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insupportable. Now, thanks to well developed forests of
Eucalyptus, it presents all the conditions of a tolerable hygiene." The report then noted that the improvement could also be attributed in part to better medical attention and the fact that most of the staff commuted to work from Bône. The trees were all killed by salt water seeping from the lake. In 1877 the Mokta El Hadid company gained permission to drain the lake in exchange for free transfer of the reclaimed land. A channel led from the center of the lake, crossed the 22 metres (72 ft) western flank and led to the Meboudja. The surface elevation had dropped to 12 metres (39 ft) by 1880, but the lake remained swampy in summer. After 1903 the company ceded its rights to the Lake of Fetzara to the SGA colony, which took over the work and completed it in 1935.
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33:
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Heurteau (1878–1961), who took the simple title of
Director while Léon de Nervo (1873–1973), the heir of Paulin Talabot, took the title of Managing Director. Léon de Nervo was also president of the Société Commerciale de Navigation, which operated three 6,800 ton cargo vessels that carried North African iron ore to European ports and to the US. Heurteau left in the 1920s to take a position as Managing Director at the Marles coal mines. André Duby joined as chief engineer of technical services in 1927, then became co-director with Léon de Nervo, and sole director in the 1940s.
226:." Before Fournel's survey was complete, in 1845 the Talabots or their associates had obtained three of the four concessions in the Bône region. Algeria in the 19th century did not have coking coal, so did not process its iron ore. Instead, the ore was shipped to the coast and sold to a shipper, who in turn sold it to European steel mills for about twice the price. Talabot thought of building an ironworks at Bône, but abandoned the idea in 1848 part due to the danger of attack by the Algerians and in part to a threatened boycott of Algerian iron ore by the Schneiders of
446:), and then persuaded the government to assume responsibility for running the line in the public interest. Philippe de Cerner was appointed director of the new line from 1908 until his retirement in 1917. In 1912 the Compagnie des minerais de fer magnétique de Mokta-el-Hadid had a capital of 20 million and made a profit of 4.5 million. When World War I began Mokta-el Hadid was one of only two privately owned French colonial companies other than banks and railways with capital of over 20 million francs, the other being the Société Le Nickel in New Caledonia.
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24:
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was assassinated in Paris on 6 March 1963, apparently by an OAS member because he refused to support the OAS with the companies in his group. He was succeeded as head of the Mokta company by
Perrineau, who also became head of the Compagnie des Mines de Huaron, in which Mokta had a large stake. Perrineau was president of Mokta until 1970. In 1965 Perrineau presided over the company's centenary celebrations in Côte-d'Ivoire, which were attended by President
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Full-scale production began in 1865. Before the mine was opened Bône had 10,000 inhabitants. By 1924 there were 41,000 and the port was being used to export phosphates, lead and zinc ore. The arrival in large volumes of
Algerian ores from Mokta-el-Hadid upset the supply chain in France. The success at the Firminy plant in making steel rails using only ore from the Algerian mines was a major argument for installation of furnaces based on the
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354:. When it started operation the lake's surface elevation would have reached 16 metres (52 ft) in winter, with an area of 14,000 hectares (35,000 acres). The lake was bordered with reeds and rushes, used for nesting by migratory birds, and was rich in fish. The lake was considered a source of fever, and a 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) drainage channel flowing into the
234:
a mass of pure oxidized iron, with no admixture of rock. To the east of this deposit, which few deposits known elsewhere could parallel, the oxidized iron pierces several other points." Talabot asked the geologist Émilien Dumas to assess the deposit. He contacted the polytechnician and engineer of mines
Alphonse Parran to form the new company and start exploitation.
474:. The Mokta el Hadid iron ore mining company was responsible for creation of SACEM in 1929. SACEM (Société anonyme chérifienne d'études minières), based in Casablanca, Morocco, was founded to exploit the Imini manganese mines. The ratio of Société Mokta El Hadid share prices to earnings fluctuated from 3.0 in 1929 up to 11.0 in 1933, falling back to 1.8 by 1937.
