296-858X
2434:0072-9752
1535:246938773
1527:2667-0321
1325:: 22–25.
1080:1060-0280
890:Treatment
780:Diagnosis
774:glutamate
627:hypnotics
520:pregnancy
463:Cirrhosis
347:confusion
232:diuretics
193:headaches
155:Frequency
147:Treatment
77:headaches
59:Specialty
3437:Isotonic
3289:Chloride
3139:ped/1124
3136:med/1130
2972:cite web
2927:10892634
2901:Medscape
2877:27059386
2791:16210283
2742:37760332
2734:11430268
2699:10544728
2672:19881932
2622:license.
2604:28879182
2442:28190443
2385:11320486
2316:27156756
2281:10897593
2238:14715914
2153:30275787
2104:23476039
2063:17699400
2022:23590928
1927:29854540
1881:26913635
1840:14605269
1791:27153450
1747:16843090
1712:20348927
1666:Archived
1635:28572229
1467:25905359
1459:Endotext
1414:27156756
1379:Archived
1341:26706473
1287:24344146
1209:12434550
1201:26237763
1157:27044859
1096:36759747
1088:24259701
799:mannitol
686:feedback
617:, i.e.,
526:osmostat
405:seizures
375:seizures
351:lethargy
339:headache
335:vomiting
236:sweating
228:vomiting
224:diarrhea
205:seizures
89:seizures
71:Symptoms
3201:Calcium
3087:D007010
2782:1246086
2663:2762827
2595:5573438
2570:: 141.
2393:4249297
2273:3075528
2144:6162139
1919:9382413
1799:6237667
1626:6297575
1278:4016091
937:volume.
770:taurine
738:related
712:(ADH) (
448:solutes
355:fatigue
175:in the
129:Ethanol
85:balance
83:, poor
3475:Sodium
3407:Sodium
3376:equine
3122:000394
3022:Sodium
2925:
2875:
2832:
2789:
2779:
2740:
2732:
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2670:
2660:
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2151:
2141:
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2061:
2020:
1977:
1950:
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913:Fluids
748:), 2)
524:Reset
438:Causes
371:cramps
331:nausea
290:, and
274:, and
254:, and
240:dilute
234:, and
207:, and
199:, and
197:nausea
181:mmol/L
173:sodium
81:nausea
48:Sodium
3076:276.1
3061:E87.1
2738:S2CID
2522:–15.
2389:S2CID
2277:S2CID
1923:S2CID
1795:S2CID
1531:S2CID
1205:S2CID
1103:(PDF)
1092:S2CID
1056:(PDF)
831:edema
497:SIADH
185:mEq/L
177:blood
99:Types
3415:High
3366:High
3343:High
3320:High
3297:High
3209:High
3098:6483
3082:MeSH
3071:9-CM
2978:link
2923:PMID
2873:PMID
2830:ISBN
2787:PMID
2730:PMID
2695:PMID
2668:PMID
2616:text
2600:PMID
2582:ISSN
2532:ISBN
2497:2013
2461:ISBN
2438:PMID
2430:ISSN
2420:ISBN
2381:PMID
2344:ISBN
2312:PMID
2269:PMID
2234:PMID
2149:PMID
2100:PMID
2059:PMID
2018:PMID
1975:ISBN
1948:ISBN
1915:PMID
1877:PMID
1836:PMID
1787:PMID
1743:PMID
1708:PMID
1656:ISBN
1631:PMID
1523:ISSN
1463:PMID
1435:ISBN
1410:PMID
1369:ISBN
1337:PMID
1283:PMID
1197:PMID
1153:PMID
1111:2013
1084:PMID
1076:ISSN
985:urea
772:and
596:MDMA
557:and
509:ACTH
379:coma
333:and
209:coma
93:coma
3427:Low
3385:Low
3348:Low
3325:Low
3302:Low
3214:Low
3067:ICD
3052:ICD
2863:doi
2859:129
2777:PMC
2769:doi
2765:331
2722:doi
2658:PMC
2650:doi
2590:PMC
2572:doi
2524:doi
2520:611
2412:doi
2373:doi
2304:doi
2261:doi
2226:doi
2200:doi
2176:doi
2139:PMC
2131:doi
2090:doi
2049:doi
2008:doi
1907:doi
1903:127
1867:doi
1863:101
1826:doi
1779:doi
1775:128
1735:doi
1731:119
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1621:PMC
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1513:doi
1402:doi
1327:doi
1273:PMC
1265:doi
1261:186
1189:doi
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