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Shang Yang appeared to act according to his own teachings, and translator
Duvendak (1928) references him as being considered "like a bamboo‑frame which keeps a bow straight, and one could not get him out of his straightness", even if spoken of by some pre-modern Chinese in ill regard with the fall of
808:
was implemented, with the important addition of a rule providing punishment equal to that of the perpetrator for those aware of a crime but failing to inform the government. He codified reforms into enforceable laws. The laws were stringent and multitudinous reformed by Yang and the punishments were
989:
considered equal treatment the "school of law's" most salient point: "They do not distinguish between close and far relatives, nor do they disriminate between noble and humble, but in a uniform manner they decide on them in law." The Han dynasty adopted essentially the same denominations of crimes,
1001:
Despite traditional history's dim view, Sima Qian recounts the immediate effect of his policies as such: After had been in effect for ten years, the commoners of Qin were delighted; no one picked up articles lost on the road, there were no bandits or thieves in the mountains, households were well
947:, Yang first escaped to Wei. However, he was hated there for his earlier betrayal of Gongzi Ang and was expelled. Yang then fled to his fiefdom, where he raised a rebel army but was killed in battle. After the battle, King Hui of Qin had Yang's corpse torn apart by chariots as a warning to others.
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was short in Qin relative to the other states at the time, Yang enacted policies to increase its manpower. As Qin peasants were recruited into the military, he encouraged active migration of peasants from other states into Qin as a replacement workforce; this policy simultaneously increased the
977:
considered Shang Yang the "founder of the school of law", and considers his unification of punishments one of his most important contributions; that is, giving the penalty of death to any grade of person disobeying the king's orders. Shang Yang even expected the king, though the source of law
698:, Yang left his lowly position in Wei to become the chief adviser in Qin. His numerous reforms transformed the peripheral Qin state into a militarily powerful and strongly centralized kingdom. Changes to the state's legal system (which were said to have been built upon
657:, he took up office in the Qin state, where his policies laid the administrative, political and economic foundations that would eventually enable Qin to conquer the other six rival states, unifying China into a centralized rule for the first time in history under the
725:, with his personal connections while serving in the court of Wei, Shang Yang invited Gongzi Ang, the Wei general, to negotiate a peace treaty. As soon as Ang arrived, he was taken prisoner, and the Qin army attacked, successfully defeating their opponents.
846:; however, Yang's reforms were more thorough and extreme than those of other states, and monopolized policy in the hands of the ruler. Under his tenure, Qin quickly caught up with and surpassed the reforms of other states.
736:
considered reorganization of the military as potentially responsible for the orderly plan of roads and fields throughout north China. This might be far fetched, but Yang was as much a military reformer as a legal one.
904:
against Yang and his family, on the grounds of fomenting rebellion. Yang had previously humiliated the new duke "by causing him to be punished for an offense as though he were an ordinary citizen." According to
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manpower of Qin and weakened the manpower of Qin's rivals. Yang made laws forcing citizens to marry at a young age and passed tax laws to encourage raising multiple children. He also enacted policies to free
858:, privatized land, rewarded farmers who exceeded harvest quotas, enslaved farmers who failed to meet quotas, and used enslaved subjects as (state-owned) rewards for those who met government policies.
1002:
provided for and the people were well off. The commoners were brave in the duke’s battles but cowardly in private feuds and the townships and cities were in good order. (Sima Qian 1994a, 90)
2185:
816:, based upon battlefield achievements. The reform of military made Qin citizens willing to join the army and helped the Qin dynasty build the military power necessary to unify China.
877:(depending on the performance of the son) and created a double tax on households that had more than one son living in the household, to break up large clans into nuclear families.
795:
Believing in the rule of law and considering loyalty to the state above that of the family, Yang introduced two sets of changes to the State of Qin. The first, in 356 BC, were:
719:
to Qin. For his role in the war, Yang received 15 cities in Shang as his personal fief and became known as the lord of Shang (Shang Jun) or Shang Yang. According to the
911:, Yang went into hiding; at one point Yang was refused a room at an inn because one of his own laws prevented admission of a guest without proper identification.
812:
Assigning land to soldiers based upon their military successes and stripping nobility unwilling to fight of their land rights. The army was separated into twenty
1072:
Pines, Yuri, "Legalism in
Chinese Philosophy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), 1.1 Major Legalist Texts,
694:
At a young age, Yang studied law and obtained a position under Prime
Minister Shuzuo of Wei (魏, not the same as his birth state). With the support of
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or horses and being torn to pieces); his whole family was also executed. Despite his death, King Huiwen kept the reforms enacted by Yang.