125:) was said to be capable of supporting 25% of Europe's steel production. Before this mine was exhausted the company opened additional mines in Algeria. Later it extended its operations to countries such as Tunisia, Morocco, Niger, Côte-d'Ivoire and Madagascar, and mined manganese, chromium and uranium. In October 1970 the Société le Nickel, soon to become the
323:
Mokta-el-Hadid mine. In 1874 the Mokta el Hadid mine alone shipped 430,000 tons of ore, containing 260,000 tons of iron. At this time
Britain was producing a total of 500,000 tons of steel. The mine was said to be capable of supporting 25% of Europe's steel production. In 1875–76 the Bou Djima River, which was carrying silt into the port, was diverted to the
315:(SGA) in 1865 to promote economic growth in the colony of Algeria, which created five villages for French colonists. It was granted 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres) of land in exchange for a 100 million franc loan to Napoleon III, which was spent on Algerian public works. After experiencing some financial difficulties the SGA was reorganized as the
403:
using open-cut mining to extract ore with at least 55% iron. The port of Béni Saf was operated privately by the company, which had built it and had a 99-year lease. Estimated output was 291,547 metric tons in 1892 and 203,338 tons in 1893. Destinations, in order, were
England, the Netherlands, France, the US and Belgium. The company obtained the
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private French companies Mokta El Hadid and French
Uranium-ore, and 15% by the state of Niger. The exploitation company was Somaïr. Also in 1967 the merger activity between Suez and the Banque de l'Union parisienne caused Suez to become a direct shareholder in Mokta, and also in Huaron and Comuf. In 1968 Mokta joined forces with
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By 1895 the company had bought all the iron ore beds in the
Ouelhasses Cheragas ore district of Algeria apart from Boukourdan. These included the Das rih and Bar el Baroud beds of Béni Saf, and the Ten Kreut, Djed el Haouraia and Sidi-safi groups of ore beds. Only the Bar el Baroud was being worked,
322:
In 1865 the mine produced 22,000 tons, rising to 255,000 tons in 1869. The abundant ore was extracted from underground galleries and shipped from Bône to the main French steelworks. In 1870 Algeria as a whole exported 84,710 tons of iron ore. In the 1870s 2/3 of all miners in
Algeria were working the
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In October 1970 the Société le Nickel, soon after to become the Imetal holding company, took over the Mokta company through a share swap. Perrineau remained a director and advisor. In 1980 Imetal absorbed Mokta, which was renamed Compagnie française de Mokta (CFM). As of 1991 the Compagnie française
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was created in 1899 with a capital of 4.5 million francs divided into 9,000 shares of 500 francs. In 1905 the nominal share value was reduced to 400 francs and the capital was reduced to 3.6 million francs. The Société du Djebel-Djerissa became in effect a subsidiary of the Société Mokta El Hadid of
233:
A report by Fournel to the Académie des sciences on 14 May 1848 said, "to the north of Lake F'Zara there is a whole mountain, the Mokta-el-Hadid (the quarry of iron) which emerges from the gneisses and literally presents from foot to top, that is to say over a height of more than one hundred meters,
540:
In 1965 the company took a minority stake in the company formed to exploit chromium ore in Madagascar, directed by Ugine. In July 1967 France and Niger made agreements that included recognition of a uranium mining concession in Niger to be capitalized 45% by the Atomic Energy Commission, 40% by the
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In 1957, Georges Perrineau was appointed a director of the Mokta company and a member of the Executive Committee. In 1962 he became vice-president and, at the end of 1962 replaced Henri Lafond as president of the SACEM subsidiary that exploited the Imini manganese deposits in Morocco. Henri Lafond
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submitted an alternative proposal to the government that required the company to build blast furnaces in Bône and to pay higher royalties to Algeria. The agreement and specifications for this project were signed early in 1918, with 85% of the capital supplied by Mokta and Hauts Fourneaux de Rouen,
202:
in the Mokta hill beside at the foot of a mountain chain that runs from south to north, then turns east to Bône. The name "Mokta-el-Hadid" (the iron pass) indicates that the presence of iron has long been known, but there is no sign that it was worked before the first small-scale attempts in 1840.
330:
Alphonse Parran remained head of the company until 1900. Philippe de Cerner took over management of the Mokta-el-Hadid mine in 1875. Output from the 14 iron ore mines in Algeria rose to 511,000 tons in 1876, then started to decline. In 1879 the country exported 400,000 tons, of which 320,000 tons
361:
In the 1870s the company planted many eucalyptus trees around the Lake of Fetzara. A report published in 1901 said, "The example of Lake Fetzara has been much quoted; its marshy miasma infected the large mining works of Mokta-el-Hadid, decimated the staff, and rendered existence in this locality
286:
Extensive construction was undertaken at Bône in 1856–69 to build an 80 hectares (200 acres) sheltered port facility to handle the ore from Mokta el Hadid. A short railway line was built from the mine at Ain Mokra to the Bône docks. The line was opened in 1864, the first railway line in Algeria.
410:
In the period from 1900 to 1930 the company was among the powerful capitalist groups in the French colonial empire that provided exceptional rates of profit. Alphonse Parran was succeeded as head of the company in 1900 by Édouard de Billy (1866–1919). Billy was replaced in 1918 by Charles-Émile
241:
had taken power. In 1857 the Mokta el Hadid mine was found, and the Talabots gained the concession. The ore was in a vein 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) long and 10 to 50 metres (33 to 164 ft) wide. The magnetite ore was 70% pure iron. This ore, free of sulfur and phosphorus, was much more
120:
was an iron ore mining company in Algeria, and later in other West African countries. From around 1865 until 1927 it was the largest mining company in Algeria, delivering ore of exceptional quality for processing in France. In 1878 the original Mokta El Hadid mine near Bône (now
516:
On 24 April 1953 a joint corporation was established to mine a deposit estimated at 50 million tons of manganese ore in Gabon owned by the Bureau of Mines of Overseas France (21%), Eastern Tjbangi Mining Company (15%), Mokta el Hadid group (15%) and the
494:. In 1951 the Société de l'Ouenza produced 60% of Algerian iron, 85% in Ouenza and 15% in Bou-Kadra. Mokta-el-Hadid was the second iron ore mining company in Algeria, with many subsidiaries and several concessions, including in Morocco.
469:
In May 1919 the company's miners went on strike in solidarity with strikers in other industries, but the strike quickly fizzled out. Mokta el Hadid was the largest mining company in Algeria until 1927, when it was overtaken by the
261:
were drawn up, possibly part of a larger merger with the mines of the Grand-Combe, but stalled. In 1863 the Société de Mokta el Hadid was established definitively. Plans were drawn up to combine the Mokta el Hadid mines with the
310:
In 1865 Napoleon III came to Algeria and made a trip to the mine and the city of Bône. A photograph survives of the emperor and his entourage taking refreshment under a tent at the mine site. Paulin Talabot founded the
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As of 1878 the company had also opened the Korezza, Bou-Hamra and Marouaina mines. Before the Mokta deposits started showing signs of running out Alphonse Parran obtained the deposit of Rar El Baroud near
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In 1917 the Société Mokta El Hadid and the Société des Hauts Fourneaux de Rouen agreed to form a joint venture to exploit the Boukhadra deposits, which was supported by the minister
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came from Mokta-el-Hadid. Very little of the ore was smelted before export. The port of Bône shipped only 148,695 tons of ore in 1893. Mining at Mokta el Hadid ended in 1904.
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was head of the Banque de l'Union Parisienne from 1951, which controlled Mokta El Hadid, and was also head of SACEM. Lafond headed the Mokta company until his death in 1963.
223:
442:). Philippe de Cerner, the company manager in Bône, had convinced the government to extend the railway west from Ain Mokra to connect with the main line to Philippeville (
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Due to shortage of both labour and capital, little progress was made and in 1849 the government revoked the three Talabot concessions. In 1852 they were restored after
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with 2% manganese. Between 1867 and 1947 the region produced 30 million metric tons of ore. Alphonse Parran was also involved in one of the first iron ore mines in
278:, Tarn. 20 million francs of capital would be needed, including 8 million of fresh capital for upgrades at the various sites. These plans also dragged out.
1618:
Lespagnol, André (January 1986), "Review: Le problème colonial: Empire colonial et capitalisme français. Histoire d'un divorce by Jacques Marseille",
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in Tunisia in 1886. In Tunisia as of 1893 the company owned concessions at Ras Radjid, Bou lanague, Dj Bellif and Ganara in the Kroumine between
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holding company, took over the Mokta company. The company was later renamed Compagnie française de Mokta (CFM), specializing in uranium mining.
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had reached an agreement with Paulin Talabot to obtain a large supply of Algerian ore, making it possible to start intensive steel production.
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521:(49%). A 220 miles (350 km) railway had first to be built to the coast, so full production was not expected until at least 1960. The
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to form the Péchiney Mokta mining company, which would manage various uranium operations and fund research activity, particularly in
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and a consortium of Algerian banks. Two blast furnaces would be built with combined annual capacity of 80,000 tons. However, after
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had a "Mediterranean dream" involving "the exploitation of the mines of the Bône region, which would feed his coal mines in
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Rivet, Daniel (October–December 1979), "Mines et politique au Maroc, 1907-1914 (D'après les archives du Quai d'Orsay)",
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In 1905 the small Mokta railway was connected to the departmental network, connecting the port of Bone to the Jemmapes (
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Dupont, Maurice (August–September 1952), "Les intérêts français contre l'intérêt de la France en Afrique du Nord",
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processes than the poorer ores high in phosphorus that are typical of France, Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany.