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978:(authorizing it), to follow it. This treatment is in contrast to ideas more typical of archaic society, more closely represented in the
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In 341 BC, Qin attacked the state of Wei. Yang personally led the Qin army to defeat Wei, and eventually Wei ceded the land west of the
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Yang introduced his second set of changes in 350 BC, which included a new standardized system of land allocation and reforms to
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888:, in order to reduce the influence of nobles on the administration. Xianyang remained Qin's capital until its fall in 207 BC.
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1063:"The fifth important legalist, Shang Yang (Wei Yang, c. 390–338 B.C.E.), was born in Wei; his original surname was Gongsun."
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As manpower was short in Qin, Yang encouraged the cultivation of unsettled lands and wastelands and immigration, favouring
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and conception of equality, as Shang Yang set down for Qin, without collective punishment of the three sets of relatives.
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Sanft, Charles (2014). "Shang Yang Was a
Cooperator: Applying Axelrod's Analysis of Cooperation in Early China".
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Yang was deeply despised by the Qin nobility and became vulnerable after the death of Duke Xiao. The next ruler,
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calls a "visionary reorientation of thinking" toward material interests in Qin's bid for universal rule.
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Sanctioned
Violence in Early China, SUNY Series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture (Albany, 1990), 63
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Following the execution of Yang, King Huiwen turned away from the central valley south to conquer
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The vast majority of Yang's reforms were taken from policies instituted elsewhere, such as from
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and his personal name Yang. As a member of the Wei family, he was also known as Wei Yang.
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1199:"Shang Yang Was a Cooperator: Applying Axelrod's Analysis of Cooperation in Early China"
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708:) propelled the Qin to prosperity. Enhancing the administration through an emphasis on
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Shang Yang was born as the son of a concubine to the ruling family of the minor state
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661:. Scholars consider it likely that both he and his followers contributed to
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A number of alternate versions of Yang's death have survived. According to
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Qin. Duvendak believed that Shang Yang should be of interest not just to
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827:(though also paying more recognition to especially successful merchants).
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http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entries/chinese-legalism/
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as giving different punishments to different strata of society.
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1421:
The Book of Lord Shang: A Classic of the
Chinese School of Law
1290:
What Is Taoism?: And Other
Studies in Chinese Cultural History
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2014:
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712:, his policies weakened the power of the feudal lords.
1017:(2015) as a guest appearance, depicting his execution.
161:
147:
131:
117:
103:
89:
1526:
870:who worked in opening wastelands for agriculture.
1005:
740:The Shang Yang school of thought was favoured by
5771:
1155:Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism
4282:
2389:
1662:
1638:
1516:Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding.
1396:
1394:
1392:
1317:, ed. William H. McNeill and Jean W. Sedlar,
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59:
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1372:Ancient Sichuan and the Unification of China
667:, a foundational philosophical work for the
16:Qin State statesman, chancellor and reformer
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4275:
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2382:
1669:
1655:
1389:
1020:Portrayed by Wang Zhifei in the TV series
587:
573:
42:
19:For the contemporary Chinese painter, see
1401:Hulsewé, Anthony François Paulus (1955).
2403:
2186:Fundamental theory of Catholic canon law
880:Yang moved the capital from the city of
3979:Reflections on the Revolution in France
1400:
5772:
4296:
1593:Chad Hansen's Chinese Philosophy Pages
1287:Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1982-09-15).
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163:
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1637:
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48:Statue of pivotal reformer Shang Yang
1478:(Political Science Edition), 1st ed.
1368:
1057:Antonio S. Cua (ed.), 2003, p. 362,
849:
728:Gongsun oversaw the construction of
687:. His surname (氏, lineage name) was
5800:4th-century BC Chinese philosophers
4089:The End of History and the Last Man
3999:Elements of the Philosophy of Right
2348:
2114:Elements of the Philosophy of Right
13:
5840:People executed by the Qin dynasty
1586:
1501:
1078:
1059:Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy
1051:
610:; c. 390 – 338 BC), also known as
559:Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius
14:
5901:
5885:Zhou dynasty government officials
1676:
1522:
4059:The Open Society and Its Enemies
2347:
2332:
2323:
2322:
1571:
1557:
1543:
1529:
1173:Creel 1970, What Is Taoism?, 115
294:
2866:Family as a model for the state
1411:
1362:
1345:
1324:
1307:
1293:. University of Chicago Press.
1280:
1237:
1190:
998:, but Western Jurists as well.
259:
238:
214:
200:
186:
23:. For the plant scientist, see
5820:Chinese political philosophers
4216:Separation of church and state
4114:Collectivism and individualism
4069:The Origins of Totalitarianism
2144:Natural Law and Natural Rights
1369:Sage, Steven F. (1992-01-01).
1183:Arthur F. Wright 1960. p. 99.
1176:
1167:
1147:
1134:
1120:
1108:
1099:Records of the Grand Historian
1066:
1006:In fiction and popular culture
969:
944:Records of the Grand Historian
722:Records of the Grand Historian
162:
148:
132:
118:
104:
90:
60:
1:
5870:Victims of familial execution
5835:Legalism (Chinese philosophy)
5790:4th-century BC Chinese people
4256:Category:Political philosophy
4129:Critique of political economy
1442:
1424:. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd.
1011:Portrayed by Shi Jingming in
4154:Institutional discrimination
4149:History of political thought
2881:Negative and positive rights
1130:Ancient Text, Records of Wei
902:nine familial exterminations
678:
7:
5830:Executed Qin dynasty people
4164:Justification for the state
3949:Two Treatises of Government
2221:Libertarian theories of law
1030:
783:"equality before the law" (
554:Discourses on Salt and Iron
10:
5906:
5825:Executed people from Henan
4419:Hundred Schools of Thought
2834:Bellum omnium contra omnes
1732:International legal theory
1589:"Lord Shang (died 338 BC)"
926:by being fastened to five
759:
622:) and originally surnamed
18:
5880:Zhou dynasty philosophers
5795:4th-century BC executions
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1639:Links to related articles
1511:(M.E. Sharpe Inc., 1977).
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4039:The Revolt of the Masses
2303:Rational-legal authority
2191:German historical school
2176:Analytical jurisprudence
1246:Philosophy East and West
1203:Philosophy East and West
1185:The Confucian Persuasion
1044:
985:Hulsewe points out that
891:
772:"fixing the standards" (
5855:Politicians from Puyang
5845:Philosophers from Henan
4414:Nine Schools of Thought
4019:The Communist Manifesto
2945:Tyranny of the majority
2856:Consent of the governed
2271:Judicial interpretation
1319:Oxford University Press
1197:Sanft, Charles (2014).
5865:Theoretical historians
5805:Chinese legal scholars
5717:State consequentialism
2896:
2846:Clash of civilizations
2832:
2358:WikiProject Philosophy
1712:Critical legal studies
1518:London: Penguin, 2019.
1458:(Law Edition), 1st ed.
1140:John Man 2008. p. 51.
873:Yang partly abolished
664:The Book of Lord Shang
544:Rectification of names
493:The Book of Lord Shang
5875:People of Wey (state)
5810:Chinese legal writers
4734:Northern and Southern
2861:Divine right of kings
2281:Law without the state
1602:"商君書 – Shang Jun Shu"
1475:Encyclopedia of China
1455:Encyclopedia of China
1321:, 1970. LCCN: 68-8409
1258:10.1353/pew.2014.0003
1215:10.1353/pew.2014.0003
914:Yang was executed by
655:Warring States period
4009:Democracy in America
3388:political philosophy
3371:political philosophy
3186:political philosophy
3015:political philosophy
2925:Separation of powers
2886:Night-watchman state
2871:Monopoly on violence
2405:Political philosophy
2241:Virtue jurisprudence
2181:Deontological ethics
1618:Chinese Text Project
1606:Chinese Text Project
1600:Duyvendak, J. J. L.
1418:Shang, Yang (2003).
1026:as a main character.