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was proposed, but although the SGA had rights to the northern and eastern shores of the lake it did nothing.
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Robequain, Charles (January–February 1958), "CHRONIQUE GÉOGRAPHIQUE: Perspectives sur l'Union Française",
557:(Compagnie générale des matières nucléaires), a French company involved in mining and processing uranium.
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2068:
Major Companies of Europe 1991-1992 Vol. 1 : Major Companies of the Continental European Community
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Resurrecting the Granary of Rome: Environmental History and French Colonial Expansion in North Africa
399:. The ores, which had not yet been worked, were brown and red hematites with an average of 50% iron.
1932:
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May, A. Wilfred (December 1939), "American and European Valuation of Equity Capital: A Comparison",
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1738:"Quand l'innovation engendre l'incertitude : réception et diffusion du procédé Martin"
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490:. As of 1950 the company was capitalized at 5.1 billion francs, one of the top 2 on the
327:. The railway could now be extended to the port, considerably reducing transport costs.
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returned to Algeria as governor the project was delayed and eventually cancelled.
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525:(Comilog) had initial capital of CFA 150 million. The first ore was shipped from
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Levainville, J. (15 March 1924), "Ressources Minérales de l'Afrique du Nord",
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From 1901 the company began using Moroccan workers in its Béni Saf mines. The
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Revue d'histoire de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale et des conflits contemporains
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L'Algérie révélée: la guerre de 1914-1918 et le premier quart du XXe siècle
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Annaba et sa région: organisation de l'espace dans l'extrême-Est algérien
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Un parlement colonial: les délégations financières algériennes, 1898-1945
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2015:
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Scipion, Philippe (1967), "New developments in French-speaking Africa",
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Tommasi-Crudeli (1903), "Blue Gum. (Eucalyptus Globulus, Labill.)",
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1881:(3), Institut de Sociologie de l'Université de Bruxelles: 306–317,
1763:(2), Institut de Sociologie de l'Université de Bruxelles: 285–310,
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1976:
Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)
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in 1879. The ore in the Béni Saf region near Montagnac (now named
2002:
Travers, L. (May–June 1958), "La Mise en Valeur du Lac Fetzara",
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As of 2009 SACEM was continuing to exploit the Imimi deposits in
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Algeria, which took a stake of 5,200 shares in the mine in 1906.
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blocked construction of local steelworks to process the iron ore
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La Sidérurgie française au XIXe siècle: Recherches histioriques
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1982:(1), Springer on behalf of Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: 1–10,
1458:(Séances des 1er et 8 mai) (in French), Académie des sciences
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1364:
Clozier, R. (1950), "Les sociétés milliardaires en France",
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1835:(4), Societe d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine: 549–578,
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La SACEM : Une performance socio-économique salutaire
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222:, relayed by his Algerian railroad cars and those of the
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The mine is about 22 miles (35 km) from the port of
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1465:– via Les entreprises coloniales françaises p=1/73
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The geologist Henri Fournel discovered the deposits of
1435:(in French), 193/194 (8/9), Editions Esprit: 321–352,
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486:(1939–45) the Mokta El Hadid iron ore belonged to the
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Making Algeria French: Colonialism in Bône, 1870-1920
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Société du Djebel-Djérissa ... entreprises-coloniales
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Société du Djebel-Djérissa ... entreprises-coloniales
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Napoleon III dining in a tent at the mine site (1865)
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438:) region, and now extended as far as Saint-Charles (
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Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World
1861:(in French), 67e Année (359), Armand Colin: 78–94,
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1315:Présences françaises outre-mer, XVIe-XXIe siècles
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975:Compagnie des Minerais ... Entreprises Coloniales
821:Compagnie des Minerais ... Entreprises Coloniales
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1934:ASSASSINAT D'UN PDG DE LA SACEM : MARS 1963
218:by means of rapid transport in his ships of the
1973:
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598:
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1344:(in French), Publication Univ Rouen Havre,
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407:deposits near the Tunisian border in 1902.
387:(then Russia, now Ukraine) in 1881 and the
346:in 1857 before being drained by the company
1954:(in French), Université de Saint-Etienne,
1724:Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines
1561:
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1337:
1312:Bonnichon, Philippe; Gény, Pierre (2012),
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839:
553:de Mokta was a wholly owned subsidiary of
453:. However, the administration of governor
253:Plans for a merger with the steelworks at
31:
22:
2071:, Springer Science & Business Media,
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1931:Timkkit, Boutazoult Imini (4 May 2008a),
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1829:Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine
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1471:"Georges Charles PERRINEAU (1912-1994)"
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1894:"Société du Djebel-Djérissa (Tunisie)"
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428:Compagnie des mines du Djebel-Djerissa
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1539:Money, Finance, and Empire, 1790-1960
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1234:Georges Charles PERRINEAU ... Annales
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477:
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365:
13:
2112:Economic history of French Algeria
1449:"Richesses minérales de l'Algérie"
334:
220:Compagnie Générale Transatlantique
132:
14:
2133:
2028:, U.S. Government Printing Office
1579:Iron and Steel Institute (1880),
1516:"La COMILOG, une "success story""
175:
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1318:(in French), KARTHALA Editions,
1286:Bennoune, Mahfoud (2002-08-22),
174:
161:
160:
146:
139:
2065:Whiteside, R. M. (2012-12-06),
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37:View of the mines in June 1865
1:
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1338:Bouveresse, Jacques (2008),
147:
56:; 161 years ago
7:
2107:Economic history of Algeria
2102:Mining companies of Algeria
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313:Société Générale Algérienne
84:; 53 years ago
10:
2138:
1917:MOKTA EL HADID 1865 - 1965
1562:iminimaroc (10 May 2009),
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1278:
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1411:, Ohio University Press,
1035:Holland & Porter 2012
946:US Geological Survey 1895
934:US Geological Survey 1895
864:Bonnichon & Gény 2012
266:, Loire, steelworks, the
106:
96:
78:
68:
50:
42:
30:
21:
1948:Tomas, François (1977),
1488:Gille, Bertrand (1968),
1394:(in French), 5 July 2015
987:Le "Zembra" – UIM.marine
560:
389:Gafsa phosphate deposits
1718:Mining Journal (1878),
1661:(in French), UIM.marine
1598:Joly, Bertrand (1994),
1378:10.3406/ingeo.1950.5965
508:, Gabon, location of a
350:The mine is beside the
272:Saut-du-Tarn steelworks
1841:10.3406/rhmc.1979.2436
1523:Réalités Industrielles
1392:Entreprises Coloniales
535:Félix Houphouët-Boigny
513:
423:
347:
307:
118:Société Mokta El Hadid
17:Société Mokta El Hadid
2004:Annales de Géographie
1858:Annales de Géographie
1637:Annales de Géographie
1456:Le Journal des débats
504:
417:
342:
305:
910:Tommasi-Crudeli 1903
512:mining joint venture
317:Compagnie Algérienne
193:Locations in Algeria
190:class=notpageimage|
936:, pp. 176–177.
599:Mining Journal 1878
529:on 2 October 1962.
472:Société de l'Ouenza
282:Mokta el Hadid mine
270:coal mines and the
18:
960:, p. 114–115.
514:
424:
418:Algerian governor
348:
308:
16:
2078:978-94-011-3016-5
2052:978-0-275-97470-1
1961:978-2-9500272-1-4
1814:978-0-521-53128-3
1788:978-0-686-24091-4
1705:978-2-600-04098-3
1549:978-1-136-28427-4
1501:978-2-600-04046-4
1475:Annales des Mines
1418:978-0-8214-1751-5
1351:978-2-87775-876-5
1325:978-2-8111-0737-6
1299:978-0-521-52432-2
478:Post-World War II
242:suitable for the
114:
113:
82:October 1970
2129:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2035:
2034:
2033:
2018:
1998:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1898:
1889:
1869:
1851:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1771:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1714:
1713:
1712:
1688:
1668:
1667:
1666:
1652:
1630:
1614:
1613:
1612:
1606:
1594:
1593:
1592:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1558:
1557:
1556:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1520:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1466:
1464:
1463:
1453:
1443:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1389:
1380:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1308:
1307:
1306:
1273:
1267:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1231:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1175:
1169:
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1139:
1133:
1127:
1121:
1115:
1109:
1103:
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1050:
1044:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1020:
1014:
1008:
1002:
1001:, p. 550fn.