1014:The Legend of Mi Yue
254:Baxter–Sagart (2014)
5860:Social philosophers
5850:Philosophers of law
4364:School of Diplomacy
4199:Right-wing politics
4079:A Theory of Justice
4049:The Road to Serfdom
3969:The Social Contract
2676:Christian democracy
1625:Works by Yang Shang
1509:ShangYang's Reforms
1404:remnants of han law
499:Shenzi (both books)
316:Marquess Wen of Wei
282:Part of a series on
21:Shang Yang (artist)
4298:Chinese philosophy
4211:Political violence
4206:Political theology
4189:Left-wing politics
4184:Political spectrum
2134:The Concept of Law
2124:Pure Theory of Law
764:He is credited by
521:Annals of Lü Buwei
442:Emperor Wen of Sui
389:Emperor Wen of Han
5815:Chinese reformers
5767:
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5609:Mandate of Heaven
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4174:Philosophy of law
4119:Conflict theories
3959:The Spirit of Law
3866:
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2915:Original position
2371:
2370:
2343:Philosophy portal
2104:The Spirit of Law
1742:Philosophy of law
1722:Economic analysis
1707:Constitutionalism
1629:Project Gutenberg
1431:978-1-58477-241-5
1382:978-0-7914-1037-0
1300:978-0-226-12047-8
850:Domestic policies
742:Emperor Wu of Han
734:Mark Edward Lewis
597:
596:
538:Relevant articles
394:Emperor Wu of Han
277:
276:
269:
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181:Yale Romanization
78:Standard Mandarin
5897:
5890:Qin state people
5638:Self-cultivation
5543:Neo-Confucianism
5278:Chung-ying Cheng
4436:
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4337:New Confucianism
4332:Neo-Confucianism
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2801:Social democracy
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2716:Environmentalism
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854:Yang introduced
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1146:
1133:
1119:
1107:
1094:商君列传 (vol. 68)
1077:
1065:
1049:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1023:The Qin Empire
1018:
1007:
1004:
971:
968:
900:, ordered the
893:
890:
851:
848:
829:
828:
817:
814:military ranks
810:
793:
792:
781:
761:
758:
748:mentions that
680:
677:
642:. Born in the
595:
594:
592:
591:
584:
577:
569:
566:
565:
562:
561:
556:
551:
546:
540:
537:
536:
533:
532:
529:
528:
523:
518:
513:
508:
501:
496:
489:
481:
479:Relevant texts
478:
477:
474:
473:
470:
469:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
438:
435:
434:
431:
430:
427:
426:
421:
416:
411:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
380:
377:
376:
373:
372:
369:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
307:
304:
303:
300:
299:
291:
290:
284:
283:
275:
274:
271:
270:
267:
266:
256:
250:
249:
243:
242:
235:
229:
228:
222:
221:
211:
205:
204:
197:
191:
190:
183:
177:
176:
174:Yue: Cantonese
170:
169:
159:
153:
152:
145:
139:
138:
129:
123:
122:
115:
109:
108:
101:
95:
94:
87:
81:
80:
74:
73:
72:Transcriptions
65:
64:
57:
51:
50:
47:
39:
38:
35:
34:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5902:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5806:
5803:
5801:
5798:
5796:
5793:
5791:
5788:
5786:
5785:338 BC deaths
5783:
5781:
5778:
5777:
5775:
5752:
5749:
5748:
5747:
5744:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5731:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5718:
5715:
5713:
5710:
5709:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5684:
5682:
5678:
5672:
5671:
5667:
5665:
5664:
5660:
5658:
5657:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5645:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5628:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5617:
5616:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5605:
5604:
5600:
5598:
5597:
5593:
5591:
5590:
5586:
5584:
5583:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5571:
5567:
5565:
5564:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5552:
5548:
5544:
5541:
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5536:
5535:
5534:
5531:
5529:
5528:
5524:
5522:
5521:
5517:
5515:
5514:
5510:
5508:
5507:
5503:
5501:
5500:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5490:
5488:
5484:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5458:Zhang Dongsun
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5378:Liang Shuming
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5250:
5248:
5244:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5114:
5112:
5110:
5106:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5084:Wang Yangming
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
5000:
4997:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4917:
4915:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4835:
4832:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4742:
4740:
4735:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4722:
4719:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4642:Dongfang Shuo
4640:
4638:
4637:Dong Zhongshu
4635:
4633:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4610:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4441:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4411:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4394:
4393:
4389:
4387:
4386:
4382:
4381:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4324:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4292:
4287:
4285:
4280:
4278:
4273:
4272:
4269:
4257:
4254:
4253:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4186:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4159:Jurisprudence
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4106:
4104:
4100:
4091:
4090:
4086:
4081:
4080:
4076:
4071:
4070:
4066:
4061:
4060:
4056:
4051:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4040:
4036:
4031:
4030:
4026:
4021:
4020:
4016:
4011:
4010:
4006:
4001:
4000:
3996:
3991:
3990:
3989:Rights of Man
3986:
3981:
3980:
3976:
3971:
3970:
3966:
3961:
3960:
3956:
3951:
3950:
3946:
3941:
3940:
3936:
3931:
3930:
3926:
3921:
3920:
3916:
3911:
3910:
3906:
3901:
3900:
3899:De re publica
3896:
3891:
3890:
3886:
3881:
3880:
3876:
3875:
3873:
3869:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3519:20th and 21st
3517:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3372:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3252:18th and 19th
3250:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3187:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3130:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3108:Nizam al-Mulk
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3049:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2791:Republicanism
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2581:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2399:
2394:
2392:
2387:
2385:
2380:
2379:
2376:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2329:
2321:
2320:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2260:
2259:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2211:Legal realism
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2095:
2091:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
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5633:Human nature
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5621:Filial piety
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5468:Zhou Guoping
5463:Zhang Shenfu
5448:Yin Haiguang
5443:Yang Changji
5388:Liu Xiaofeng
5373:Liang Qichao
5258:Carsun Chang
5246:20th century
5232:Zhuang Cunyu
5162:Hong Liangji
5122:Chen Menglei
5117:Chen Hongmou
5099:Zhan Ruoshui
5059:Liu Zongzhou