996:
990:
984:
978:
972:
961:
955:
949:
943:
937:
931:
925:
919:
913:
907:
901:
895:
886:
880:
867:
861:
855:
849:
843:
837:
824:
818:
812:
806:
797:
791:
785:
779:
773:
770:Levainville 1924
767:
761:
755:
749:
746:Levainville 1924
743:
737:
731:
720:
714:
705:
699:
693:
687:
681:
675:
662:
656:
650:
644:
638:
632:
617:
611:
602:
596:
578:
571:
366:Other operations
297:Eugène Schneider
210:The businessman
178:
177:
164:
163:
150:
149:
143:
92:
90:
85:
64:
62:
57:
35:
26:
19:
15:
2137:
2136:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2127:
2126:
2092:
2091:
2090:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2031:
2029:
1988:10.2307/4111387
1966:
1964:
1962:
1940:
1938:
1923:
1921:
1906:
1904:
1896:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1747:
1745:
1728:
1726:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1664:
1662:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1590:
1588:
1587:, The Institute
1571:
1569:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1528:
1526:
1518:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1480:
1478:
1461:
1459:
1451:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1397:
1395:
1387:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1281:
1276:
1268:
1264:
1256:
1252:
1244:
1240:
1232:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1197:
1193:
1185:
1178:
1170:
1166:
1158:
1154:
1146:
1142:
1134:
1130:
1122:
1118:
1112:iminimaroc 2009
1110:
1106:
1098:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1062:
1053:
1045:
1041:
1033:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1005:
997:
993:
985:
981:
973:
964:
956:
952:
944:
940:
932:
928:
920:
916:
908:
904:
896:
889:
881:
870:
862:
858:
850:
846:
840:Bouveresse 2008
838:
827:
819:
815:
807:
800:
792:
788:
780:
776:
768:
764:
756:
752:
744:
740:
732:
723:
715:
708:
700:
696:
688:
684:
676:
665:
657:
653:
645:
641:
633:
620:
612:
605:
597:
586:
582:
581:
572:
568:
563:
480:
464:Charles Jonnart
420:Charles Jonnart
368:
352:Lake of Fetzara
344:Lake of Fetzara
337:
335:Lake of Fetzara
284:
216:the Grand-Combe
196:
195:
194:
192:
186:
185:
184:
183:
179:
171:
170:
169:
165:
157:
156:
155:
151:
135:
133:First discovery
102:
88:
86:
83:
60:
58:
55:
38:
12:
11:
5:
2135:
2125:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2089:
2088:
2077:
2062:
2051:
2036:
2019:
1999:
1971:
1960:
1945:
1928:
1911:
1890:
1870:
1852:
1824:
1813:
1798:
1787:
1772:
1752:
1733:
1715:
1704:
1689:
1669:
1653:
1631:
1615:
1595:
1576:
1559:
1548:
1533:
1511:
1500:
1485:
1467:
1444:
1428:
1417:
1402:
1381:
1361:
1350:
1335:
1324:
1309:
1298:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1274:
1272:, p. 180.
1270:Whiteside 2012
1262:
1260:, p. 194.
1250:
1248:, p. 314.
1238:
1215:
1203:
1201:, p. 297.
1191:
1176:
1174:, p. 325.
1164:
1162:, p. 324.
1152:
1140:
1128:
1126:, p. 738.
1116:
1104:
1092:
1090:, p. 108.
1088:Prochaska 2002
1080:
1078:, p. 691.
1068:
1066:, p. 347.
1051:
1047:Robequain 1958
1039:
1037:, p. 131.
1027:
1015:
1003:
991:
979:
962:
958:Lespagnol 1986
950:
948:, p. 175.
938:
926:
914:
902:
900:, p. 227.
887:
885:, p. 261.
868:
866:, p. 149.
856:
854:, p. 186.
844:
842:, p. 408.
825:
813:
811:, p. 251.
798:
786:
774:
772:, p. 164.
762:
750:
748:, p. 165.
738:
736:, p. 109.
734:Prochaska 2002
721:
719:, p. 111.
717:Prochaska 2002
706:
704:, p. 183.
694:
682:
663:
651:
649:, p. 103.
647:Prochaska 2002
639:
635:Prochaska 2002
618:
616:, p. 252.
603:
601:, p. 438.