5029:Hong Zicheng
5024:Huang Zongxi
4930:Fan Zhongyan
4908:Ten Kingdoms
4894:Linji Yixuan
4889:Liu Zongyuan
4527:
4478:Gongsun Long
4440:Eastern Zhou
4431:Philosophers
4409:
4405:Mixed School
4390:
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4327:Han learning
4322:Confucianism
4240:
4139:Elite theory
4087:
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3176:Guicciardini
3132:Early modern
3026:
2955:Philosophers
2905:Open society
2841:Body politic
2711:Distributism
2701:Conservatism
2696:Confucianism
2615:Gerontocracy
2605:Dictatorship
2559:Sovereignty
2549:Ruling class
2439:Emancipation
2424:Citizenship
2309:Usul al-Fiqh
2307:
2290:
2286:Legal system
2263:
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2154:Law's Empire
2152:
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2034:
1757:Philosophers
1699:Legal theory
1617:
1605:
1592:
1537:China portal
1515:
1508:
1507:Li Yu-ning,
1492:
1473:
1463:"Shang Yang"
1453:
1450:"Shang Yang"
1420:
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853:
844:State of Chu
837:
830:
823:over luxury
803:
794:
763:
739:
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717:Yellow River
714:
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693:
682:
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647:vassal state
640:State of Qin
623:
611:
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598:
503:
491:
484:
457:Li Shanchang
404:Gongsun Hong
330:
226:Southern Min
85:Hanyu Pinyin
5712:Role ethics
5697:Metaphysics
5473:Zhou Zuoren
5433:Xiong Shili
5418:Tang Chun-i
5413:Sun Yat-sen
5408:Qiu Renzong
5403:Mou Zongsan
5353:Kang Youwei
5298:Feng Youlan
5263:P. C. Chang
5253:Cai Yuanpei
5237:Zeng Guofan
5222:Yu Zhengxie
5152:Gong Zizhen
5147:Feng Guifen
5137:Fang Lanfen
5069:Qian Dehong
4869:Zhang Zhihe
4805:Xiahou Xuan
4745:Bao Jingyan
4588:Zhuang Zhou
4013:(1835–1840)
3893:(c. 350 BC)
3883:(c. 375 BC)
3500:Tocqueville
3465:Saint-Simon
3430:Montesquieu
3281:Bolingbroke
3213:Machiavelli
3093:Ibn Khaldun
3058:Alpharabius
3051:Middle Ages
2876:Natural law
2851:Common good
2776:Nationalism
2736:Imperialism
2706:Corporatism
2681:Colonialism
2661:Agrarianism
2640:Technocracy
2620:Meritocracy
2600:Bureaucracy
2590:Aristocracy
2231:Paternalism
2226:Natural law
2088:(c. 355 BC)
1935:Montesquieu
1727:Legal norms
1494:Zhan Guo Ce
1481:国史概要 (第二版)
996:Sinologists
970:Assessments
964:Steven Sage
908:Zhan Guo Ce
898:King Huiwen
821:agriculture
805:Book of Law
710:meritocracy
659:Qin dynasty
653:during the
424:Zhuge Liang
378:Han figures
247:Old Chinese
187:Sēung Yēung
5774:Categories
5751:Legitimacy
5453:Yu Dunkang
5423:Tang Yijie
5398:Mao Zedong
5383:Lin Yutang
5348:Jin Yuelin
5343:Jiang Qing
5318:He Guanghu
5288:Chu Anping
5273:Chen Duxiu
5202:Wang Fuzhi
5192:Tan Sitong
5187:Pan Pingge
5182:Liu Yiming
5064:Luo Rufang
4985:Zhou Dunyi
4970:Wang Chuyi
4960:Wang Anshi
4940:Lu Jiuyuan
4820:Yan Zhitui
4810:Xie Daoyun
4712:Yang Xiong
4697:Wang Chong
4672:Kong Anguo
4533:Shen Buhai
4528:Shang Yang
4483:Guan Zhong
4453:Chunyu Kun
4374:Naturalism
4221:Separatism
4029:On Liberty
3929:The Prince
3658:Huntington
3161:Campanella
3088:al-Ghazali
3037:Thucydides
2995:Lactantius
2940:Statolatry
2766:Monarchism
2746:Liberalism
2671:Capitalism
2654:Ideologies
2635:Plutocracy
2583:Government
2539:Revolution
2524:Propaganda
2474:Legitimacy
2449:Government
2338:Law portal
1965:Petrażycki
1955:Pashukanis
1950:Olivecrona
1885:Hägerström
1800:Blackstone
1551:Law portal
1443:References
962:) in what
632:chancellor
600:Shang Yang
516:Wei Liaozi
467:Xu Guangqi
452:Wang Anshi
409:Zhang Tang
336:Shen Buhai
331:Shang Yang
311:Guan Zhong
149:Shang Yang
134:Shang Yang
127:Wade–Giles
119:Shang Iang
91:Shāng Yāng
33:Shang Yang
5730:Shan shui
5663:Zhengming
5438:Xu Fuguan
5363:Li Shicen
5338:Ray Huang
5323:Hu Qiaomu
5293:Fang Keli
5283:Ch'ien Mu
5268:Chen Daqi
5197:Tang Zhen
5142:Fang Quan
5054:Liu Bowen
5044:Lai Zhide
5034:Jiao Hong
5019:Chen Jiru
4980:Zhang Zai
4945:Shao Yong
4920:Cheng Hao
4864:Wang Tong
4765:Guo Xiang
4687:Liu Xiang
4667:Jing Fang
4578:Yuan Xian
4558:Ximen Bao
4513:Lie Yukou
4468:Duanmu Ci
4458:Confucius
4344:Huang–Lao
3939:Leviathan
3919:Monarchia
3913:(c. 1274)
3748:Oakeshott
3693:Mansfield
3688:Luxemburg
3673:Kropotkin
3568:Bernstein
3521:centuries
3435:Nietzsche
3378:Jefferson
3306:Condorcet
3254:centuries
3233:Pufendorf
3098:Marsilius
2985:Confucius
2970:Aristotle
2963:Antiquity
2891:Noble lie
2811:Third Way
2806:Socialism
2731:Feudalism
2686:Communism
2666:Anarchism
2645:Theocracy
2630:Oligarchy
2610:Democracy
2595:Autocracy
2509:Pluralism
2494:Obedience
2459:Hierarchy
2419:Authority
2098:(c. 1270)
1980:Pufendorf
1915:Llewellyn
1775:Aristotle
1336:Han Feizi
1313:pg 80 of
1274:144996247
1266:1529-1898
1231:144996247
1223:1529-1898
1114:pg 79 of
1104:Sima Qian
939:Sima Qian
746:John Keay
679:Biography
628:statesman
526:Huang-Lao
505:Han Feizi
5724:Ink wash
5702:Politics
5692:Theology
5551:Ming yun
5527:Jing zuo
5486:Concepts
5368:Li Zehou
5333:Hua Gang
5303:Gan Yang
5212:Yan Yuan
5207:Wei Yuan
5177:Lin Zexu
5157:Gu Yanwu
5132:Fang Bao
5127:Dai Zhen
5089:Wu Cheng
5079:Wang Gen
4950:Shen Kuo
4925:Cheng Yi
4884:Liu Yuxi
4790:Sengzhao
4750:Fan Zhen
4652:Huan Tan
4632:Ban Zhao
4583:Zhang Yi
4573:Yang Zhu
4538:Shen Dao
4448:Bu Shang
4349:Legalism
4317:Buddhism
4194:Centrism
3889:Politics
3879:Republic
3848:Voegelin
3828:Spengler
3813:Shariati
3788:Rothbard
3743:Nussbaum
3643:Habermas
3618:Fukuyama
3608:Foucault
3533:Ambedkar
3510:Voltaire
3480:de Staël
3455:Rousseau
3336:Franklin
3311:Constant
3271:Beccaria
3103:Muhammad
3083:Gelasius
3068:Averroes
3042:Xenophon
3022:Polybius
2975:Chanakya
2820:Concepts
2786:Populism
2756:Localism
2741:Islamism
2726:Feminism
2625:Monarchy
2529:Property
2519:Progress
2484:Monopoly
2454:Hegemony
2328:Category
2250:Concepts
2216:Legalism
2168:Theories
2055:Voegelin
2025:Scaevola
1985:Radbruch
1960:Perelman
1945:Nussbaum
1890:Jellinek
1855:Habermas
1850:Gurvitch
1820:Durkheim
1790:Beccaria
1466:Archived
1157:. p. 18
1031:See also
987:Sima Tan
928:chariots
886:Xianyang
868:convicts
863:manpower
833:taxation
825:commerce
730:Xianyang
636:reformer
626:, was a
612:Wei Yang
414:Huan Tan
399:Chao Cuo
351:Zhang Yi
346:Shen Dao
262:s.taŋʔaŋ
239:Siong Ng
195:Jyutping
99:Bopomofo
5736:Society
5513:Jian'ai
5328:Hu Shih
5313:Gu Zhun
5172:Ma Qixi
5074:Wang Ji
5039:Jiao Yu
4955:Su Song
4935:Hu Hong
4825:Zhi Dun
4815:Xun Can
4800:Wang Bi
4795:Wang Su
4785:Ji Kang
4780:Huiyuan
4770:Fu Xuan
4760:Ge Hong
4707:Xun Yue
4702:Wang Fu
4692:Ma Rong
4662:Jia Kui
4603:Zou Yan
4563:Xu Xing
4548:Sun Tzu
4518:Mencius
4493:Hui Shi
4488:Han Fei
4463:Deng Xi
4400:Yangism
4392:Xuanxue
4359:Marxism
4305:Schools
4231:Statism
4144:Elitism
4102:Related
3903:(51 BC)
3833:Strauss
3808:Scruton
3803:Schmitt
3793:Russell
3713:Michels
3708:Maurras
3703:Marcuse
3663:Kautsky
3633:Gramsci
3628:Gentile
3598:Dworkin
3588:Du Bois
3583:Dmowski
3578:Chomsky
3573:Burnham
3558:Benoist
3528:Agamben
3495:Thoreau
3485:Stirner
3475:Spencer
3420:Mazzini
3410:Maistre
3405:Madison
3400:Le Play
3331:Fourier
3296:Carlyle
3276:Bentham
3266:Bastiat
3261:Bakunin
3238:Spinoza
3228:Müntzer
3198:Leibniz
3171:Grotius
3151:Bossuet
3118:Plethon
3063:Aquinas
3032:Sun Tzu
3000:Mencius
2990:Han Fei
2761:Marxism
2721:Fascism
2554:Society
2479:Liberty
2464:Justice
2444:Freedom
2363:changes
2276:Justice
2030:Schmitt
2020:Savigny
2000:Reinach
1925:Maistre
1920:Luhmann
1895:Jhering
1845:Grotius
1830:Ehrlich
1825:Dworkin
1815:Cardozo
1795:Bentham
1785:Bastiat
1770:Aquinas
1341:Han Fei
952:Sichuan
941:in his
882:Yueyang
842:of the
809:strict.