583:
580:
579:
565:
564:
562:
559:
488:Mirabaud Group
479:
476:
455:Charles Lutaud
440:Ramdane Djamel
367:
364:
336:
333:
325:Seybouse River
289:Martin process
283:
280:
212:Paulin Talabot
188:
187:
181:
180:
173:
172:
167:
166:
159:
158:
153:
152:
145:
144:
138:
137:
136:
134:
131:
112:
111:
108:
104:
103:
100:
98:
94:
93:
80:
76:
75:
73:Paulin Talabot
70:
66:
65:
52:
48:
47:
44:
40:
39:
36:
28:
27:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2134:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2080:
2074:
2070:
2069:
2063:
2054:
2048:
2044:
2043:
2037:
2027:
2026:
2020:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2006:(in French),
2005:
2000:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1963:
1957:
1953:
1952:
1946:
1936:
1935:
1929:
1919:
1918:
1912:
1902:
1895:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1875:Civilisations
1871:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1859:
1853:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1816:
1810:
1806:
1805:
1799:
1790:
1784:
1780:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1757:Civilisations
1753:
1743:
1742:Marteau Pilon
1739:
1734:
1725:
1721:
1716:
1707:
1701:
1697:
1696:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1660:
1659:
1654:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1638:
1632:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1603:
1602:
1596:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1567:
1566:
1560:
1551:
1545:
1542:, Routledge,
1541:
1540:
1534:
1524:
1517:
1512:
1503:
1497:
1493:
1492:
1486:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1457:
1450:
1445:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1420:
1414:
1410:
1409:
1403:
1393:
1386:
1382:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1368:(in French),
1367:
1362:
1353:
1347:
1343:
1342:
1336:
1327:
1321:
1317:
1316:
1310:
1301:
1295:
1291:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1271:
1266:
1259:
1254:
1247:
1242:
1235:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1213:, p. 15.
1212:
1207:
1200:
1195:
1188:
1187:Timkkit 2008a
1183:
1181:
1173:
1168:
1161:
1156:
1150:, p. 69.
1149:
1144:
1138:, p. 72.
1137:
1136:Bennoune 2002
1132:
1125:
1120:
1113:
1108:
1102:, p. 28.
1101:
1096:
1089:
1084:
1077:
1072:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1049:, p. 84.
1048:
1043:
1036:
1031:
1024:
1019:
1013:, p. 14.
1012:
1007:
1000:
995:
988:
983:
976:
971:
969:
967:
959:
954:
947:
942:
935:
930:
924:, p. 16.
923:
918:
911:
906:
899:
894:
892:
884:
879:
877:
875:
873:
865:
860:
853:
848:
841:
836:
834:
832:
830:
822:
817:
810:
805:
803:
796:, p. 66.
795:
790:
783:
782:Passaqui 2013
778:
771:
766:
759:
758:Passaqui 2013
754:
747:
742:
735:
730:
728:
726:
718:
713:
711:
703:
698:
692:, p. 17.
691:
690:Passaqui 2013
686:
679:
674:
672:
670:
668:
660:
655:
648:
643:
637:, p. 81.
636:
631:
629:
627:
625:
623:
615:
610:
608:
600:
595:
593:
591:
589:
584:
576:
570:
566:
558:
556:
550:
548:
544:
538:
536:
530:
528:
524:
520:
511:
507:
503:
499:
497:
493:
489:
485:
475:
473:
467:
465:
461:
456:
452:
451:Albert Thomas
447:
445:
441:
437:
432:
429:
421:
416:
412:
408:
406:
400:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
363:
359:
357:
356:Oued Meboudja
353:
345:
341:
332:
328:
326:
320:
318:
314:
304:
300:
298:
294:
290:
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
260:
256:
251:
249:
245:
240:
235:
231:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
208:
206:
201:
191:
142:
130:
128:
124:
119:
109:
105:
99:
95:
81:
77:
74:
71:
67:
53:
49:
45:
41:
34:
29:
25:
20:
2082:, retrieved
2067:
2056:, retrieved
2041:
2030:, retrieved
2024:
2007:
2003:
1979:
1975:
1965:, retrieved
1950:
1939:, retrieved
1933:
1922:, retrieved
1916:
1905:, retrieved
1900:
1878:
1874:
1856:
1832:
1828:
1818:, retrieved
1803:
1792:, retrieved
1777:
1760:
1756:
1746:, retrieved
1741:
1727:, retrieved
1723:
1709:, retrieved
1694:
1677:
1673:
1663:, retrieved
1657:
1642:Armand Colin
1635:
1619:
1609:, retrieved
1600:
1589:, retrieved
1584:
1570:, retrieved
1564:
1553:, retrieved
1538:
1527:, retrieved
1522:
1505:, retrieved
1490:
1479:, retrieved
1474:
1460:, retrieved
1455:
1432:
1422:, retrieved
1407:
1396:, retrieved
1391:
1369:
1365:
1355:, retrieved
1340:
1329:, retrieved
1314:
1303:, retrieved
1288:
1265:
1253:
1246:Scipion 1967
1241:
1206:
1194:
1167:
1155:
1148:Clozier 1950
1143:
1131:
1119:
1107:
1095:
1083:
1076:Meynier 1981
1071:
1064:Meynier 1981
1042:
1030:
1025:, p. 1.
1018:
1006:
994:
982:
977:, p. 4.