785:Chinese
774:Chinese
766:Han Fei
760:Reforms
752:figure
689:Gongsun
685:Wey (衞)
638:of the
624:Gongsun
616:Chinese
604:Chinese
419:Wang Fu
356:Han Fei
305:Figures
55:Chinese
5707:Ethics
5680:Topics
5615:Wu wei
5393:Lu Xun
5217:Yu Yue
5167:Ji Yun
5049:Li Zhi
4990:Zhu Xi
4975:Ye Shi
4874:Han Yu
4859:Jizang
4775:He Yan
4755:Fan Ye
4682:Lu Jia
4677:Liu An
4657:Jia Yi
4647:Dou Wu
4593:Zichan
4543:Su Qin
4503:Li Kui
4385:Daoxue
4379:Taoism
4354:Mohism
4093:(1992)
4083:(1971)
4073:(1951)
4063:(1945)
4053:(1944)
4043:(1929)
4033:(1859)
4023:(1848)
4003:(1820)
3993:(1791)
3983:(1790)
3973:(1762)
3963:(1748)
3953:(1689)
3943:(1651)
3933:(1532)
3923:(1313)
3853:Walzer
3843:Taylor
3798:Sartre
3763:Popper
3758:Pareto
3753:Ortega
3738:Nozick
3728:Mouffe
3678:Laclau
3638:Guénon
3623:Gandhi
3563:Berlin
3553:Bauman
3548:Badiou
3538:Arendt
3505:Tucker
3395:Le Bon
3356:Herder
3346:Haller
3341:Godwin
3326:Fichte
3321:Engels
3316:Cortés
3286:Bonald
3243:Suárez
3218:Milton
3208:Luther
3181:Hobbes
3166:Filmer
3156:Calvin
3141:Boétie
3134:period
3113:Ockham
2980:Cicero
2781:Nazism
2569:Utopia
2544:Rights
2534:Regime
2504:People
2489:Nation
2258:Dharma
2158:(1986)
2148:(1980)
2138:(1961)
2128:(1934)
2118:(1820)
2108:(1748)
2060:Walzer
2040:Suárez
2005:Renner
1970:Posner
1940:Müller
1905:Kelsen
1880:Hobbes
1860:Haller
1840:Fuller
1835:Finnis
1805:Bobbio
1780:Austin
1497:), 秦第一
1485:
1428:
1379:
1297:
1272:
1264:
1229:
1221:
932:cattle
800:Li Kui
787::
776::
754:Du You
744:, and
732:. and
700:Li Kui
669:school
618::
606::
549:Wu wei
486:Guanzi
447:Du You
384:Jia Yi
321:Li Kui
233:Tâi-lô
5687:Logic
5670:Ziran
5308:Gu Su
5094:Xu Ai
4879:Li Ao
4854:Fu Yi
4568:Xunzi
4553:Wu Qi
4508:Li Si
4498:Laozi
4473:Gaozi
4242:Index
3871:Works
3858:Weber
3823:Spann
3818:Sorel
3783:Röpke
3778:Rawls
3733:Negri
3723:Mosca
3718:Mises
3683:Lenin
3653:Hoppe
3648:Hayek
3613:Fromm
3603:Evola
3593:Dugin
3490:Taine
3470:Smith
3450:Renan
3445:Paine
3366:Iqbal
3351:Hegel
3301:Comte
3291:Burke
3203:Locke
3193:James
3146:Bodin
3078:Dante
3073:Bruni
3027:Shang
3010:Plato
2564:State
2514:Power
2499:Peace
2434:Elite
2412:Terms
2075:Works
2065:Weber
2050:Unger
2045:Stahl
2035:Shang
1990:Rawls
1975:Pound
1910:Leoni
1875:Hegel
1765:Alexy
1689:Index
1491:戰國策 (
1353:东周列国志
1270:S2CID
1227:S2CID
1045:Notes
1038:Shizi
916:jūliè
892:Death
840:Wu Qi
361:Li Si
341:Wu Qi
260:*
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5656:Yong
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5582:Shen
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5520:Jing
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4843:Tang
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4523:Mozi
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3768:Qutb
3668:Kirk
3543:Aron
3460:Sade
3440:Owen
3425:Mill
3415:Marx
3383:Kant
3361:Hume
3223:More
3123:Wang
3005:Mozi
2429:Duty
2084:Laws
2015:Rumi
2010:Ross
1930:Marx
1900:Kant
1870:Hart
1810:Bork
1614:"秦一"
1483:ISBN
1426:ISBN
1377:ISBN
1295:ISBN
1262:ISSN
1219:ISSN
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634:and
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4621:Han
4616:Qin
3838:Sun
3698:Mao
2574:War
2469:Law
1995:Raz
1865:Han
1627:at
1358:蔡元放
1254:doi
1211:doi
956:Shu
884:to
861:As
802:'s
702:'s
671:of
651:Wey
649:of
209:IPA
157:IPA
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5589:Si
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5506:Fa
5499:De
2292:Li
2265:Fa
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