953:
941:
929:
917:
912:, p. 4.
905:
883:Travers 1958
859:
847:
823:, p. 3.
816:
789:
784:, p. 7.
777:
765:
760:, p. 3.
753:
741:
697:
685:
678:Timkkit 2008
659:Fournel 1848
654:
642:
569:
551:
547:Saskatchewan
539:
531:
515:
496:Henri Lafond
492:Paris Bourse
484:World War II
481:
468:
460:Denain-Anzin
448:
433:
425:
409:
401:
369:
360:
349:
329:
321:
309:
285:
252:
239:Napoleon III
236:
232:
209:
197:
117:
115:
97:Headquarters
1937:(in French)
1920:(in French)
1744:(in French)
1658:Le "Zembra"
1644:: 151–166,
1568:(in French)
1525:(in French)
1477:(in French)
1172:Dupont 1952
1160:Dupont 1952
922:Postel 1943
794:Watson 2003
577:, Morocco.
458:and 15% by
2096:Categories
2084:2017-08-15
2058:2017-08-13
2032:2017-08-13
1967:2017-08-13
1941:2017-08-15
1924:2017-08-12
1907:2018-03-10
1820:2017-08-12
1794:2017-08-13
1748:2017-08-12
1729:2017-08-13
1720:"Iron Ore"
1711:2017-08-13
1665:2017-08-15
1611:2017-08-14
1591:2017-08-13
1572:2017-08-14
1555:2017-08-13
1529:2017-08-15
1507:2017-08-13
1481:2017-08-15
1462:2017-08-12
1424:2017-08-13
1398:2017-08-14
1357:2017-08-13
1331:2017-08-13
1305:2017-08-13
999:Rivet 1979
898:Davis 2007
852:Tomas 1977
702:Gille 1968
575:Ouarzazate
549:, Canada.
519:U.S. Steel
397:Cap Serrat
295:. In 1865
293:Le Creusot
228:Le Creusot
1372:(2): 69,
1211:Gros 2008
1199:Pons 1954
1100:Joly 1994
510:manganese
405:Boukhadra
319:in 1877.
207:in 1843.
205:magnetite
182:Boukhadra
2016:23443549
1887:41231048
1867:23443647
1849:20528550
1769:41377627
1650:23439890
1628:25729328
1581:"Africa"
1441:24253081
1124:May 1939
543:Pechiney
381:hematite
373:Béni Saf
244:Bessemer
168:Béni Saf
110:Iron ore
107:Products
43:Industry
1996:4111387
1686:1804161
1279:Sources
393:Tabarka
385:Kryvbas
264:Firminy
257:in the
101:Algeria
89:1970-10
87: (
79:Defunct
69:Founder
59: (
51:Founded
2075:
2049:
2014:
1994:
1958:
1885:
1865:
1847:
1811:
1785:
1767:
1702:
1684:
1648:
1626:
1546:
1498:
1439:
1433:Esprit
1415:
1348:
1322:
1296:
555:COGEMA
527:Moanda
506:Moanda
482:After
444:Skikda
436:Azzaba
377:Remchi
248:Martin
127:Imétal
123:Annaba
46:Mining
2012:JSTOR
1992:JSTOR
1897:(PDF)
1883:JSTOR
1863:JSTOR
1845:JSTOR
1765:JSTOR
1682:JSTOR
1646:JSTOR
1624:JSTOR
1605:(PDF)
1519:(PDF)
1452:(PDF)
1437:JSTOR
1388:(PDF)
561:Notes
379:) is
274:near
255:Alais
2073:ISBN
2047:ISBN
1980:1903
1956:ISBN
1809:ISBN
1783:ISBN
1700:ISBN
1544:ISBN
1496:ISBN
1413:ISBN
1346:ISBN
1320:ISBN
1294:ISBN
395:and
276:Albi
268:Gard
259:Gard
246:and
200:Bône
154:Bône
116:The
61:1863
54:1863
1984:doi
1837:doi
1374:doi
291:at
224:PLM
2098::
2008:67
1990:,
1978:,
1899:,
1879:17
1877:,
1843:,
1833:26
1831:,
1759:,
1740:,
1722:,
1678:29
1676:,
1583:,
1521:,
1473:,
1454:,
1390:,
1370:14
1218:^
1179:^
1054:^
965:^
890:^
871:^
828:^
801:^
724:^
709:^
666:^
621:^
606:^
587:^
537:.
230:.
1986::
1839::
1761:4
1376::
1236:.
1189:.
1114:.
989:.
680:.
661:.
91:)
63:)
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